170:
941:), threatens to make a single normative understanding of human being the only possible understanding. He writes, "When we regard ourselves as 'machines whose components are biochemicals,' we not only presume to know what our nature permits us to be, but also that this knowledge permits us to answer the question of what is to become of us… This is not a question we were meant to answer, but, rather, a question to which we must remain answerable."
950:
2558:
1206:
conciliatory relationship with formal logic. Its attempt to understand informal reasoning is usually (but not always) couched in natural language, but research in informal logic sometimes employs formal methods and it remains an open question whether the accounts of argument in which informal logic specializes can in principle be formalized.
144:
explains the standard view of what makes this a fallacy as follows: "Even if we can agree that some things are natural and some are not, what follows from this? The answer is: nothing. There is no factual reason to suppose that what is natural is good (or at least better) and what is unnatural is bad
1205:
Informal logic is sometimes presented as a theoretical alternative to formal logic. This kind of characterization may reflect early battles in philosophy departments which debated, sometimes with acrimony, whether informal logic should be considered "real" logic. Today, informal logic enjoys a more
928:
here is a domain of human freedom not dictated by our biological nature, but is somewhat unnerving because it leaves uncomfortably open what kind of beings human beings could become… Put another way: What are we prepared to permit our nature to be? And on what basis should we give our
134:, and likewise for unnatural facts providing reliable value judgments regarding what is bad. Within a limited domain, treating a rule of thumb such as "all else being equal, you should generally try to eat natural foods" as if it is an exceptionless principle can sometimes involve a
975:
It is also common practice for medicine to be brought up as an appeal to nature, stating that medicine is "unnatural" and therefore should not be used. This is particularly notable as an argument employed against the practice of vaccination.
898:, "the laws of nature were regarded not as generalized descriptions of what actually happens in the natural world… but rather as norms that people ought to follow… Thus the appeal to nature tended to mean an appeal to the
904:
treated as a source for norms of conduct. To Greeks this… represented a conscious probing and exploration into an area wherein, according to their whole tradition of thought, lay the true source for norms of conduct."
1499:
1491:
717:
881:
894:
The meaning and importance of various understandings and concepts of "nature" has been a persistent topic of discussion historically in both science and philosophy. In
1325:"The current scientific view of living things is that they are machines whose components are biochemicals." Rodney Brooks, "The relationship between matter and life",
995:
behave. Thus, Singer claims, the moral permissibility or impermissibility of eating meat must be assessed on its own merits, not by appealing to what is "natural".
987:
argues that it is fallacious to say that eating meat is morally acceptable simply because it is part of the "natural way", as the way that humans and other animals
1675:
48:
it is 'unnatural'." In debate and discussion, an appeal-to-nature argument can be considered to be a bad argument, because the implicit primary premise "What is
1680:
874:
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and safe. However, whether or not a product is "natural" is irrelevant, in itself, in determining its safety or effectiveness. For example, many
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1235:
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1715:
1557:
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908:
In modern times, philosophers have challenged the notion that human beings' status as natural beings should determine or dictate their
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Opinions differ regarding appeal to nature in rational argument. By some more permissive views, it can sometimes be taken as a helpful
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1253:"Western Philosophical Schools and Doctrines: Ancient and Medieval Schools: Sophists: Particular Doctrines: Theoretical issues."
1252:
107: – much like the word "normal", in some contexts, it can carry an implicit value judgement. An appeal to nature would thus
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118:
in certain limited domains, even if it admits some exceptions. When such a principle is applied as a rule of thumb, natural
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103:" and "natural" can be vague, leading to unintended associations with other concepts. The word "natural" can also be a
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There would still be an error of reasoning in the assumption that because this process is natural it is right.
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view of living things, articulated by one scientist as that of "machines whose components are biochemicals" (
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Some popular examples of the appeal to nature can be found on labels and advertisements for food, clothing,
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For the ethical argument that it is fallacious to define 'good' in terms of natural properties, see
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Supermarket shelf with four different brands advertising themselves, in some form, as "natural"
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famously suggested that "We do not know what our nature permits us to be." More recently,
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924:(or other kinds of intervention) into the biological basis of human life, writing:
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56:" has no factual meaning beyond rhetoric in some or most contexts.
