390:
67:
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880:. The mice were phenotypically screened for alterations in the different behavioral domains in order to find the number of putative mutants (see table for details). Putative mutants are then tested for heritability in order to help determine the inheritance pattern as well as map out the mutations. Once they have been mapped out, cloned, and identified, it can be determined whether a mutation represents a new gene or not.
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information describing an organism's phenotypes, under the influences of genetic and environmental factors". Another team of researchers characterize "the human phenome a multidimensional search space with several neurobiological levels, spanning the proteome, cellular systems (e.g., signaling pathways), neural systems and cognitive and behavioural phenotypes."
635:
350:
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Some usages of the term suggest that the phenome of a given organism is best understood as a kind of matrix of data representing physical manifestation of phenotype. For example, discussions led by A. Varki among those who had used the term up to 2003 suggested the following definition: "The body of
323:
Although phenome has been in use for many years, the distinction between the use of phenome and phenotype is problematic. A proposed definition for both terms as the "physical totality of all traits of an organism or of one of its subsystems" was put forth by Mahner and Kary in 1997, who argue that
261:
are an example. It may seem that this goes beyond the original intentions of the concept with its focus on the (living) organism in itself. Either way, the term phenotype includes inherent traits or characteristics that are observable or traits that can be made visible by some technical procedure.
646:
modifications. These modifications can be influenced by environmental factors such as diet, stress, and exposure to toxins, and can have a significant impact on an individual's phenotype. Some phenotypes may be the result of changes in gene expression due to these factors, rather than changes in
541:
described a phenotype that included all effects that a gene has on its surroundings, including other organisms, as an extended phenotype, arguing that "An animal's behavior tends to maximize the survival of the genes 'for' that behavior, whether or not those genes happen to be in the body of the
427:. It is the living organism as a whole that contributes (or not) to the next generation, so natural selection affects the genetic structure of a population indirectly via the contribution of phenotypes. Without phenotypic variation, there would be no evolution by natural selection.
722:
that affect the phenotype of an organism. Analyzing the phenotypes of mutant genes can also aid in determining gene function. Most genetic screens have used microorganisms, in which genes can be easily deleted. For instance, nearly all genes have been deleted in
614:
can increase melanin production, hence the environment plays a role in this phenotype as well. For most complex phenotypes the precise genetic mechanism remains unknown. For instance, it is largely unclear how genes determine the shape of bones or the human ear.
623:
is expressed at high levels, the organism may produce more of that enzyme and exhibit a particular trait as a result. On the other hand, if the gene is expressed at low levels, the organism may produce less of the enzyme and exhibit a different trait.
682:. Phenomics is an important field of study because it can be used to figure out which genomic variants affect phenotypes which then can be used to explain things like health, disease, and evolutionary fitness. Phenomics forms a large part of the
1454:
593:
An organism's phenotype is determined by the sum of its genetic material along with the influence of its environment. This is mediated by a range of biological mechanisms: either the direct activities of gene products or their downstream
160:) and the influence of environmental factors. Both factors may interact, further affecting the phenotype. When two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species, the species is called
2303:
Rahman H, Ramanathan V, Jagadeeshselvam N, Ramasamy S, Rajendran S, Ramachandran M, et al. (2015-01-01). "Phenomics: Technologies and
Applications in Plant and Agriculture". In Barh D, Khan MS, Davies E (eds.).
315:
for the sum total of extragenic, non-autoreproductive portions of the cell, whether cytoplasmic or nuclear. The phenome would be the material basis of the phenotype, just as the genome is the material basis of the
618:
Gene expression plays a crucial role in determining the phenotypes of organisms. The level of gene expression can affect the phenotype of an organism. For example, if a gene that codes for a particular
1509:
Loeffler M, Bratke T, Paulus U, Li YQ, Potten CS (May 1997). "Clonality and life cycles of intestinal crypts explained by a state dependent stochastic model of epithelial stem cell organization".
1691:
Denny, Joshua C.; Ritchie, Marylyn D.; Basford, Melissa A.; Pulley, Jill M.; Bastarache, Lisa; Brown-Gentry, Kristin; Wang, Deede; Masys, Dan R.; Roden, Dan M.; Crawford, Dana C. (2010-05-01).
1157:
An organism's genotype is the set of genes that it carries. An organism's phenotype is all of its observable characteristics — which are influenced both by its genotype and by the environment.
446:
Genotypes often have much flexibility in the modification and expression of phenotypes; in many organisms these phenotypes are very different under varying environmental conditions. The plant
581:
Other biologists broadly agree that the extended phenotype concept is relevant, but consider that its role is largely explanatory, rather than assisting in the design of experimental tests.
324:
although scientists tend to intuitively use these and related terms in a manner that does not impede research, the terms are not well defined and usage of the terms is not consistent.
