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archaeological record and create an unethical working condition for archaeologists to practice and that archaeology applied to the industry of development is itself a threat to the archaeological record. This practice prohibits information gathered from the archaeological record during such projects from being disseminated to the public or academic institutions for further study and peer review. Scarre writes that "collecting items that are surplus to requirements…is academically pointless and morally irresponsible" and it has been interpreted that data collected as a result of cultural resource management fieldwork unavailable to the public through NDA access restrictions creates such a surplus and therefore is ethically problematic.
305:, held a convention in Paris on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property. Many countries joined and it was put into use in 1972. It is important to note that archaeological ethics are not the same around the world and what is considered ethical behavior can vary from culture to culture. Many archaeological organizations around the world require their members to follow a code of ethics; several of these associations, however, do not publish their code of ethics for non-members. Some of these associations include the
372:(EAA), like the Society for American Archaeology in the United States, is an organization which regulates the ethical practice of archaeology across Europe. The EAA requires its members to follow a published code of ethics. The code of ethics requires archaeologists to inform the public of their work, preserve archaeological sites, and evaluate the social and ecological impacts of their work before beginning. This code further provides an ethical framework for conducting contractual archaeology, fieldwork training, and journal publications.
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332:(SAA) is an organization which is dedicated the ethical practice of archaeology and the preservation of archaeological materials in America. The SAA's committee on archaeological ethics continually updates the living document titled Principles of Archaeological Ethics, which was first created in 1966. The SAA registers professional archaeologists who must agree to uphold the code of conduct while conducting research.
2339:
535:, a vase used for mixing wine and water from a collector named Robert Hecht for $ 1,000,000. Hecht provided documentation which after Italian investigations proved to be falsified. This falsification was later confirmed in 2001 when authorities found a handwritten memoir of Hecht's. The Krater had been obtained in an illegal excavation in 1971, likely from an Etruscan tomb. It was purchased from the
2350:
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in
Cambodia have experienced problems with looting. Looting often leads to loss of information as material remains are removed from their original contexts. Examples of archaeological material which has been removed from its place of origin and over which there is now controversy regarding its return
208:
The issue of ownership is paramount in the ethical discussion regarding commercial archaeology. In most circumstances, with the exception of human remains and artifacts associated with burials, ownership of artifacts and other material recovered from archaeological investigations performed within the
589:
is the ethnographic study of people from an archaeological point of view. These studies are typically conducted on material remains from the society in question, is sometimes used in conjunction with traditional archaeology. Ethnoarchaeology presents a unique case, because it deals with the study of
408:
and archaeologists studying their ancestors. The CAA assures ethical archaeological practices among their members by offering a principles of ethics guideline. These principles of ethics focuses on assuring access to knowledge, conserving archaeological sites whenever possible, and promoting ethical
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with private entities. A primary ethical criticism levied against commercial archaeological practices is the prevalence of non-disclosure agreements associated with development projects involving a cultural resource management component. Critics claim that NDA's are a barrier to public access to the
67:
were typically amateurs who would excavate a site with the sole purpose of collecting as many objects as they could for display in museums. Curiosity about past humans and the potential for finding lucrative and fascinating objects justified what many professional archaeologists today would consider
560:
has established a strong ethical argument for only excavating sites threatened with destruction. New technology such as laser scanning has pioneered non-invasive techniques for recording petroglyphs and engravings. Other technology like GPS and Google Earth has revolutionized the way archaeologists
267:
on federal land, allows the US president to declare archaeological sites as national monuments, establishes the government's duty to preserve archaeological sites and make them available for the public, and requires that
Archaeology|archaeologists conducting research must meet the guidelines set by
33:
Archaeologists are bound to conduct their investigations to a high standard and observe intellectual property laws, health and safety regulations, and other legal obligations. Archaeologists in the field are required to work towards the preservation and management of archaeological resources, treat
221:
has determined that "It is unethical for
Professional Archaeologists and academic institutions to conduct professional archaeological work and excavations in occupied areas possessed by force". This resolution has been interpreted to include not only regions where there is active military conflict
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taken to be stored in museums or sold, there is now increasing awareness of taking a more respectful approach. Technical developments in ancient DNA testing have raised more ethical questions in relation to the treatment of these human remains. The issue is not limited to indigenous human remains.