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The following is a construction of the Appeal to Nature argument:
1342:
Meier, Brian P.; Dillard, Amanda J.; Lappas, Courtney M. (2019).
1539:
1454:(3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 60–61.
1396:
How to Think
Straight: An Introduction to Critical Reasoning
1521:"Of the Colours, or Common Opinions concerning Pleasure."
1344:"Naturally better? A review of the natural-is-better bias"
1302:"Technology's Challenge to Democracy: What of the human?"
1423:"False "balance" on influenza with an appeal to nature"
111:, because the conclusion is entailed by the premise.
1149:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 45.
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2400:
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1985:
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1632:
1588:
1579:
1496:§The "Natural Is Safe" or "Natural Is Better" Myth
1393:
66:
1676:Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise
920:has applied Rousseau's axiom to debates about
1681:Negative conclusion from affirmative premises
1551:
1492:Dietary Supplements: How To Know What Is Safe
1230:. Oxford University Press. pp. 181–182.
1228:Making Sense: Philosophy Behind the Headlines
1218:
1216:
1214:
875:
8:
99:In some contexts, the use of the terms of "
36:technique for presenting and proposing the
2409:
2256:
2131:
1734:
1585:
1558:
1544:
1536:
991:behave naturally has no bearing on how we
882:
868:
837:Collapse of the therapy-enhancement divide
152:
1348:Social and Personality Psychology Compass
1251:Saunders, Jason Lewis (26 October 2008).
1160:
1158:
1156:
972:are compounds that are found in nature.
83:That which is unnatural is bad or wrong.
1482:Nature, Human Nature, and Biotechnology
1135:
160:
69:That which is natural is good or right.
16:Rhetorical tactic and potential fallacy
7:
1337:
1335:
1295:
1293:
1201:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1421:Gavura, Scott (13 February 2014).
14:
122:are presumed to provide reliable
2557:
2556:
1287:, USA: Basic Books, 1979, p. 62.
168:
132:barring evidence to the contrary
1509:A Brief of the Art of Rhetorick
854:Therapy-enhancement distinction
2054:Correlation implies causation
781:Treating executive dysfunction
1:
1195:. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).
1143:Edward Moore, George (1922).
831:Pontifical and Promethean man
674:Undesirability of immortality
1300:Kompridis, Nikolas (2009).
2614:
2478:I'm entitled to my opinion
933:Kompridis writes that the
280:Intelligence amplification
18:
2552:
2461:
2334:
1532:"Of Proofs Inartificial."
1494:American Cancer Society:
1006:Antinaturalism (politics)
2504:Motte-and-bailey fallacy
1604:Affirming the consequent
966:environmentally friendly
543:Brain–computer interface
44:it is 'natural', or bad
2524:Two wrongs make a right
1855:Denying the correlative
1528:4 November 2016 at the
1517:4 November 2016 at the
1284:Emile: or, On education
1281:Jean-Jacques Rousseau,
1257:Encyclopædia Britannica
813:Young blood transfusion
2593:Advertising techniques
2509:Psychologist's fallacy
2446:Argument to moderation
2436:Argument from anecdote
2386:Chronological snobbery
2010:Quoting out of context
1977:Overwhelming exception
1860:Suppressed correlative
1760:Quoting out of context
1635:quantificational logic
1609:Denying the antecedent
1427:Science-Based Medicine
1203:(Fall 2008 ed.).
1112:Vis medicatrix naturae
954:
931:
718:Religious response to
669:Against life extension
653:Frankenstein's monster
554:Man-Computer Symbiosis
548:Deep brain stimulation
412:"Nobelist sperm banks"
377:Polygenic (risk) score
311:germline interventions
145:(or at least worse)."
97:
40:that "a thing is good
2472:The Four Great Errors
2452:Argumentum ad populum
2441:Argument from silence
2145:Argumentum ad baculum
1923:Faulty generalization
1614:Argument from fallacy
1191:Groarke, Leo (2008).
1118:Wild animal suffering
952:
926:
787:Evolutionary humanism
702:That Hideous Strength
638:Stem cell controversy
424:Somatic interventions
2490:Invincible ignorance
2296:Reductio ad Stalinum
2282:Reductio ad Hitlerum
2238:Wisdom of repugnance
2005:Moving the goalposts
1870:Illicit transference
1795:Begging the question
1716:Undistributed middle
1624:Mathematical fallacy
1599:Affirming a disjunct
1400:. Prometheus Books.