689:
Phenomics has applications in agriculture. For instance, genomic variations such as drought and heat resistance can be identified through phenomics to create more durable GMOs.
1812:
1028:
physical structure of the first RNA molecule that possessed ribozyme activity promoting replication while avoiding destruction would have been the first phenotype, and the
651:
methods utilizing gene expressions measured from RNA sequencing found that they can contain enough signal to separate individuals in the context of phenotype prediction.
1020:
is the hypothesized pre-cellular stage in the evolutionary history of life on earth, in which self-replicating RNA molecules proliferated prior to the evolution of
468:
where the plants grow prostrate with narrow leaves and compact inflorescences. These habitats alternate along the coast of Sweden and the habitat that the seeds of
700:. Once the phenomic database has acquired enough data, a person's phenomic information can be used to select specific drugs tailored to the individual.
578:
affect the copulatory decisions of peahens, again, the phenotype is being extended. Genes are, in
Dawkins's view, selected by their phenotypic effects.
253:. Most molecules and structures coded by the genetic material are not visible in the appearance of an organism, yet they are observable (for example by
598:
Phenotypes are determined by an interaction of genes and the environment, but the mechanism for each gene and phenotype is different. For instance, an
997:
82:
for color, and the pictures show the resultant phenotypes. This shows how multiple genotypes (BB and Bb) may yield the same phenotype (purple petals).
524:, a property that might convey, among organisms living in high-temperature environments, a selective advantage on variants enriched in GC content.
485:, which may vary (randomly) between left and right eyes in a single individual as much as they do between different genotypes overall, or between
165:
237:
Despite its seemingly straightforward definition, the concept of the phenotype has hidden subtleties. It may seem that anything dependent on the
3252:
638:
The patchy colors of a tortoiseshell cat are the result of different levels of expression of pigmentation genes in different areas of the skin.
642:
Changes in the levels of gene expression can be influenced by a variety of factors, such as environmental conditions, genetic variations, and
1985:
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1415:
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include cognitive, personality, and behavioral patterns. Some behavioral phenotypes may characterize psychiatric disorders or syndromes.
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1599:"From the genome to the phenome and back: linking genes with human brain function and structure using genetically informed neuroimaging"
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The term "phenotype" has sometimes been incorrectly used as a shorthand for the phenotypic difference between a mutant and its
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343:
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1804:
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the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.
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is sometimes used to refer to a collection of traits, while the simultaneous study of such a collection is referred to as
2166:
Varki A, Wills C, Perlmutter D, Woodruff D, Gage F, Moore J, et al. (October 1998). "Great Ape
Phenome Project?".
3271:
3014:
1115:
3206:
3072:
2904:
1648:
Furbank, Robert T.; Tester, Mark (December 2011). "Phenomics--technologies to relieve the phenotyping bottleneck".
1362:
Cassidy SB, Morris CA (2002-01-01). "Behavioral phenotypes in genetic syndromes: genetic clues to human behavior".
27:
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1921:"Extended phenotype redux. How far can the reach of genes extend in manipulating the environment of an organism?"
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335:
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168:; while the coat color depends on many genes, it is clearly seen in the environment as yellow, black, and brown.
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20:
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Gene expression is regulated at various levels and thus each level can affect certain phenotypes, including
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The interaction between genotype and phenotype has often been conceptualized by the following relationship:
410:
334:
In 2009, a research team demonstrated the feasibility of identifying genotype–phenotype associations using
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Furbank RT, Tester M (December 2011). "Phenomics – technologies to relieve the phenotyping bottleneck".
1061:
1029:
693:
145:
389:
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Although a phenotype is the ensemble of observable characteristics displayed by an organism, the word
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Behaviors and their consequences are also phenotypes, since behaviors are observable characteristics.
3145:
2988:
2983:
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2847:
2727:"Wilhelm Johannsen's Genotype-Phenotype Distinction" by E. Peirson at the Embryo Project Encyclopedia
2175:
2130:
2071:
1520:
1463:
749:
745:
683:
448:
141:
2678:"Population biology of the first replicators: on the origin of the genotype, phenotype and organism"
1693:"PheWAS: demonstrating the feasibility of a phenome-wide scan to discover gene-disease associations"
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1142:
855:
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1991:
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that do not change the corresponding amino acid sequence of a gene may change the frequency of
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genotype (G) + environment (E) + genotype & environment interactions (GE) → phenotype (P)
3201:
3170:
3165:
3120:
2748:
2689:
2645:
2637:
2626:"Large-scale mutagenesis and phenotypic screens for the nervous system and behavior in mice"
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2504:
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377:
269:
ABO blood groups determined through a
Punnett square and displaying phenotypes and genotypes
265:
218:
152:, and the products of behavior. An organism's phenotype results from two basic factors: the
133:
50:
1861:
Botany online: Evolution: The Modern
Synthesis - Phenotypic and Genetic Variation; Ecotypes
3211:
3115:
2925:
2430:
Amsterdam A, Burgess S, Golling G, Chen W, Sun Z, Townsend K, et al. (October 1999).
