269:, he prepared an attenuated anthrax vaccine, using the method developed by Pasteur. A persistent problem with Pasteur's vaccine was achieving the correct balance between virulence and immunogenicity during preparation. This notoriously difficult procedure regularly produced casualties among vaccinated animals. With little help from colleagues, Sterne performed small-scale experiments which isolated the "Sterne strain" (34F2) of anthrax which became, and remains today, the basis of most of the improved livestock anthrax vaccines throughout the world. As Sterne's vaccine is a live vaccine, vaccination during use of antibiotics produces much reduced results and should be avoided. There is a withholding period after vaccination when animals cannot be slaughtered. No such period is defined for milk and there are no reports of humans being infected by products from vaccinated animals. There have been a few cases when humans accidentally self-inject the vaccine when trying to administer to a struggling animal. One case developed fever and meningitis, but it is unclear whether the illness was caused by the vaccine. Livestock anthrax vaccines are made in many countries around the world, most of which use 34F2 with saponin adjuvant.
427:
injunction which made numerous substantive challenges regarding the vaccine and its safety. After reviewing extensive scientific evidence, the FDA determined in 2005 that AVA is safe and effective as licensed for the prevention of anthrax, regardless of the route of exposure. In 2006, the
Defense Department announced the reinstatement of mandatory anthrax vaccinations for more than 200,000 troops and defense contractors. The vaccinations are required for most U.S. military units and civilian contractors assigned to homeland
278:
it was reasonably well tolerated and showed some degree of protective efficacy against cutaneous anthrax in clinical field trials. The efficacy of the live
Russian vaccine was reported to have been greater than that of either of the killed British or US anthrax vaccines (AVP and AVA, respectively) during the 1970s and '80s. The STI-1 vaccine, consisting only of freeze-dried spores, is given in a two-dose schedule, but serious side-effects restricted its use to healthy adults. It was reportedly manufactured at the
698:] and Roux followed up the results of a research physician Jean-Joseph-Henri Toussaint, who had reported a year earlier that carbolic-acid/heated anthrax serum would immunize against anthrax. These results were difficult to reproduce and discarded although, as it turned out, Toussaint had been on the right track. This led Pasteur and his assistants to substitute an anthrax vaccine prepared by a method similar to that of Toussaint and different from what Pasteur had announced.
158:, and thereby aroused widespread interest in combating other diseases with the same approach. In May 1881, Pasteur performed a famous public experiment at Pouilly-le-Fort to demonstrate his concept of vaccination. He prepared two groups of 25 sheep, one goat and several cows. The animals of one group were twice injected, with an interval of 15 days, with an anthrax vaccine prepared by Pasteur; a
452:
224:
vaccination was that the weakened form of the latter two disease organisms had been "generated artificially", so a naturally weak form of the disease organism did not need to be found. This discovery revolutionized work in infectious diseases and
Pasteur gave these artificially weakened diseases the
426:
published reports that questioned the safety and efficacy of AVA, causing sometimes serious side effects. A Congressional report also questioned the safety and efficacy of the vaccine and challenged the legality of mandatory inoculations. Mandatory vaccinations were halted in 2004 by a formal legal
277:
Anthrax vaccines were developed in the Soviet Union in the 1930s and available for use in humans by 1940. A live attenuated, unencapsulated spore vaccine became widely used for humans. It was given either by scarification or subcutaneous injection (only in emergency) and its developers claimed that
314:
to anthrax. The widely used
British anthrax vaccine—sometimes called Anthrax Vaccine Precipitated (AVP) to distinguish it from the similar AVA (see below)—became available for human use in 1954. This was a cell-free vaccine in distinction to the live-cell Pasteur-style vaccine previously used for
264:
The
Austrian-South African immunologist Max Sterne (1905–1997) developed an attenuated live animal vaccine in 1935 that is still employed and derivatives of his strain account for almost all veterinary anthrax vaccines used in the world today. Beginning in 1934 at the Onderstepoort Veterinary
162:
was left unvaccinated. Thirty days after the first injection, both groups were injected with a culture of live anthrax bacteria. All the animals in the non-vaccinated group died, while all of the animals in the vaccinated group survived. The public reception was sensational.
289:
China uses a different live attenuated strain for their human vaccines, designated "A16R". The A16R vaccine is given as a suspention in 50% glycerol and distilled water. A single dose is given by scarification, followed by a booster in 6 or 12 months, then annual boosters.