343:
established punishment for archaeological looting, ensured the governments' responsibility to preserve archaeological sites, and created guidelines for conducting archaeological research. The
Historic Sites Act of 1935 further confirmed that the preservation of archaeological sites is of national
430:
Many archaeologists in the West today are employees of national governments or are privately employed instruments of government-derived archaeology legislation. In all cases this legislation is a compromise to some degree or another between the interests of the archaeological remains and the
555:
Another issue is the question of whether unthreatened archaeological remains should be excavated (and therefore destroyed) or preserved intact for future generations to investigate with potentially less invasive technology. Some archaeological guidance such as
519:, and Parliament paid £350,000 for the marbles. Greece has been petitioning to have the marbles returned since 1924, claiming that they were illegally obtained since they were occupied by a foreign force and were not acting in line with the people of Greece.
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While the EAA regulates ethical archaeological practices across Europe, the
British Association for Biological Anthropology and Osteoarchaeology further provides an ethical guideline for British archaeologists who are conducting research with human remains.
425:
Sign displayed before entering an area of the Walton Hall of
Ancient Egypt at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History. The museum invites questions and input regarding ethical displays of human remains. A QR code is featured to access more
141:) was enacted, facilitating the return of certain human remains and sacred objects to lineal descendants and Native American Tribes. Where previously sites of great significance to indigenous peoples could be excavated and burials and
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created as the first act in
America to help regulate archaeological discovery. This act allowed for federal protection of sites from looting but failed to protect native peoples from having their land and ancestral objects seized. The
319:
is a multinational organization that provides accreditation for archaeologists and adjacent professionals. They provide a network which serves to connect archaeologists to each other and to industries which rely upon their expertise.
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has also raised ethical questions regarding the ownership of archaeological artifacts. The market for imported antiquities has encouraged damage to archaeological sites and often led to appeals for the recall. Famous sites such as
38:
activities. Sanctions are in place for those professionals who do not observe these ethical codes. Questions regarding archaeological ethics first began to arise during the 1960s and 1970s in North
America and Western Europe. A
170:
Lion
Attacking a Dromedary Diorama, was found to contain unidentified human remains in 2017. This has brought up concerns of whether it is ethical to display these remains. Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh,
601:
Archaeologists conducting ethnoarchaeology or other types of research involving humans must adhere to a certain code in order to conduct legal and ethical research, however, this code is the same that is followed by
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388:(AAA) is an organization which regulates and promotes archaeology across Australia. The AAA has a published code of ethics which its members must follow. The AAA code of ethics highlights issues such as gaining
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scope of development projects falls to the owner of the property on which the excavation is performed. Many archaeologists consider this to be ethically problematic and a significant barrier to public access.
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438:
The
British Museum's possession of the Parthenon Sculptures, also called the "Elgin Marbles", has been ethically questioned because these sculptures were removed from Greece under contested circumstances.
109:
285:(WAC) is a global organization that holds a congress every four years to discuss recent publications and research as well as to update archaeological practice guidelines and policies. The
421:
392:, rights of indigenous people, and conservation of heritage sites. The AAA code of ethics also states that any member who fails to adhere to the code is subject to disciplinary action.
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30:. This article will touch on human remains, the preservation and laws protecting remains and cultural items, issues around the globe, as well as preservation and ethnoarchaeology.
1906:
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provided federal protection of archaeological sites and established the need for environmental review, ensuring that development does not destroy archaeological material. The
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has also published a separate code of ethics for the protection of the Amazon Forest Peoples. In 1970, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization,
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from encroaching development. Debates about the rights of native peoples to their ancestral belongings occurred throughout the 1980s culminating in the passing of the
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people, which is heavily regulated. Any research dealing with humans must be submitted to an ethics committee for approval under the Nuremberg Code (1947) and the
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The Euphronios Krater was returned to Italy in 2008. It was purchased by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1972, who later found out it had been illegally obtained.
349:
471:
Questions regarding the ethical validity of government heritage policies and whether they sufficiently protect important remains are raised during cases such as
68:
to be unethical archaeological behavior. A shift toward scientific knowledge prompted many early archaeologists to begin documenting their finds. In 1906, the
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constitutes that museums receiving government funding must attempt to return archaeological materials to Native Americans if the natives claim the material.
565:
345:
180:
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606:. There is no specific code for archaeological research involving humans. This has been problematic and some archaeologists resist following a
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in Athens, Greece. Greece was under Ottoman rule at the time when Thomas Bruce, 7th Lord of Elgin, or Lord Elgin, as British Ambassador to the
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graves disturbed by developments, have seen the remains of people with closely connected living relatives being exhumed and taken away.