1885:
1864:
1560:
1172:
1091:
1008:, showing how phenotyping in animals can inform medical diagnostics and possibly therapy.
769:
Large-scale mutagenesis and phenotypic screens for the nervous system and behavior in mice
752:. In one screen, the role of mutations in mice were studied in areas such as learning and
551:
538:
300:
205:
169:
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2010:
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559:
331:
Plant biologists have started to explore the phenome in the study of plant physiology.
292:
204:
and what that hereditary material produces. The distinction resembles that proposed by
75:
2532:
Nislow C, Wong LH, Lee AH, Giaever G (September 2016). "Functional genomics using the
2456:
2431:
589:
372:
3265:
3179:
3093:
2961:
2795:
2772:
1995:
1786:
1450:"The Isolation of Biochemically Deficient Mutants of Bacteria by Means of Penicillin"
1331:
1314:
1051:
461:
353:
Exploring relationships among phenotype, genotype and environment at different levels
38:
2289:
2246:
2217:
Houle D, Govindaraju DR, Omholt S (December 2010). "Phenomics: the next challenge".
1841:
1708:
1348:
1239:
3004:
2825:
2815:
2479:
Baba T, Ara T, Hasegawa M, Takai Y, Okumura Y, Baba M, et al. (January 2006).
2203:
748:
have also been used in animals, e.g. to study lesser understood phenotypes such as
697:
254:
213:
2350:
2187:
1661:
1032:
of the first self-replicating RNA molecule would have been the original genotype.
558:
teeth are—which it uses to modify its environment. Similarly, when a bird feeds a
33:
2313:
2084:
1769:
1752:
1556:"Comparing the human and chimpanzee genomes: searching for needles in a haystack"
741:. Among other discoveries, such studies have revealed lists of essential genes .
2940:
2920:
1968:
Pakay, Julian; Duivenvoorden, Hendrika; Shafee, Thomas; Clarke, Kaitlin (2023).
643:
611:
78:, for the character of petal color in pea plants. The letters B and b represent
2740:
2641:
2381:"Improved drug therapy: triangulating phenomics with genomics and metabolomics"
1455:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3184:
2884:
2837:
2397:
2119:"What exactly are genomes, genotypes and phenotypes? And what about phenomes?"
2026:
1310:
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1001:
603:
571:
547:
509:
492:
The concept of phenotype can be extended to variations below the level of the
477:
362:
358:
277:, which would lead to the false statement that a "mutation has no phenotype".
209:
187:
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761:
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183:
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2447:
2416:
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2238:
2143:
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2044:
1954:
1778:
1734:
1677:
1634:
1583:
1532:
1495:
1375:
1340:
1296:
1231:
1116:"Phenotype adjective – Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes"
2716:
2571:
Kim DU, Hayles J, Kim D, Wood V, Park HO, Won M, et al. (June 2010).
2549:
2195:
2152:
1936:
1540:
634:
222:(1976), Dawkins distinguished these concepts as replicators and vehicles.
3098:
3067:
2694:
2677:
1753:"Machine learning for predicting phenotype from genotype and environment"
1196:
1076:
730:
719:
599:
505:
366:
339:
317:
304:
242:
238:
201:
157:
149:
137:
87:
71:
45:
1476:
361:, a concept of exploring the relationship ultimately among pan-phenome,
2830:
2500:
1833:
1574:
1555:
1278:
1223:
1046:
672:
660:
607:
575:
555:
521:
517:
501:
486:
453:
308:
250:
231:
42:
2573:"Analysis of a genome-wide set of gene deletions in the fission yeast
2273:
1120:
Oxford
Advanced Learner's Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com
542:
particular animal performing it." For instance, an organism such as a
349:
311:. The term was first used by Davis in 1949, "We here propose the name
2810:
2592:
1393:. Clinics in Developmental Medicine No.138. London: Mac Keith Press.
753:
620:
567:
563:
543:
125:
108:
2230:
1270:
1210:
Churchill FB (1974). "William
Johannsen and the genotype concept".
1977:
876:, or N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea, which is a potent mutagen that causes
633:
588:
566:, it is unwittingly extending its phenotype; and when genes in an
457:
388:
371:
264:
65:
32:
2485:
K-12 in-frame, single-gene knockout mutants: the Keio collection"
2009:
Oellrich, A.; Sanger Mouse
Genetics Project; Smedley, D. (2014).
3108:
493:
465:
132: 'mark, type') is the set of observable characteristics or
79:
16:
Composite of the organism's observable characteristics or traits
2744:
1597:
Siebner HR, Callicott JH, Sommer T, Mattay VS (November 2009).