518:. The vaccine—given under a seven-dose schedule—was developed by the Nes Tziona Biological Institute. A group of study volunteers complained of multi-symptom illnesses allegedly associated with the vaccine and petitioned for disability benefits to the
334:(0.005%). The vaccine is given by intramuscular injection and the primary course of four single injections (3 injections 3 weeks apart, followed by a 6-month dose) is followed by a single booster dose given once a year. During the
42:
279:
382:
Vollum strain known as V770-NP1-R. No living organisms are present in the vaccine which results in protective immunity after 3 to 6 doses. AVA remains the only FDA-licensed human anthrax vaccine in the
530:
at Nes Tziona, the director, Avigdor
Shafferman, and the IDF Medical Corps. Release of the information was requested to support further action to provide disability compensation for the volunteers.
1173:
134:) and serious adverse reactions occur in about 1% of recipients. New third-generation vaccines being researched include recombinant live vaccines and recombinant sub-unit vaccines.
114:
Currently administered human anthrax vaccines include acellular (USA, UK) and live spore (Russia) varieties. All currently used anthrax vaccines show considerable local and general
2604:
2747:
1752:
951:
Anaisimova, TI, Pimenov TV, Kozhukhov VV, et al: "Development of method for preparation and maintenance of the anthrax strain STI-1 and test strain
Zenkovsky" In
1641:
777:
1792:
1787:
375:
1237:
378:(FDA) took over responsibility for vaccine licensure and oversight. AVA is produced from culture filtrates of an avirulent, nonencapsulated mutant of the
2703:
1554:
216:
and by
Pasteur's time this had generally replaced the use of actual smallpox material in inoculation. The difference between smallpox vaccination and
286:, until 1991. As of 2008, the STI-1 vaccine remains available, and is the only human anthrax vaccine "nominally available outside national borders".
527:
246:
declared
Pasteur had given a misleading account of the preparation of the anthrax vaccine used in the experiment at Pouilly-le-Fort. The same year,
200:) was known to result in far less scarring, and greatly reduced mortality, in comparison with the naturally acquired disease. The English physician
95:
and the second effective vaccine ever) to the controversial late 20th century use of a modern product to protect
American troops against the use of
2184:
1201:
404:
422:(AVIP), under which active U.S. service personnel were to be immunized with the vaccine. Controversy ensued since vaccination was mandatory and
1802:
318:
AVP is administered at primovaccination in three doses with a booster dose after six months. The active ingredient is a sterile filtrate of an
2655:
2583:
1324:
1148:
658:
576:
2189:
419:
1277:
88:
They have had a prominent place in the history of medicine, from Pasteur's pioneering 19th-century work with cattle (the first effective
2221:
1904:
1757:
400:
2631:
1973:
1943:
1576:
192:
The notion of a weak form of a disease causing immunity to the virulent version was not new; this had been known for a long time for
2043:
936:
734:
1515:
2610:
1585:
823:
675:
166:
Pasteur publicly claimed he had made the anthrax vaccine by exposing the bacilli to oxygen. His laboratory notebooks, now in the
2194:
2231:
2199:
2028:
1978:
2289:
1899:
498:
emulsion (SLT). One dose of each formulation has provided significant protection (> 90%) against inhalational anthrax in
1357:
2087:
1797:
1383:
371:
1059:
Shlyakhov E, Rubinstein E, Novikov I (1997). "Anthrax post-vaccinal cell-mediated immunity in humans: kinetics pattern".
408:
323:
299:
252:
108:
2732:
2672:
171:
360:
undertook basic research directed at producing a new anthrax vaccine during the 1950s and '60s. The product known as
315:
veterinary purposes. It is now manufactured by Porton Biopharma Ltd, a Company owned by the UK Department of Health.