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ratification to protect world culture in 1970 was one of the earliest actions to implement ethical standards. Archaeologists conducting
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and provided consistent training for professional archaeologists. A series of laws passed in the 1960s and 1970s created the field of
543:, agreed to return the Krater along with several other items to Italy. They arrived back in Italy in 2008, and are on display at the
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404:(CAA) exists to promote archaeological knowledge, promote general interest in archaeology, and to act as a liaison between Canadian
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1313:"Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property"
329:
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74:
568:, which allows for archaeological sites and materials of historical significance to be placed under federal protection, and the
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or the remains of other minority races elsewhere. In November 1990 the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (
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asked that he be able to take some of the marbles to a safer place and was granted that in 1801. They were sold in 1816 to the
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also states that native organizations must be consulted when Native American materials are found or are expected to be found.
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In the United States, several acts have been passed to help preserve archaeological sites. Some of these acts include the
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is a branch of archaeology which attempts to protect archaeological sites from development and construction damage.
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publishes a code of ethics for their archaeologists to follow. Some of the accords which have been adopted by the
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A question of control and ownership over the past has also been raised through the political manipulation of the
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1973:
1505:"Principles of Ethical Conduct | Canadian Archaeological Association / Association canadienne d'archéologie"
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In the United States, the bulk of modern archaeological work is done under the auspices of development by
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Although not formally connected with the modern discipline of archaeology, the international trade in
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Ethical approaches to human remains: a global challenge in bioarchaeology and forensic anthropology
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then smuggled into Switzerland and sold to the museum in New York. In 2006, the museum's director,
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research, which involves the study of living people, are required to follow guidelines set by the
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which focuses on critical evaluation of methods and the implications of archaeology on politics.
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750:, Archaeology between Science and Ideology, University of California Press, pp. 100–116,
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1018:"Carnegie Museum hiding famous 'Lion Attacking a Dromedary' diorama from view | TribLIVE.com"
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and justify military invasion. A famous example is the corps of archaeologists employed by
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297:, and the Tamaki Makau-rau Accord on the Display of Human Remains and Sacred Objects. The
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Fforde, Cressida (2003-08-27). Fforde, Cressida; Hubert, Jane; Turnbull, Paul (eds.).
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Nineteenth and twentieth century burial sites investigated by archaeologists, such as
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was developed in 1934. This organization helped to bring regulation into the field of
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920:"Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (U.S. National Park Service)"
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states that archaeological materials must be preserved once they are discovered. The
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to protect archaeological materials and uphold ethical archaeological research. The
1978:
1825:
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protects archaeological material from looting. The act establishes punishments for
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and mistreated in order to keep an important infrastructure project on schedule.
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to excavate in central Europe in the hope of finding evidence for a region-wide
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Display case of Nubian antiquities in the Musée d'Art et d'Histoire of Geneva.
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Early Bronze Age IA shaft tombs disturbed by looters, Bab edh-Dhra cemetery.
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issues raised through the study of the material past. It is a branch of the
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1287:"Fight Illicit Trafficking, Return & Restitution of Cultural Property"
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but regions who have been in conflict in the past and are currently under
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35:
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1926:
979:
1603:"What's in a title? It's time to reframe the Parthenon Marbles debate"
507:, include a series of stone sculptures and friezes that were from the
1070:"Section 106 Regulations | Advisory Council on Historic Preservation"
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40:
855:
Squires, Kirsty; Errickson, David; Marquez-Grant, Nicholas (2020).
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23:
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1476:"Code of Ethics | Australian Archaeological Association | AAA"
93:. The rise of ethics in archaeology was spurred by a shift in
1176:
661:
628:
The Code of Ethics of the Archaeological Institute of America
117:
on display at The Liberation War Museum in Dhaka, Bangladesh.
183:. Guidance for compliance with Section 106 is provided by
354:
Native American Graves Repatriation Act of 1990 (NAGPRA)
1530:"The Bodies Buried Beneath Boris Johnson's New Railway"
1389:
1360:
570:
Archaeological Resources Protection Act (ARPA) of 1979
91:
Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act
34:
human remains with dignity and respect, and encourage
1152:
Cultural Heritage Ethics: Between Theory and Practice
179:
archaeologists in compliance with Section 106 of the
125:
has been the treatment of human remains found during
1907:
Conservation and restoration of archaeological sites
980:"Editor's Notes: On mtDNA and Archaeological Ethics"
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research are too different to follow the same code.