1175:(May 1978). "Replicator selection and the extended phenotype".
2260:
Freimer N, Sabatti C (May 2003). "The human phenome project".
2011:"Linking tissues to phenotypes using gene expression profiles"
1021:
873:
246:
2722:
Europhenome: Access to raw and annotated mouse phenotype data
2711:
148:
processes, its biochemical and physiological properties, its
460:, where the plants are bushy with broad leaves and expanded
2432:"A large-scale insertional mutagenesis screen in zebrafish"
602:
phenotype may be caused by a mutation in the gene encoding
200:
in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organism's
872:
This experiment involved the progeny of mice treated with
2379:, Gonzalez FJ, Thompson DC, Vasiliou V (September 2014).
733:, but also in several eukaryotic model organisms such as
2058:
Nussinov, Ruth; Tsai, Chung-Jung; Jang, Hyunbum (2019).
400:, the melanic form, illustrating discontinuous variation
718:
Large-scale genetic screens can identify the genes or
574:
behavior to increase pollination, or when genes in a
512:). These base pairs have a higher thermal stability (
357:
Inspired by the evolution from genotype to genome to
3229:
3158:
3086:
3040:
3033:
2997:
2949:
2913:
2846:
2783:
2624:Vitaterna MH, Pinto LH, Takahashi JS (April 2006).
230:"Phenome" redirects here. For the speech unit, see
19:For a non-technical introduction to the topic, see
415:Phenotypic variation (due to underlying heritable
496:that affect an organism's fitness. For example,
992:These experiments showed that mutations in the
438:A more nuanced version of the relationship is:
164:. A well-documented example of polymorphism is
2060:"Protein ensembles link genotype to phenotype"
760:, vision, responses to stress and response to
434:genotype (G) + environment (E) → phenotype (P)
2756:
2671:
2669:
472:land in, determine the phenotype that grows.
8:
1857:"Phenotypic and Genetic Variation; Ecotypes"
257:) and are thus part of the phenotype; human
1417:Behavioural Phenotypes in Clinical Practice
1255:"The genotype conception of heredity. 1911"
704:Large-scale phenotyping and genetic screens
3037:
2763:
2749:
2741:
692:Phenomics may be a stepping stone towards
456:in Sweden. One habitat is rocky, sea-side
385:, the standard light-colored peppered moth
2693:
2649:
2600:
2508:
2455:
2406:
2396:
2308:. New Delhi: Springer. pp. 385–411.
2142:
2093:
2083:
2034:
1944:
1768:
1724:
1624:
1573:
1485:
1475:
1330:
1286:
844:Video-image-based tracking of locomotion
830:Video-image-based scoring of exploration
2370:
2368:
1813:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
996:gene affected vision and can even cause
882:
766:
348:
291:is the set of all traits expressed by a
172:in 1978 and then again in his 1982 book
1107:
546:modifies its environment by building a
208:(1834–1914), who distinguished between
3253:Index of evolutionary biology articles
2306:PlantOmics: The Omics of Plant Science
1554:Varki A, Altheide TK (December 2005).
810:Video-image-based scoring of freezing
74:and phenotype is illustrated, using a
1746:
1744:
1259:International Journal of Epidemiology
631:and post-transcriptional regulation.
7:
1167:
1165:
419:) is a fundamental prerequisite for
115: 'to appear, show' and
1826:10.1146/annurev.es.01.110170.000245
1751:Guo, Tingting; Li, Xianran (2023).
895:Putative mutant lines with progeny
182:and other built structures such as
156:of an organism's genetic code (its
144:(physical form and structure), its
3063:Evolutionary developmental biology
1970:Threshold Concepts in Biochemistry
1617:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.09.009
1189:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1978.tb01823.x
647:genotype. An experiment involving
489:raised in different environments.
475:An example of random variation in
452:is found growing in two different
14:
1212:Journal of the History of Biology
140:. The term covers the organism's
3020:Evolution of sexual reproduction
1757:Current Opinion in Biotechnology
1389:O'Brien G, Yule W, eds. (1995).
1332:10.1034/j.1601-183X.2002.10201.x
1012:Evolutionary origin of phenotype
610:formation. However, exposure to
1177:Zeitschrift fĂĽr Tierpsychologie
1097:List of omics topics in biology
2791:Genotype–phenotype distinction
2123:Journal of Theoretical Biology
1512:Journal of Theoretical Biology
1057:Genotype–phenotype distinction
344:phenome-wide association study
216:(the body). More recently, in
198:genotype–phenotype distinction
178:suggested that one can regard
1:
3048:Regulation of gene expression
2536:yeast deletion collections".
2351:10.1016/j.tplants.2011.09.005
2188:10.1126/science.282.5387.239d
2117:Mahner M, Kary M (May 1997).
1894:. Oxford University. p.