242:
ran an article titled "Pasteur's Deception". After having thoroughly read Pasteur's lab notes, the science historian
2742:
2209:
1651:
1634:
1303:"House Report 106-556 - THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE ANTHRAX VACCINE IMMUNIZATION PROGRAM: UNPROVEN FORCE PROTECTION"
2259:
1223:
896:
842:
167:
1243:
2727:
2214:
2179:
2174:
2169:
1511:
519:
366:
361:
351:
804:
229:", in honor of Jenner's groundbreaking discovery. In 1885, Pasteur produced his celebrated first vaccine for
2660:
2593:
2574:
2370:
2342:
2304:
2299:
2279:
1807:
322:-precipitated anthrax antigen from the Sterne strain in a solution for injection. The other ingredients are
2641:
2570:
1569:
310:
in 1948. This discovery was the basis of the next generation of antigenic anthrax vaccines and for modern
1302:
1242:. National Immunization Program, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. January 2006. Archived from
2636:
2470:
2465:
1921:
1867:
1777:
515:
388:
751:
2519:
2460:
2251:
1894:
1772:
1723:
1690:
1624:
1415:"Complete genome sequence of Bacillus anthracis H9401, an isolate from a Korean patient with anthrax"
182:
2697:
2442:
2408:
2294:
2060:
2055:
2006:
1837:
1705:
1677:
1629:
392:
1331:
2475:
2309:
2050:
2016:
2001:
1877:
1847:
1767:
1685:
476:
238:
178:
100:
81:
537:
isolate H9401 was obtained from a Korean patient with gastrointestinal anthrax. The goal of the
185:. Pasteur's oxygen method did eventually produce a vaccine but only after he had been awarded a
1220:
Biological Weapons: From the Invention of State-sponsored Programs to Contemporary Bioterrorism
1132:
522:, but were denied. In February 2009, a petition from the volunteers to disclose a report about
2737:
2598:
2565:
2544:
2398:
2239:
2129:
2023:
1884:
1709:
1672:
1562:
1542:
1498:
1444:
1193:
1154:
1144:
1076:
1041:
1014:
987:
970:
932:
877:
785:
730:
654:
623:
572:
564:
538:
396:
339:
107:
in the late 1930s and in the US and UK in the 1950s. The current vaccine approved by the U.S.
650:
643:
2722:
2524:
2509:
2365:
2226:
2139:
1534:
1488:
1480:
1434:
1426:
1215:
1185:
1136:
1068:
979:
869:
679:
613:
605:
283:
243:
17:
463:
A number of experimental anthrax vaccines are undergoing pre-clinical testing, notably the
233:
by growing the virus in rabbits and then weakening it by drying the affected nerve tissue.
2529:
2327:
2134:
2092:
1963:
1933:
1916:
1842:
1762:
1701:
1697:
1646:
901:
542:
327:
221:
147:
2666:
2393:
2284:
2244:
2124:
1950:
1889:
1493:
1468:
1439:
1414:
1239:
Anthrax and Anthrax Vaccine—Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases
1119:
618:
593:
499:
115:
1260:
1189:
1072:
1032:
Lesnyak OT, Saltykov RA (1970). "Comparative assessment of anthrax vaccine strains'".
2716:
2549:
2534:
2504:
2499:
2354:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2011:
1857:
1656:
1538:
1095:
983:
873:
468:
384:
357:
307:
201:
159:
143:
1005:
Hambleton P, Turnbull PC (1990). "Anthrax vaccine development: a continuing story".
2626:
2269:
2164:
2097:
2038:
1862:
1718:
1609:
1589:
1484:
1391:
968:
Shlyakov EN, Rubinstein E (1994). "Human live anthrax vaccine in the former USSR".
428:
412:
104:
399:, Michigan. The principal purchasers of the vaccine in the United States are the
2413:
2403:
2264:
2070:
2065:
1983:
1958:
1926:
1852:
1714:
1605:
1597:
1140:
926:
440:
436:
303:
205:
197:
33:
1413:
Chun JH, Hong KJ, Cha SH, Cho MH, Lee KJ, Jeong DH, et al. (August 2012).
609:
2539:
2514:
2204:
2154:
1096:"Protection conferred by microbially-supplemented UK and purified PA vaccines"
331:
247:
123:
2588:
2159:
2032:
1601:
311:
89:
77:
1502:
1448:
1197:
1158:
789:
627:
514:
tested an Israeli investigational anthrax vaccine on 716 volunteers of the
1546:
1080:
1045:
1018:
991:
881:
2430:
2423:
2418:
2388:
2144:
2080:
2075:
1525:
Turnbull PC (August 1991). "Anthrax vaccines: past, present and future".
860:
Turnbull PC (August 1991). "Anthrax vaccines: past, present and future".
526:
was filed with the Israel's High Court against the Defense Ministry, the
495:
491:
487:
472:
338:(1990–1991), UK military personnel were given AVP concomitantly with the
335:
266:
213:
193:
175:
127:
119:
69:
1430:
2149:
1911:
1593:
480:
226:
217:
151:
146:(1822–1895) applied his previous method of immunising chickens against
96:
92:
73:
49:
506:
Omer-2 trial: Beginning in 1998 and running for eight years, a secret
181:, to create the anthrax vaccine. This method used the oxidizing agent
2452:
2437:
1728:
1174:"Anthrax vaccine. Model of a response to the biologic warfare threat"
507:
230:
209:
186:
155:
41:
1330:. Military Vaccine (MILVAX) Agency. 27 October 2004. Archived from
1094:
Turnbull PC, Quinn CP, Hewson R, Stockbridge MC, Melling J (1990).