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2017:
1966:
1957:
1879:
1791:
1228:"A Cruel Race to Loot the Splendor That Was Angkor"
716:"NPS Archeology Program: Archeology Law and Ethics"
129:, especially those that represent the ancestors of
1686:"ASC : What is Cultural Resource Management?"
662:Social Anthropology of the UK and the Commonwealth
633:Institute of Field Archaeologists Code of Conduct
1361:"Register of Professional Archaeologists - Home"
1267:"Code of Ethics – World Archaeological Congress"
1102:Hutchings, Rich; La Salle, Marina (2015-12-01).
561:find and record potential archaeological sites.
335:The United States government continually passes
293:code of ethics include the Dead Sea Accord, the
1203:Archaeology: A Very Short Introduction (2nd ed)
1108:International Journal of Historical Archaeology
782:. Informed Consent in a Changing Environment.
350:Archaeological Resource Protection Act of 1979
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1205:. Oxford University Press. pp. 107–108.
185:The Advisory Council on Historic Preservation
8:
880:Mar 2017, Michael Balter / 30 (2017-03-30).
904:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
317:The Register of Professional Archaeologists
1963:
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1480:australianarchaeologicalassociation.com.au
566:National Historic Preservation act of 1966
346:National Historic Preservation Act of 1966
503:The Parthenon marbles, also known as the
667:The Economic and Social Research Council
647:National Park Service Archeology Program
417:National and international controversies
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226:, for example, North and South America
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1554:"How did the Elgin Marbles get here?"
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882:"The Ethical Battle Over Ancient DNA"
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594:(1964). Researchers must also obtain
386:Australian Archaeological Association
272:Laws and protections around the world
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1149:Scarre, Geoffrey (13 October 2014).
1104:"Archaeology as Disaster Capitalism"
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311:Japanese Archaeological Association
191:Impacts of nondisclosure agreements
16:Branch of archaeological philosophy
1528:Mead, Rebecca (16 February 2020).
431:interests of economic development.
295:Vermillion Accord on Human Remains
181:National Historic Preservation Act
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1579:"Elgin Marbles | Greek sculpture"
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1394:Society for American Archaeology
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652:Society for American Archaeology
330:Society for American Archaeology
204:Private property and development
195:Much of this work is subject to
162:Ethics in commercial archaeology
75:Society for American Archaeology
59:History of ethics in archaeology
984:Canadian Journal of Archaeology
792:10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.08.003
531:in New York City purchased the
479:where burials at a cemetery at
268:the Secretary of the Interior.
1628:"Euphronios (Sarpedon) Krater"
1445:"Ethics and Standards - BABAO"
946:The Dead and their Possessions
842:Encyclopedia of Applied Ethics
774:Parker, Michael (2007-12-01).
598:from their research subjects.
1:
844:. Elsevier. pp. 179–188.
780:Social Science & Medicine
307:Korean Archaeological Society
283:World Archaeological Congress
219:World Archaeological Congress
1922:electrical resistance survey
1652:"Top 10 Plundered Artifacts"
978:Nicholas, George P. (2005).
576:Cultural resource management
177:cultural resource management
113:Human remains from the 1971
83:cultural resource management
1734:"Human Research Protection"
1226:Perlez, Jane (2005-03-21).
483:were hurriedly dug using a
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1811:Johann Joachim Winckelmann
582:Ethics in ethnoarchaeology
529:Metropolitan Museum of Art
481:St Pancras railway station
259:In the United States, the
121:A common ethical issue in
2376:Philosophy of archaeology
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1892:Philosophy of archaeology
1120:10.1007/s10761-015-0308-3
1043:"Archaeology as a Career"
742:Galor, Katharina (2017),
643:Archeology Law and Ethics
213:Colonization and conflict
197:non-disclosure agreements
28:philosophy of archaeology
1155:. Open Book Publishers.
1607:www.theartnewspaper.com
1583:Encyclopedia Britannica
1509:canadianarchaeology.com
840:Chadwick, Ruth (2012).
756:10.1525/j.ctt1pq349g.13
744:"Archaeological Ethics"
592:Declaration of Helsinki
341:Antiquities Act of 1906
53:Declaration of Helsinki
2381:Methods in archaeology
638:Ethics and archaeology
610:code by claiming that
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1902:Archaeological ethics
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20:Archaeological ethics
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1836:William Henry Holmes
1801:Archaeological sites
776:"Ethnography/ethics"
413:and archaeologists.