1709:10.1093/bioinformatics/btq126
1662:10.1016/j.tplants.2011.09.005
1315:"'My mouse has no phenotype'"
3218:Endless Forms Most Beautiful
2998:Evolution of genetic systems
2806:Gene–environment correlation
2801:Gene–environment interaction
2538:Cold Spring Harbor Protocols
2314:10.1007/978-81-322-2172-2_13
2085:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1006648
1770:10.1016/j.copbio.2022.102853
550:; this can be considered an
3197:Christiane NĂĽsslein-Volhard
2676:Michod RE (February 1983).
1420:. London: Mac Keith Press.
1253:Johannsen W (August 2014).
1143:"Genotype versus phenotype"
744:More recently, large-scale
166:Labrador Retriever coloring
3295:
3073:Hedgehog signaling pathway
2950:Developmental architecture
2642:10.1016/j.tins.2006.02.006
2064:PLOS Computational Biology
707:
658:
531:
408:
342:. They called this method
241:is a phenotype, including
229:
190:as "extended phenotypes".
118:
101:
70:Here the relation between
41:of individuals within the
28:Phenotype (disambiguation)
25:
18:
3250:
2900:Transgressive segregation
2575:Schizosaccharomyces pombe
2489:Molecular Systems Biology
2398:10.1186/s40246-014-0016-9
1448:Davis BD (January 1949).
1319:Genes, Brain and Behavior
1024:and proteins. The folded
937:Psychostimulant response
841:Hyperlocomotion behavior
838:Psychostimulant response
606:which is a key enzyme in
336:electronic health records
2717:Human Phenotype Ontology
2534:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
1805:"The Units of Selection"
1006:human familial blindness
866:L. Pinto and colleagues
659:Not to be confused with
21:Introduction to genetics
3078:Notch signaling pathway
3053:Gene regulatory network
2936:Dual inheritance theory
2630:Trends in Neurosciences
2436:Genes & Development
2339:Trends in Plant Science
2219:Nature Reviews Genetics
2027:10.1093/database/bau017
1919:Hunter P (March 2009).
1650:Trends in Plant Science
1414:O'Brien G, ed. (2002).
1147:Understanding Evolution
818:Preliminary Assessment
792:Wheel running behavior
552:expression of its genes
481:flies is the number of
411:Ecophenotypic variation
3277:Polymorphism (biology)
3126:cis-regulatory element
3034:Control of development
2914:Non-genetic influences
2880:evolutionary landscape
2712:Mouse Phenome Database
2448:10.1101/gad.13.20.2713
2144:10.1006/jtbi.1996.0335
1891:The Extended Phenotype
1533:10.1006/jtbi.1996.0340
1364:Advances in Pediatrics
639:
595:
534:The Extended Phenotype
528:The extended phenotype
401:
386:
369:was proposed in 2023.
354:
270:
175:The Extended Phenotype
83:
63:
3237:Nature versus nurture
3141:Cell surface receptor
3058:Evo-devo gene toolkit
2957:Developmental biology
2895:Polygenic inheritance
2821:Quantitative genetics
2732:Mouse Phenome Project
2550:10.1101/pdb.top080945
2375:Monte AA, Brocker C,
1937:10.1038/embor.2009.18
1391:Behavioural Phenotype
1062:Molecular phenotyping
889:ENU Progeny screened
758:circadian rhythmicity
694:personalized medicine
655:Phenome and phenomics
637:
592:
464:; the other is among
392:
375:
352:
338:(EHRs) linked to DNA
282:Behavioral phenotypes
268:
69:
36:
3146:Transcription factor
2861:Genetic assimilation
2848:Genetic architecture
2581:Nature Biotechnology
2544:(9): pdb.top080945.
1972:. La Trobe eBureau.
998:retinal degeneration
920:Learning and memory
802:Learning and Memory
684:Human Genome Project
585:Genes and phenotypes
470:Hieracium umbellatum
449:Hieracium umbellatum
405:Phenotypic variation
62:in their phenotypes.
26:For other uses, see
3242:Morphogenetic field
3159:Influential figures
2180:1998Sci...282..239V
2135:1997JThBi.186...55M
2076:2019PLSCB..15E6648N
1525:1997JThBi.186...41L
1477:10.1073/pnas.35.1.1
1468:1949PNAS...35....1D
1030:nucleotide sequence
957:response to stress
903:General assessment
822:Open field activity
771:
202:hereditary material
3272:Classical genetics
2931:Genomic imprinting
2736:Jackson Laboratory
2695:10.1093/icb/23.1.5
2682:American Zoologist
2501:10.1038/msb4100050
1575:10.1101/gr.3737405
1224:10.1007/BF00179291
1000:in mice. The same
898:Confirmed mutants
886:Phenotypic domain
860:Fundus photography
826:elevated plus maze
775:Phenotypic Domain
767:
746:phenotypic screens
640:
596:
402:
387:
355:
271:
84:
64:
3259:
3258:
3192:Eric F. Wieschaus
3154:
3153:
2972:Pattern formation
2876:Fitness landscape
2481:"Construction of
2442:(20): 2713–2724.