280:
George Eliava Institute of Bacteriophage, Microbiology and Virology
2447:
2332:
1938:
1872:
778:"Revisionist History Sees Pasteur As Liar Who Stole Rival's Ideas"
483:
131:
407:. Ten million doses of AVA have been purchased for the U.S.
1747:
432:
342:
as an adjuvant to improve overall immune response and efficacy.
319:
1558:
1467:
Donegan S, Bellamy R, Gamble CL (April 2009). Donegan S (ed.).
451:
694:
423:
541:
is to use this strain as a challenge strain to develop a
1384:"Defense attempting to block report about anthrax trial"
692:
Fortunately, Pasteur's colleagues Chamberlain [
170:
in Paris, in fact show Pasteur used the method of rival
302:(1921–2011), working for the UK bio-weapons program at
455:
Anthrax toxin protective antigen (fragment) heptamer,
204:(1749–1823) had also discovered (1796) the process of
2619:
2558:
2490:
2381:
2353:
2320:
1994:
1825:
1818:
1737:
1665:
1617:
55:
48:
1118:
642:
592:Splino M, Patocka J, Prymula R, Chlibek R (2005).
418:In 1997, the Clinton administration initiated the
2605:Cedillo v. Secretary of Health and Human Services
1305:. U.S. Government Publishing Office. 3 April 2000
1120:"ANTHRAX, the investigation of a Deadly Outbreak"
569:Vaccines: A Clinical Overview and Practical Guide
27:Vaccines against the bacterium Bacillus anthracis
103:. Human anthrax vaccines were developed by the
1570:
963:
961:
8:
955:, Special Supplement #87, June 1996, pg 122.
236:In 1995, the centennial of Pasteur's death,
32:
1473:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
1255:
1253:
1178:Infectious Disease Clinics of North America
824:"Pasteur and the Culture Wars: An Exchange"
250:published a vigorous defense of Pasteur in
72:to prevent the livestock and human disease
2704:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
1822:
1577:
1563:
1555:
1325:"John Doe #1 v. Donald H. Rumsfeld, et al"
928:Anthrax in Humans and Animals. 4th edition
925:"Annex 5. Vaccines and therapeutic sera".
678:. University of Louisville. Archived from
571:. Switzerland: Springer. pp. 99–110.
567:. In Domachowske J, Suryadevara M (eds.).
111:(FDA) was formulated in the 1960s.
40:
1492:
1438:
920:
918:
916:
914:
912:
841:Summers WC, Perutz MF (6 February 1997).
617:
189:on the production of an anthrax vaccine.
528:Israel Institute for Biological Research
450:
330:and purified water. The preservative is
2698:"Anthrax Vaccine Information Statement"
1517:Immunisation against infectious disease
1283:. U.S. Government Accountability Office
710:Loir A (1938). "A l'ombre de Pasteur".
555:
405:Department of Health and Human Services
1131:(16). University of California Press:
1007:Advances in Biotechnological Processes
645:Deadly Diseases and Epidemics, Anthrax
486:, and monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL) in
31:
2748:Military medicine in the Soviet Union
822:Geison GL, Perutz MF (4 April 1996).
649:. Chelesa House Publishers. pp.
7:
1266:. U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
727:The Private Science of Louis Pasteur
467:protective antigen—known as PA (see
420:Anthrax Vaccine Immunization Program
1358:"Mandatory Anthrax Shots to Return"
1278:"GAO Anthrax Vaccine Report Search"
1125:The New England Journal of Medicine
931:. World Health Organization. 2008.
2632:Eradication of infectious diseases
2389:Androvax (androstenedione albumin)
847:The New York Times Review of Books
828:The New York Times Review of Books
809:The New York Times Review of Books
563:Bonville C, Domachowske J (2020).
370:—was licensed in 1970 by the U.S.
25:
2222:Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
1469:"Vaccines for preventing anthrax"
1034:Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol
142:In the 1870s, the French chemist
2611:Alternative vaccination schedule
1586:Artificial induction of immunity
447:Investigational anthrax vaccines
411:for use in the event of a mass
273:Soviet/Russian anthrax vaccines
2443:Ovandrotone albumin (Fecundin)
1485:10.1002/14651858.CD006403.pub2
803:Perutz MF (21 December 1995).
729:. Princeton University Press.