87:archaeological sites
2386:Professional ethics
1831:John Lloyd Stephens
1821:Heinrich Schliemann
1632:Trafficking Culture
1201:Bahn, Paul (2013).
1024:. 17 September 2020
115:Bangladesh genocide
45:ethnoarchaeological
2355:History portal
1917:geophysical survey
1710:"Ethnoarchaeology"
1232:The New York Times
859:. Cham: Springer.
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1880:Method and theory
1317:portal.unesco.org
1162:978-1-78374-067-3
866:978-3-03-032926-6
786:(11): 2248–2259.
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230:Antiquities trade
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1690:web.sonoma.edu
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1660:. 2009-03-05.
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63:The earliest
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2193:Archaeometry
2167:Experimental
2101:Near Eastern
2060:Near Eastern
2055:Mesopotamian
2009:Contemporary
1901:
1826:Arthur Evans
1741:. Retrieved
1737:
1728:
1717:. Retrieved
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1704:
1693:. Retrieved
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1562:. Retrieved
1560:. 2014-12-05
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545:Villa Giulia
526:
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473:High Speed 1
470:
457:Adolf Hitler
446:
429:
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252:include the
241:
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2273:Transgender
2198:Battlefield
1974:Prehistoric
1934:Burnt layer
1871:George Bass
1785:Archaeology
1421:"EAA Codes"
1297:October 20,
453:nationalism
451:to promote
411:Aboriginals
406:Aboriginals
337:legislation
244:antiquities
127:excavations
79:archaeology
2370:Categories
2296:by country
2228:Industrial
2223:Indigenous
2172:Underwater
2118:Calceology
2040:Australian
2018:Geographic
2004:Historical
1939:Excavation
1743:2020-09-29
1719:2020-09-29
1695:2020-11-11
1671:2020-10-27
1637:2020-10-27
1613:2020-10-20
1588:2020-10-20
1564:2020-10-20
1539:2020-07-31
1514:2020-10-30
1485:2020-10-30
1454:2020-10-30
1430:2020-10-30
1399:2020-10-07
1370:2020-11-01
1365:rpanet.org
1346:2020-10-20
1322:2020-10-20
1291:Unesco.org
1272:2020-10-30
1245:2020-07-31
1182:2020-11-01
1079:2020-11-01
1052:2020-11-01
1028:2020-11-02
929:2020-07-12
891:2020-07-12
761:2020-07-31
725:2020-07-31
673:References
249:Angkor Wat
131:aboriginal
2233:Landscape
2106:Osteology
1989:Classical
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1136:142960882
1128:1573-7748
996:0705-2006
800:0277-9536
645:from the
547:in Rome.
509:Parthenon
463:culture.
380:Australia
143:artifacts
135:New World
2343:Category
2325:Journals
2243:Mortuary
2238:Maritime
2213:Funerary
2208:Feminist
2203:Conflict
2181:Thematic
2096:Medieval
2050:Egyptian
2045:Oceanian
2030:American
1994:Medieval
1984:Biblical
1861:Max Uhle
1558:BBC News
1004:41103512
900:cite web
808:17854966
309:and the
277:Globally
97:towards
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36:outreach
2303:Periods
2138:Virtual
2123:Digital
2025:African
1927:Sondage
1793:History
1738:apa.org
924:nps.gov
886:SAPIENS
720:nps.gov
443:Germany
324:America
2292:Sites
2218:Gender
2081:Aerial
2065:Nubian
1912:Survey
1664:
1390:"Home"
1293:. 2019
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491:Greece
477:London
396:Canada
364:Europe
358:NAGPRA
303:UNESCO
139:NAGPRA
41:UNESCO
2286:Lists
2268:Queer
2248:Music
2035:Asian
1132:S2CID
1000:JSTOR
752:JSTOR
523:Italy
461:Aryan
24:moral
2253:Nazi
1662:ISSN
1657:Time
1299:2020
1236:ISSN
1207:ISBN
1157:ISBN
1124:ISSN
992:ISSN
959:ISBN
906:link
861:ISBN
804:PMID
796:ISSN
614:and
400:The
384:The
368:The
328:The
281:The
217:The
1714:obo
1116:doi
951:doi
788:doi
485:JCB
475:in
299:WAC
291:WAC
287:WAC
171:PA.
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