922:genetic intervention
912:being. For example,
728:Wisdom of repugnance
692:The Abolition of Man
619:Our Posthuman Future
517:Xanthine derivatives
462:Fetal tissue implant
435:Somatic gene therapy
21:Naturalistic fallacy
2588:Relevance fallacies
2223:Parade of horribles
2199:In-group favoritism
2025:Syntactic ambiguity
1668:Syllogistic fallacy
1591:propositional logic
1498:(Archived from the
1329:409 (2010), p. 410.
798:Anti-aging movement
628:Cloning prohibition
440:for color blindness
380:(technical article)
350:Genetic engineering
345:Genetic enhancement
156:Part of a series on
136:fallacy of accident
2309:Poisoning the well
2126:Proof by assertion
2101:Texas sharpshooter
2035:Questionable cause
1972:Slothful induction
1931:Anecdotal evidence
1791:Circular reasoning
1686:Exclusive premises
1648:Illicit conversion
1360:10.1111/spc3.12494
1167:"Appeal to Nature"
1031:Ethical naturalism
955:
771:Augmented learning
126:regarding what is
2583:Genetic fallacies
2570:
2569:
2548:
2547:
2544:
2543:
2484:Ignoratio elenchi
2396:
2395:
2246:
2245:
2208:Not invented here
1913:Converse accident
1835:Correlative-based
1812:Compound question
1755:False attribution
1750:False equivalence
1724:
1723:
1407:978-1-57392-239-5
1237:978-0-19-280506-5
1171:The Fallacy Files
1081:Predation problem
1076:Norm (philosophy)
1026:Confirmation bias
970:dangerous poisons
918:Nikolas Kompridis
892:
891:
681:Nikolas Kompridis
659:He Jiankui affair
452:Stem-cell therapy
355:Epigenome editing
285:Moral enhancement
162:Human enhancement
94:is bad or wrong.
80:is good or right.
2605:
2560:
2559:
2531:Special pleading
2410:
2271:Appeal to motive
2257:
2233:Stirring symbols
2213:Island mentality
2151:Wishful thinking
2132:
1848:Perfect solution
1825:No true Scotsman
1820:Complex question
1805:Leading question
1784:Question-begging
1770:No true Scotsman
1735:
1658:Quantifier shift
1653:Proof by example
1586:
1560:
1553:
1546:
1537:
1497:
1487:Appeal to Nature
1469:
1468:
1452:Practical Ethics
1444:
1438:
1437:
1435:
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1411:
1399:
1386:
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1323:
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1306:
1297:
1288:
1279:
1273:
1272:
1270:
1268:
1259:. Archived from
1248:
1242:
1241:
1220:
1209:
1208:
1193:"Fallacy Theory"
1188:
1182:
1181:
1179:
1177:
1165:Curtis, Gary N.
1162:
1151:
1150:
1146:Principia Ethica
1140:
981:meat consumption
979:On the topic of
884:
877:
870:
707:
697:
624:
613:Francis Fukuyama
588:Appeal to nature
559:
445:in sports doping
385:Prenatal testing
381:
372:Oocyte selection
310:
172:
153:
109:beg the question
30:appeal to nature
2613:
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2608:
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2514:Rationalization
2457:
2404:
2392:
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2252:Genetic fallacy
2242:
2155:
2130:
2105:
2029:
2020:Sorites paradox
2000:False precision
1981:
1962:Double counting
1917:
1892:
1864:
1829:
1816:Loaded question
1800:Loaded language
1779:
1720:
1662:
1628:
1575:
1564:
1530:Wayback Machine
1519:Wayback Machine
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1478:
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1224:Baggini, Julian
1222:
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1175:
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1164:
1163:
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1142:
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1086:Problem of evil
1046:Green marketing
1011:Antivaccination
1001:
962:herbal remedies
947:
888:
859:
858:
825:Natura naturans
742:
734:
733:
705:
695:
622:
600:Brave New World
593:Bioconservatism
583:
575:
574:
557:
488:Methamphetamine
457:Embryonic cells
425:
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379:
312:
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251:Transhumanistic
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124:value judgments
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2344:Accomplishment
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2098:
2096:Slippery slope
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2017:
2015:Slippery slope
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1997:
1991:
1989:
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1941:Cherry picking
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1503:
1502:18 April 2008)
1489:
1484:
1477:
1476:External links
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1471:
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1461:978-0521707688
1460:
1439:
1413:
1406:
1381:
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1318:
1289:
1274:
1263:on 27 May 2011
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1236:
1210:
1197:Informal Logic
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1066:Neurodiversity
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983:, philosopher
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896:Ancient Greece
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843:Promethean gap
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803:Life extension
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367:Embryo quality
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338:Pre-conception