1:
1979:Group B streptococcal disease
1798:Vaccines for Children Program
1190:10.1016/s0891-5520(05)70050-7
1073:10.1016/s0264-410x(96)00286-1
843:"Pasteur's 'Private Science'"
372:National Institutes of Health
265:Research Institute, north of
196:. Inoculation with smallpox (
1539:10.1016/0264-410x(91)90237-z
1382:Melman Y (27 January 2009).
984:10.1016/0264-410x(94)90223-2
874:10.1016/0264-410x(91)90237-z
674:Cohn DV (18 December 2006).
409:Strategic National Stockpile
376:Food and Drug Administration
324:aluminium potassium sulphate
253:The New York Review of Books
109:Food and Drug Administration
18:Anthrax Vaccine Precipitated
1141:10.1056/NEJM200010193431615
895:Turnbull P (4 March 1997).
172:Jean-Joseph-Henri Toussaint
2764:
1100:Salisbury Medical Bulletin
953:Salisbury Medical Bulletin
610:10.5144/0256-4947.2005.143
349:
212:to give cross-immunity to
2650:
1356:Lee C (17 October 2006).
1261:"BioThrax Package Insert"
1224:Columbia University Press
776:Altman LK (16 May 1995).
346:American anthrax vaccines
39:
1974:Clostridioides difficile
1520:. Public Health England.
750:Wolpert L (7 May 1995).
598:Annals of Saudi Medicine
545:vaccine against anthrax.
362:Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed
352:Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed
294:British anthrax vaccines
2232:Tick-borne encephalitis
1419:Journal of Bacteriology
752:"Experiments in Deceit"
471:—combined with various
431:defense or deployed in
306:, discovered the three
259:
137:
2642:List of vaccine topics
1642:Mathematical modelling
1510:Ramsay M, ed. (2017).
897:"Obituary: Max Sterne"
805:"The Pioneer Defended"
712:Le mouvement sanitaire
460:
374:(NIH) and in 1972 the
168:Bibliothèque Nationale
2637:Vaccinate Your Family
2088:Japanese encephalitis
1512:"Chapter 13: Anthrax"
1172:Nass M (March 1999).
516:Israel Defense Forces
454:
401:Department of Defense
389:Emergent BioSolutions
2520:John Franklin Enders
1184:(1): 187–208, viii.
1117:Guillemin J (1999).
391:, formerly known as
183:potassium dichromate
1706:Virus-like particle
1630:Vaccine ingredients
1431:10.1128/JB.00159-12
714:. pp. 18, 160.
393:BioPort Corporation
387:and is produced by
298:British biochemist
50:Vaccine description
36:
2733:Biological warfare
2677:Never to phase III
2476:Hexavalent vaccine
2290:Epstein–Barr virus
2185:Oxford–AstraZeneca
1878:NmVac4-A/C/Y/W-135
1246:on 24 August 2012.
1204:on 9 January 2013.
782:The New York Times
756:The New York Times
594:"Anthrax vaccines"
477:aluminum hydroxide
465:Bacillus anthracis
461:
457:Bacillus anthracis
239:The New York Times
179:veterinary surgeon
101:biological warfare
82:Bacillus anthracis
2743:Soviet inventions
2687:
2686:
2599:Vaccines and SIDS
2486:
2485:
2260:Hepatitis A and B
2236:Varicella zoster
1698:Subunit/component
1425:(15): 4116–4117.
1388:Haaretz Newspaper
1337:on 25 August 2009
1150:978-0-520-22917-4
725:Geison G (1995).
660:978-0-7910-7302-5
641:Decker J (2003).
578:978-3-030-58413-9
539:Republic of Korea
510:project known as
364:(AVA)—trade name
340:pertussis vaccine
154:, which affected
138:Pasteur's vaccine
63:
62:
16:(Redirected from
2755:
2709:
2578:MMR autism fraud
2525:Maurice Hilleman
2510:Hilary Koprowski
1823:
1579:
1572:
1565:
1556:
1550:
1521:
1506:
1496:
1453:
1452:
1442:
1410:
1404:
1403:
1401:
1399:
1394:on 15 April 2009
1390:. Archived from
1379:
1373:
1372:
1370:
1368:
1353:
1347:
1346:
1344:
1342:
1336:
1329:
1321:
1315:
1314:
1312:
1310:
1299:
1293:
1292:
1290:
1288:
1282:
1274:
1268:
1267:
1265:
1257:
1248:
1247:
1234:
1228:
1227:
1212:
1206:
1205:
1200:. Archived from
1169:
1163:
1162:
1122:
1114:
1108:
1107:
1091:
1085:
1084:
1067:(6–7): 631–636.