2274:10.1038/ng0503-15
2174:(5387): 239–240.
1987:978-0-6484681-9-6
1905:978-0-19-288051-2
1855:von Sengbusch P.
1803:(November 1970).
1427:978-1-898683-27-8
1400:978-1-898683-06-3
1087:Race and genetics
1026:three-dimensional
990:
989:
892:Putative mutants
870:
869:
856:Electroretinogram
806:Fear conditioning
789:Circadian Rhythm
784:Software Package
425:natural selection
417:genetic variation
194:Wilhelm Johannsen
3284:
3202:William McGinnis
3171:Richard Lewontin
3166:C. H. Waddington
3038:
3015:Neutral networks
2765:
2758:
2751:
2742:
2700:
2699:
2697:
2673:
2664:
2663:
2653:
2621:
2615:
2614:
2604:
2593:10.1038/nbt.1628
2568:
2562:
2561:
2529:
2523:
2522:
2512:
2495:(1): 2006.0008.
2483:Escherichia coli
2476:
2470:
2469:
2459:
2427:
2421:
2420:
2410:
2400:
2372:
2363:
2362:
2334:
2328:
2327:
2300:
2294:
2293:
2257:
2251:
2250:
2214:
2208:
2207:
2163:
2157:
2156:
2146:
2114:
2108:
2107:
2097:
2087:
2055:
2049:
2048:
2038:
2006:
2000:
1999:
1965:
1959:
1958:
1948:
1916:
1910:
1909:
1882:
1876:
1875:
1873:
1872:
1863:. Archived from
1852:
1846:
1845:
1809:
1797:
1791:
1790:
1772:
1748:
1739:
1738:
1728:
1703:(9): 1205–1210.
1688:
1682:
1681:
1645:
1639:
1638:
1628:
1594:
1588:
1587:
1577:
1551:
1545:
1544:
1506:
1500:
1499:
1489:
1479:
1445:
1439:
1438:
1436:
1434:
1411:
1405:
1404:
1386:
1380:
1379:
1359:
1353:
1352:
1334:
1307:
1301:
1300:
1290:
1250:
1244:
1243:
1207:
1201:
1200:
1169:
1160:
1159:
1154:
1153:
1139:
1133:
1132:
1127:
1126:
1112:
1072:Phenotypic trait
883:
772:
762:psychostimulants
649:machine learning
498:silent mutations
378:Biston betularia
255:Western blotting
219:The Selfish Gene
186:larva cases and
129:
122:
112:
105:
51:Donax variabilis
3294:
3293:
3287:
3286:
3285:
3283:
3282:
3281:
3262:
3261:
3260:
3255:
3246:
3225:
3212:Sean B. Carroll
3150:
3082:
3029:
2993:
2945:
2926:Maternal effect
2909:
2842:
2779:
2769:
2708:
2703:
2675:
2674:
2667:
2623:
2622:
2618:
2570:
2569:
2565:
2531:
2530:
2526:
2478:
2477:
2473:
2429:
2428:
2424:
2374:
2373:
2366:
2345:(12): 635–644.
2336:
2335:
2331:
2324:
2302:
2301:
2297:
2262:Nature Genetics
2259:
2258:
2254:
2231:10.1038/nrg2897
2225:(12): 855–866.
2216:
2215:
2211:
2165:
2164:
2160:
2116:
2115:
2111:
2070:(6): e1006648.
2057:
2056:
2052:
2008:
2007:
2003:
1988:
1967:
1966:
1962:
1918:
1917:
1913:
1906:
1884:
1883:
1879:
1870:
1868:
1854:
1853:
1849:
1807:
1799:
1798:
1794:
1750:
1749:
1742:
1690:
1689:
1685:
1656:(12): 635–644.
1647:
1646:
1642:
1596:
1595:
1591:
1568:(12): 1746–58.
1561:Genome Research
1553:
1552:
1548:
1508:
1507:
1503:
1447:
1446:
1442:
1432:
1430:
1428:
1413:
1412:
1408:
1401:
1388:
1387:
1383:
1361:
1360:
1356:
1309:
1308:
1304:
1265:(4): 989–1000.