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234:Posthumanistic
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228:Metahumanistic
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142:Julian Baggini
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15:
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2209:
2205:
2204:Invented here
2202:
2200:
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2127:
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2108:
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2032:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1992:
1990:
1988:
1984:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1967:False analogy
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1954:
1951:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
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1936:Sampling bias
1934:
1932:
1929:
1928:
1926:
1924:
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1911:
1909:
1906:
1905:
1903:
1901:
1900:
1899:Secundum quid
1895:
1889:
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1873:
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1844:
1843:False dilemma
1841:
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1733:
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1717:
1714:
1712:
1711:Illicit minor
1709:
1707:
1706:Illicit major
1704:
1702:
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1507:
1506:Thomas Hobbes
1504:
1501:
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1488:
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1449:
1448:Singer, Peter
1443:
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1354:(8): e12494.
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1136:
1129:
1124:
1119:
1116:
1114:
1113:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1102:
1101:Transhumanism
1099:
1097:
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986:
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967:
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951:
944:
942:
940:
939:Rodney Brooks
936:
930:
925:
923:
919:
915:
911:
906:
903:
902:
901:nature of man
897:
885:
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751:
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749:
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738:
737:
729:
725:
723:
721:
716:
714:
713:"Playing God"
711:
704:
703:
699:
694:
693:
689:
688:
687:
684:
682:
679:
675:
672:
671:
670:
667:
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662:
660:
657:
654:
650:
647:
646:Designer baby
643:
639:
636:
634:
631:
629:
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621:
620:
616:
615:
614:
611:
609:
606:
603:
601:
596:
594:
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579:
578:
571:
568:
564:
561:
555:
551:
549:
546:
544:
541:
540:
539:
538:Brain implant
536:
535:
534:
533:
532:
523:
520:
519:
518:
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511:
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501:
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438:
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433:
431:
428:
427:
421:
420:
413:
410:
409:
404:
403:Sperm sorting
401:
399:
398:Sex selection
396:
394:
392:
388:
386:
383:
378:
375:
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368:
365:
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308:
301:
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291:
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258:
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249:
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235:
232:
229:
225:
223:
220:
218:
215:
213:
210:
208:
205:
203:
200:
198:
197:"Beneficient"
195:
193:
192:
188:
187:
186:
183:
182:
176:
175:
171:
167:
166:
163:
159:
155:
154:
148:
146:
143:
139:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
116:rule of thumb
112:
110:
106:
102:
95:
88:is unnatural.
65:
59:
57:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
35:
31:
26:
22:
2499:Naturalistic
2482:
2470:
2450:
2421:
2405:of relevance
2371:
2348:
2326:Whataboutism
2318:
2294:
2288:Godwin's law
2280:
2260:
2143:
2136:Consequences
2117:Law/Legality
2091:Single cause
2064:
2057:
1897:
1765:Loki's Wager
1745:Equivocation
1738:Equivocation
1508:
1465:
1451:
1442:
1430:. Retrieved
1426:
1416:
1395:
1390:Flew, Antony
1384:
1351:
1347:
1326:
1321:
1312:
1308:
1282:
1277:
1265:. Retrieved
1261:the original
1256:
1246:
1227:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1186:
1174:. Retrieved
1170:
1145:
1138:
1110:
1096:Technophobia
1071:Noble savage
1056:Human nature
1041:Greenwashing
1036:Gender roles
992:
988:
985:Peter Singer
978:
974:
956:
935:naturalistic
932:
927:
907:
900:
893:
849:Technophobia
841:
829:
808:Rejuvenation
786:
776:Deep ecology
762:
754:
747:
719:
700:
690:
664:Hwang affair
617:
599:
587:
570:Neurohacking
531:Neurological
529:
528:
469:
468:
430:Body hacking
390:
317:
306:
265:Biohappiness
259:
246:Preventative
207:Compensatory
202:Emancipatory
190:
184:
140:
131:
113:
98:
68:
63:
53:
49:
45:
41:
29:
27:
25:
2598:Naturopathy
2519:Red herring
2276:Association
1957:Conjunction
1878:Composition
1775:Reification
1691:Existential
1643:Existential
1061:Natural law
1021:Chemophobia
959:alternative
929:permission?