1056:
1050:
1049:
1029:
1023:
1022:
1002:
996:
995:
965:
956:
949:
943:
942:
922:
907:
906:
892:
886:
885:
857:
851:
850:
838:
832:
831:
819:
813:
812:
800:
794:
793:
773:
767:
766:
764:
762:
747:
741:
740:
722:
716:
715:
707:
701:
700:
689:
687:
671:
665:
664:
648:
638:
632:
631:
621:
589:
583:
582:
560:
520:Defense Ministry
415:anthrax attack.
284:Tbilisi, Georgia
260:Sterne's vaccine
244:Gerald L. Geison
76:, caused by the
66:Anthrax vaccines
44:
37:
35:
21:
2763:
2762:
2758:
2757:
2756:
2754:
2753:
2752:
2728:Animal vaccines
2713:
2712:
2708:. January 2020.
2696:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2682:
2667:Clinical trials
2646:
2615:
2554:
2530:Stanley Plotkin
2492:
2482:
2394:Cancer vaccines
2377:
2371:Schistosomiasis
2349:
2343:Trypanosomiasis
2316:
2280:Cytomegalovirus
2190:Pfizer–BioNTech
1990:
1814:
1763:Vaccine wastage
1733:
1661:
1613:
1583:
1553:
1524:
1509:
1479:(2): CD006403.
1466:
1462:
1460:Further reading
1457:
1456:
1412:
1411:
1407:
1397:
1395:
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1362:Washington Post
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1031:
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966:
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946:
939:
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923:
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902:The Independent
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797:
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758:
749:
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737:
724:
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719:
709:
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685:
683:
682:on 30 June 2012
673:
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591:
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500:rhesus macaques
449:
354:
348:
328:sodium chloride
296:
275:
262:
222:chicken cholera
174:(1847–1890), a
148:chicken cholera
140:
34:Anthrax vaccine
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2761:
2759:
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2691:External links
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2167:
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2157:
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2150:Bharat Biotech
2147:
2137:
2132:
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2115:
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1840:
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1829:
1827:
1820:
1816:
1815:
1813:
1812:
1811:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1782:
1781:
1780:
1778:Vaccine injury
1775:
1770:
1765:
1760:
1755:
1750:
1741:
1739:
1738:Administration
1735:
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1732:
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1584:
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1533:(8): 533–539.
1522:
1507:
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1405:
1374:
1348:
1316:
1294:
1269:
1249:
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1207:
1164:
1149:
1109:
1086:
1051:
1024:
997:
957:
944:
937:
908:
887:
868:(8): 533–539.
852:
833:
814:
795:
768:
742:
735:
717:
702:
666:
659:
633:
584:
577:
554:
553:
551:
548:
547:
546:
531:
479:(Alhydrogel),
448:
445:
350:Main article:
347:
344:
308:anthrax toxins
295:
292:
274:
271:
261:
258:
225:generic name "
139:
136:
116:reactogenicity
61:
60:
57:
53:
52:
46:
45:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2760:
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2597:
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2587:
2585:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2572:
2569:
2567:
2564:
2563:
2561:
2557:
2551:
2550:Drew Weissman
2548:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2535:H. Fred Clark
2533:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2505:Louis Pasteur
2503:
2501:
2500:Edward Jenner
2498:
2497:
2495:
2489:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2471:DTwP-HepB-Hib
2469:
2467:
2466:DTaP-IPV-HepB
2464:
2462:
2459:
2458:
2457:combination:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2432:
2429:
2425:
2422:
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2417:
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2364:
2363:
2361:
2360:
2358:
2356:
2355:Helminthiasis
2352:
2344:
2341:
2340:
2338:
2334:
2331:
2330:
2329:
2326:
2325:
2323:
2319:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2277:
2275:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2257:
2256:combination:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2238:
2237:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2142:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2110:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2073:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2034:
2030:
2027:
2026:
2025:
2022:
2018:
2015:
2014:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1999:
1997:
1993:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1971:
1969:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1959:DPT/DTwP/DTaP
1957:
1956:
1955:combination:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1936:
1935:
1932:
1928:
1925:
1924:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1910:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1897:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1879:
1876:
1874:
1871:
1870:
1869:
1868:Meningococcus
1866:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1858:Leptospirosis
1856:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1830:
1828:
1824:
1821:
1817:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1793:Vaccine court
1791:
1789:
1786:
1785:
1783:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1759:
1756:
1754:
1751:
1749:
1748:GAVI Alliance
1746:
1745:
1743:
1742:
1740:
1736:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1716:
1713:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1696:
1692:
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1684:
1683:
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1679:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1670:
1668:
1664:
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1653:
1650:
1648:
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1643:
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1636:
1633:
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1616:
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1607:
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1568:
1566:
1561:
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1557:
1548:
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1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1523:
1519:
1518:
1513:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1495:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1465:
1464:
1459:
1450:
1446:
1441:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1409:
1406:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1378:
1375:
1363:
1359:
1352:
1349:
1333:
1326:
1320:
1317:
1304:
1298:
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1279:
1273:
1270:
1262:
1256:
1254:
1250:
1245:
1241:
1240:
1233:
1230:
1226:. p. 98.