1252:
1251:
1247:
1209:
1208:
1204:
1171:
1170:
1163:
1151:
1149:
1141:
1140:
1136:
1124:
1122:
1114:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1092:Systems biology
1038:
1014:
878:point mutations
729:and many other
716:
706:
696:, particularly
668:
657:
629:transcriptional
587:
539:Richard Dawkins
536:
530:
413:
407:
235:
228:
212:(heredity) and
206:August Weismann
170:Richard Dawkins
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3292:
3291:
3288:
3280:
3279:
3274:
3264:
3263:
3257:
3256:
3251:
3248:
3247:
3245:
3244:
3239:
3233:
3231:
3227:
3226:
3224:
3223:
3222:
3221:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3188:
3187:
3176:François Jacob
3173:
3168:
3162:
3160:
3156:
3155:
3152:
3151:
3149:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3112:
3111:
3101:
3096:
3090:
3088:
3084:
3083:
3081:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3044:
3042:
3035:
3031:
3030:
3028:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3001:
2999:
2995:
2994:
2992:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2975:
2974:
2969:
2959:
2953:
2951:
2947:
2946:
2944:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2917:
2915:
2911:
2910:
2908:
2907:
2905:Sequence space
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2852:
2850:
2844:
2843:
2841:
2840:
2835:
2834:
2833:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2787:
2785:
2781:
2780:
2770:
2768:
2767:
2760:
2753:
2745:
2739:
2738:
2729:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2707:
2706:External links
2704:
2702:
2701:
2665:
2636:(4): 233–240.
2616:
2587:(6): 617–623.
2563:
2524:
2471:
2422:
2385:Human Genomics
2364:
2329:
2322:
2295:
2252:
2209:
2158:
2109:
2050:
2001:
1986:
1960:
1931:(3): 212–215.
1911:
1904:
1877:
1847:
1792:
1740:
1697:Bioinformatics
1683:
1640:
1589:
1546:
1501:
1440:
1426:
1406:
1399:
1381:
1354:
1302:
1271:10.1086/279202
1245:
1202:
1161:
1134:
1106:
1104:
1101:
1100:
1099:
1094:
1089:
1084:
1079:
1074:
1069:
1064:
1059:
1054:
1049:
1044:
1042:Bioinformatics
1037:
1034:
1013:
1010:
1004:change causes
988:
987:
984:
981:
978:
975:
971:
970:
967:
964:
961:
958:
955:Neuroendocrine
951:
950:
947:
944:
941:
938:
934:
933:
930:
927:
924:
921:
917:
916:
913:
910:
907:
904:
900:
899:
896:
893:
890:
887:
868:
867:
864:
862:
853:
849:
848:
845:
842:
839:
835:
834:
831:
828:
819:
815:
814:
811:
808:
803:
799:
798:
795:
793:
790:
786:
785:
782:
779:
776:
714:Essential gene
710:Genetic screen
705:
702:
656:
653:
586:
583:
560:brood parasite
554:, just as its
532:Main article:
529:
526:
462:inflorescences
444:
443:
436:
435:
406:
403:
227:
224:
76:Punnett square
54:show diverse
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3290:
3289:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3269:
3267:
3254:
3249:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3235:
3234:
3232:
3228:
3220:
3219:
3215:
3214:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3186:
3183:
3182:
3181:
3180:Jacques Monod
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3163:
3161:
3157:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3110:
3107:
3106:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3094:Homeotic gene
3092:
3091:
3089:
3085:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3045:
3043:
3039:
3036:
3032:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3002:
3000:
2996:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2964:
2963:
2962:Morphogenesis
2960:
2958:
2955:
2954:
2952:
2948:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2918:
2916:
2912:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2853:
2851:
2849:
2845:
2839:
2836:
2832:
2829:
2828:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2796:Reaction norm
2794:
2792:
2789:
2788:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2766:
2761:
2759:
2754:
2752:
2747:
2746:
2743:
2737:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2709:
2705:
2696:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2672:
2670:
2666:
2661:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2620:
2617:
2612:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2576:
2567:
2564:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2528:
2525:
2520:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2484:
2475:
2472:
2467:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2426:
2423:
2418:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2371:
2369:
2365:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2333:
2330:
2325:
2323:9788132221715
2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2299:
2296:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2256:
2253:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2213:
2210:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2162:
2159:
2154:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2113:
2110:
2105:
2101:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2054:
2051:
2046:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2005:
2002:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1983:
1979:
1978:10.26826/1017
1975:
1971:
1964:
1961:
1956:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1915:
1912:
1907:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1892:
1887:
1881:
1878:
1867:on 2009-06-18
1866:
1862:
1858:
1851:
1848:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1814:
1806:
1802:
1796:
1793:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1771:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1747:
1745:
1741:
1736:
1732:
1727:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1687:
1684:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1644:
1641:
1636:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1605:
1600:
1593:
1590:
1585:
1581:
1576:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1562:
1557:
1550:
1547:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1513:
1505:
1502:
1497:
1493:
1488:
1483:
1478:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1456:
1451:
1444:
1441:
1429:
1423:
1419:
1418:
1410:
1407:
1402:
1396:
1392:
1385:
1382:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1358:
1355:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1333:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1306:
1303:
1298:
1294:
1289:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1249:
1246:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1206:
1203:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1168:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1148:
1144:
1138:
1135:
1131:
1121:
1117:
1111:
1108:
1102:
1098:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1088:
1085:
1083:
1080:
1078:
1075:
1073:
1070:
1068:
1065:
1063:
1060:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1052:Endophenotype
1050:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1040:
1039:
1035:
1033:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1011:
1009:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
985:
982:
979:
976:
973:
972:
968:
965:
962:
959:
956:
953:
952:
948:
945:
942:
939:
936:
935:
931:
928:
925:
922:
919:
918:
914:
911:
908:
905:
902:
901:
897:
894:
891:
888:
885:
884:
881:
879:
875:
865:
863:
861:
857:
854:
851:
850:
846:
843:
840:
837:
836:
832:
829:
827:
823:
820:
817:
816:
812:
809:
807:
804:
801:
800:
796:
794:
791:
788:
787:
783:
780:
777:
774:
773:
770:
765:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
742:
740:
739:fission yeast
736:
735:baker's yeast
732:
728:
727:
721:
715:
711:
703:
701:
699:
695:
690:
687:
685:
681:
680:
675:
674:
666:
662:
654:
652:
650:
645:
636:
632:
630:
625:
622:
616:
613:
609:
605:
601:
591:
584:
582:
579:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
540:
535:
527:
525:
523:
519:
515:
514:melting point
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
490:
488:
484:
480:
479:
473:
471:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
450:
441:
440:
439:
433:
432:
431:
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2979:Segmentation
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2826:Heterochrony
2816:Heritability
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1925:EMBO Reports
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3207:Mike Levine
3116:Distal-less
2941:Polyphenism
2921:Epigenetics
2773:development
2688:(1): 5–14.
1801:Lewontin RC
1462:(1): 1–10.
1218:(1): 5–30.
847:BigBrother
394:B.betularia
188:beaver dams
162:polymorphic
3266:Categories
3185:Lac operon
3010:Robustness
2989:Modularity
2984:Metamerism
2890:Plasticity
2885:Pleiotropy
2838:Heterotopy
2021:: bau017.
1871:2009-12-29
1763:: 102853.
1611:(1): 1–6.
1152:2020-04-29
1125:2020-04-29
1103:References
1082:Physiomics
1002:amino acid
833:LimeLight
708:See also:
644:epigenetic
604:tyrosinase
572:orchid bee
562:such as a
548:beaver dam
510:GC content
478:Drosophila
466:sand dunes
409:See also:
398:carbonaria
365:, and pan-
363:pan-genome
359:pan-genome
346:(PheWAS).
226:Definition
210:germ plasm
180:bird nests
154:expression
142:morphology
94:(from
60:patterning
56:coloration
3136:Morphogen
3121:Engrailed
3104:Pax genes
3025:Tinkering
2871:Epistasis
2866:Dominance
2777:phenotype
2391:(1): 16.
2377:Nebert DW
1996:258899183
1886:Dawkins R
1787:254211407
1717:1367-4811
1670:1878-4372
1370:: 59–86.
1325:(2): 71.
1311:Crusio WE
1173:Dawkins R
1067:Phenomics
1018:RNA world
994:rhodopsin
797:ClockLab
720:mutations
679:phenomics
665:Phonology
483:ommatidia
421:evolution
275:wild type
243:molecules
184:caddisfly
92:phenotype
3099:Hox gene
3087:Elements
3068:Homeobox
2660:16519954
2611:20473289
2558:27587784
2519:16738554
2466:10541557
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2359:22074787
2290:31510391
2282:12721547
2247:14752610
2239:21085204
2104:31220071
2045:24634472
2015:Database
1955:19255576
1888:(1982).
1842:84684420
1820:: 1–18.
1779:36463837
1735:20335276
1678:22074787
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1376:12214780
1349:35382304
1341:12884976
1297:24691957
1240:38649212
1232:11610096
1077:Physiome
1036:See also
750:behavior
731:bacteria
594:effects.
506:cytosine
454:habitats
367:envirome
340:biobanks
318:genotype
305:organism
251:proteins
245:such as
239:genotype
158:genotype
150:behavior
138:organism
88:genetics
72:genotype
48:species
3230:Debates
3041:Systems
2967:Eyespot
2831:Neoteny
2734:at the
2651:3761413
2602:3962850
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2196:9841385
2176:Bibcode
2168:Science
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2072:Bibcode
2036:3982582
1946:2658563
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1521:Bibcode
1487:1062948
1464:Bibcode
1288:4258772
1279:2455747
1047:Ecotype
974:Vision
852:Vision
726:E. coli
673:phenome
661:Phoneme
608:melanin
576:peacock
570:affect
556:incisor
522:thymine
518:adenine
516:) than
502:guanine
396:morpha
381:morpha
313:phenome
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134:traits
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1808:(PDF)
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