483:Amphetamine
324:Counseling
240:Prometheist
222:Libertarian
217:"Directive"
191:Adaptionist
105:loaded term
90:Therefore,
76:Therefore,
74:is natural.
2577:Categories
2495:Moralistic
2429:Sealioning
2423:Ad nauseam
2350:Ipse dixit
2262:Ad hominem
2086:Regression
1888:Ecological
1701:Four terms
1619:Masked man
1432:30 January
1267:7 February
1130:References
1051:Homophobia
686:C.S. Lewis
608:Chesterton
582:Opposition
500:Nootropics
478:Stimulants
290:Prostheses
212:Democratic
34:rhetorical
2536:Straw man
2414:Arguments
2403:fallacies
2377:Tradition
2367:Etymology
2339:Authority
2320:Tu quoque
2304:Bulverism
2074:Gambler's
2043:Animistic
1987:Ambiguity
1953:Base rate
1696:Necessity
1568:fallacies
1523:Chap. XVI
1376:201321386
1368:1751-9004
1309:Parrhesia
1091:Scientism
910:normative
793:Longevity
633:Leon Kass
563:Neuralink
510:Piracetam
505:Modafinil
391:Selective
318:Selective
185:Rationale
2562:Category
2194:Ridicule
2179:Flattery
2169:Children
2066:Post hoc
1946:McNamara
1908:Accident
1883:Division
1730:Informal
1526:Archived
1515:Archived
1512:Chap. XI
1500:original
1450:(2011).
1392:(1998).
1315:: 20–33.
1226:(2004).
1176:12 April
1106:Vitalism
999:See also
945:Examples
914:Rousseau
820:Natalism
602:Argument
522:Caffeine
471:Chemical
393:abortion
333:Genomic
328:Genetic
307:De facto
275:Eugenics
260:Paradigm
179:Advocacy
38:argument
2381:Novelty
2356:Poverty
2218:Loyalty
2184:Novelty
2161:Emotion
2110:Appeals
2079:Inverse
2059:Cum hoc
2048:Furtive
1566:Common
1016:Carnism
741:Related
493:Ritalin
320:Cloning
270:Cyborgs
149:History
50:natural
46:because
42:because
2466:Cliché
2401:Other
2372:Nature
2360:Wealth
1995:Accent
1581:Formal
1458:
1404:
1374:
1366:
1327:Nature
1234:
993:should
706:(1945)
696:(1943)
623:(2002)
558:(1960)
101:nature
2228:Spite
2122:Stone
1372:S2CID
1305:(PDF)
1125:Notes
757:wombs
120:facts
60:Forms
32:is a
2314:Tone
2189:Pity
2174:Fear
1572:list
1456:ISBN
1434:2019
1402:ISBN
1364:ISSN
1269:2011
1232:ISBN
1178:2020
128:good
54:good
1633:In
1589:In
1356:doi
763:IVG
755:Exo
748:ART
720:ART
362:PGD
52:is
28:An
2579::
2497:/
2379:/
2358:/
2206:/
2124:/
1955:/
1818:/
1814:/
1793:/
1464:.
1425:.
1370:.
1362:.
1352:13
1350:.
1346:.
1334:^
1311:.
1307:.
1292:^
1255:.
1213:^
1199:.
1169:.
1155:^
989:do
556:"
138:.
130:,
1574:)
1570:(
1559:e
1552:t
1545:v
1436:.
1410:.
1378:.
1358::
1313:8
1271:.
1240:.
1180:.
883:e
876:t
869:v
730:"
726:"
722:s
655:"
651:"
648:"
644:"
604:"
597:"
552:"
309:)
305:(
242:"
238:"
230:"
226:"
92:U
86:U
78:N
72:N
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