1225:
1221:
1217:
1211:
1208:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1168:
1165:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1121:
1113:
1110:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1090:
1087:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1055:
1052:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1028:
1025:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1001:
998:
993:
989:
985:
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977:
973:
972:
964:
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958:
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948:
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940:
938:9789241547536
934:
930:
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915:
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875:
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863:
856:
853:
848:
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834:
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825:
818:
815:
810:
806:
799:
796:
791:
787:
783:
779:
772:
769:
757:
753:
746:
743:
738:
736:0-691-01552-X
732:
728:
721:
718:
713:
706:
703:
699:
697:
696:
681:
677:
670:
667:
662:
656:
652:
647:
646:
637:
634:
629:
625:
620:
615:
611:
607:
603:
599:
595:
588:
585:
580:
574:
570:
566:
559:
556:
549:
544:
540:
536:
532:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
504:
503:
501:
497:
493:
489:
485:
482:
478:
474:
470:
469:Anthrax toxin
466:
458:
453:
446:
444:
442:
438:
434:
430:
425:
421:
416:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
385:United States
381:
377:
373:
369:
368:
363:
359:
358:United States
353:
345:
343:
341:
337:
333:
329:
325:
321:
316:
313:
309:
305:
301:
293:
291:
287:
285:
281:
272:
270:
268:
257:
255:
254:
249:
245:
241:
240:
234:
232:
228:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
202:Edward Jenner
199:
195:
190:
188:
184:
180:
177:
173:
169:
164:
161:
160:control group
157:
153:
149:
145:
144:Louis Pasteur
135:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
112:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
91:
86:
84:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
58:
54:
51:
47:
43:
38:
30:
19:
2701:
2627:Epidemiology
2603:
2575:
2461:DTaP-IPV/Hib
2252:Yellow fever
2165:EpiVacCorona
1922:Tuberculosis
1895:Pneumococcal
1863:Lyme disease
1832:
1691:Heterologous
1590:Immunization
1530:
1526:
1516:
1476:
1472:
1422:
1418:
1408:
1396:. Retrieved
1392:the original
1387:
1377:
1365:. Retrieved
1361:
1351:
1339:. Retrieved
1332:the original
1319:
1307:. Retrieved
1297:
1285:. Retrieved
1272:
1244:the original
1238:
1232:
1219:
1210:
1202:the original
1181:
1177:
1167:
1128:
1124:
1112:
1103:
1099:
1089:
1064:
1060:
1054:
1040:(8): 32–35.
1037:
1033:
1027:
1010:
1006:
1000:
975:
969:
952:
947:
927:
900:
890:
865:
861:
855:
846:
836:
827:
817:
808:
798:
781:
771:
759:. Retrieved
755:
745:
726:
720:
711:
705:
693:
691:
684:. Retrieved
680:the original
669:
644:
636:
604:(2): 143–9.
601:
597:
587:
568:
565:"7. Anthrax"
558:
535:B. anthracis
534:
523:
511:
464:
462:
456:
429:bioterrorism
417:
413:bioterrorist
380:B. anthracis
379:
365:
355:
317:
297:
288:
276:
263:
251:
237:
235:
191:
165:
141:
113:
105:Soviet Union
87:
80:
65:
64:
29:
2663:from market
2559:Controversy
2493:researchers
2409:Hepatitis B
2295:Hepatitis C
2240:Chicken pox
2066:Hepatitis E
2061:Hepatitis B
2056:Hepatitis A
2007:Chikungunya
1984:Shigellosis
1838:Brucellosis
1724:Therapeutic
1678:Inactivated
1618:Development
1606:Inoculation
1598:Vaccination
1216:Guillemin J
1013:: 105–122.
978:: 727–730.
543:recombinant
441:South Korea
437:Afghanistan
304:Porton Down
300:Harry Smith
206:vaccination
198:variolation
2717:Categories
2594:Thiomersal
2540:Paul Offit
2515:Jonas Salk
2491:Inventors/
2362:research:
2339:research:
2276:research:
2205:Skycovione
2195:Sanofi–GSK
2140:SARS-CoV-2
2051:Hantavirus
2017:rVSV-ZEBOV
2002:Adenovirus
1970:research:
1848:Diphtheria
1686:Attenuated
784:: C1, C3.
686:2 December
550:References
332:thiomersal
312:antitoxins
248:Max Perutz
124:induration
2673:Phase III
2661:Withdrawn
2589:Pox party
2399:ALVAC-CEA
2321:Protozoan
2210:Sputnik V
2160:CoronaVac
2130:Rotavirus
2033:Pandemrix
1885:Pertussis
1826:Bacterial
1710:Synthetic
1673:Conjugate
1625:Adjuvants
1602:Infection
676:"Pasteur"
533:In 2012,
473:adjuvants
208:by using
90:bacterial
78:bacterium
2738:Vaccines
2431:Prostvac
2424:Gardasil
2419:Cervarix
2366:Hookworm
2245:Shingles
2227:Smallpox
2145:Corbevax
2081:Gardasil
2076:Cervarix
1819:Vaccines
1773:Schedule
1744:Global:
1652:Timeline
1594:Vaccines
1503:19370633
1449:22815438
1398:11 March
1367:29 April
1309:14 April
1287:14 April
1218:(2005).
1198:10198799
1159:11041763
1106:: 89–91.
790:11647062
761:29 April
628:15977694
496:Tween 80
492:lecithin
488:squalene
475:such as
367:BioThrax
336:Gulf War
267:Pretoria
227:vaccines
214:smallpox
194:smallpox
176:Toulouse
128:soreness
120:erythema
70:vaccines
2723:Anthrax
2620:Related
2566:General
2328:Malaria
2215:Valneva
2180:Novavax
2175:Moderna
2170:Janssen
2155:CanSino
2135:Rubella
2093:Measles
1964:Td/Tdap
1934:Typhoid
1917:Tetanus
1912:Q fever
1843:Cholera
1833:Anthrax
1702:Peptide
1666:Classes
1647:Storage
1547:1771966
1527:Vaccine
1494:6532564
1440:3416559
1081:9178463
1061:Vaccine
1046:4993408
1019:1692223
992:8091851
971:Vaccine
882:1771966
862:Vaccine
619:6147967
508:Israeli
481:saponin
397:Lansing
218:anthrax
152:anthrax
97:anthrax
93:vaccine
74:anthrax
59:Anthrax
2656:WHO-EM
2576:Lancet
2453:TA-NIC
2438:NicVAX
2285:Dengue
2125:Rabies
1951:Typhus
1890:Plague
1768:Policy
1729:Toxoid
1657:Trials
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524:Omer-2
512:Omer-2
231:rabies
210:cowpox
187:patent
156:cattle
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2706:(CDC)
2702:U.S.
2584:NCVIA
2448:TA-CD
2382:Other
2333:RTS,S
2113:Sabin
2108:Polio
2103:Mumps
2012:Ebola
1995:Viral
1944:ViCPS
1939:Ty21a
1873:MeNZB
1803:VAERS
1753:NITAG
1682:Live
1341:6 May
1335:(PDF)
1328:(PDF)
1281:(PDF)
1264:(PDF)
651:27–28
484:QS-21
132:fever
2310:Zika
2270:MMRV
2118:Salk
2098:Mpox
2044:LAIV
2039:H5N1
2029:H1N1
1905:PPSV
1788:ACIP
1784:US:
1758:SAGE
1719:mRNA
1635:list
1543:PMID
1499:PMID
1477:2009
1445:PMID
1400:2009
1369:2024
1343:2009
1311:2018
1289:2018
1194:PMID
1155:PMID
1145:ISBN
1077:PMID
1042:PMID
1015:PMID
988:PMID
933:ISBN
878:PMID
786:PMID
763:2024
731:ISBN
688:2007
655:ISBN
624:PMID
573:ISBN
433:Iraq
403:and
356:The
320:alum
68:are
2571:MMR
2414:HPV
2404:BCG
2305:HIV
2265:MMR
2071:HPV
2024:Flu
1927:BCG
1900:PCV
1853:Hib
1808:VSD
1715:DNA
1610:J07
1535:doi
1489:PMC
1481:doi
1435:PMC
1427:doi
1423:194
1186:doi
1137:doi
1129:343
1069:doi
980:doi
870:doi
695:sic
614:PMC
606:doi
439:or
424:GAO
395:in
282:in
220:or
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