2364:
1215:
1695:
2302:
1518:. Not only is its historical information most interesting and valuable, but its descriptions of many parts of the earth are still authoritative. For three centuries geographers copied his maps without alteration. The relative position of the lakes which form the Nile, as delineated in his work, does not differ greatly from that established by Baker and Stanley more than seven hundred years afterwards, and their number is the same. The mechanical genius of the author was not inferior to his erudition. The celestial and terrestrial
1381:
2388:
2403:
2287:
2333:
1838:
2317:
2348:
5697:
5709:
778:
46:
5733:
5721:
1407:, so the accuracy of his estimate compared to the modern value depends on what conversion is used for cubits. The exact length of a cubit is not clear; with an 18 inch cubit his estimate would be 3,600 miles, whereas with a 22 inch cubit his estimate would be 4,200 miles. One significant problem with this approach is that Al-Biruni was not aware of
1403:(present-day Pakistan). He used trigonometry to calculate the radius of the Earth using measurements of the height of a hill and measurement of the dip in the horizon from the top of that hill. His calculated radius for the Earth of 3928.77 miles was 2% higher than the actual mean radius of 3847.80 miles. His estimate was given as 12,803,337
1121:, Jayhani based his book primarily on the data he had collected himself, but also reused Khordadbeh's work to a considerable extent. Unlike the Balkhi school, geographers of the Khordadbeh–Jayhani tradition sought to describe the whole world as they knew it, including the lands, societies and cultures of non-Muslims. As
1872:
reference to a compass, in the form of magnetic needle in a bowl of water, comes from a work by Baylak al-Qibjāqī, written in 1282 while in Cairo. Al-Qibjāqī described a needle-and-bowl compass used for navigation on a voyage he took from Syria to
Alexandria in 1242. Since the author describes having
1522:
of silver which he constructed for his royal patron was nearly six feet in diameter, and weighed four hundred and fifty pounds; upon the one side the zodiac and the constellations, upon the other—divided for convenience into segments—the bodies of land and water, with the respective situations of the
1116:
910s) were at the basis of a new Perso-Arab tradition in Persia and
Central Asia. The exact relationship between the books of Khordadbeh and Jayhani is unknown, because the two books had the same title, have often been mixed up, and Jayhani's book has been lost, so that it can only be approximately
1498:
and paid draftsmen to make journeys and map their routes. The book describes the Earth as a sphere with a circumference of 22,900 miles (36,900 km) but maps it in 70 rectangular sections. Notable features include the correct dual sources of the Nile, the coast of Ghana and mentions of Norway.
1250:
The maps by the Balkhī schools were defined by political, not longitudinal boundaries and covered only the Muslim world. In these maps the distances between various "stops" (cities or rivers) were equalized. The only shapes used in designs were verticals, horizontals, 90-degree angles, and arcs of
1269:
Al-Idrīsī defined his maps differently. He considered the extent of the known world to be 160° and had to symbolize 50 dogs in longitude and divided the region into ten parts, each 16° wide. In terms of latitude, he portioned the known world into seven 'climes', determined by the length of the
1950:
during this time. In 1399, an
Egyptian reports two different kinds of magnetic compass. One instrument is a “fish” made of willow wood or pumpkin, into which a magnetic needle is inserted and sealed with tar or wax to prevent the penetration of water. The other instrument is a dry compass.
1979:
suggested that Arab and
Persian traders, who learned about the polarity of the magnetic needle from the Chinese, applied the compass for navigation before the Chinese did. However, Needham described this theory as "erroneous" and "it originates because of a mistranslation" of the term
2502:
A prominent feature of the achievement of Muslim scholars in mathematical geography and cartography was the invention of scientific instruments of measurement. Among these were the astrolab (astrolabe), the ruba (quadrant), the gnomon, the celestial sphere, the sundial, and the
2477:
1133:
criticised
Jayhani for overemphasising geological features of landscapes, stars and geometry, taxation systems, trade roads and stations allegedly few people used, while ignoring major population centres, provinces and military roads and forces.
1911:(khaṭṭ niṣf al-nahār), and the Qibla. This is the first mention of a compass in a medieval Islamic scientific text and its earliest known use as a Qibla indicator, although al-Ashraf did not claim to be the first to use it for this purpose.
1443:
must surely have given rise to lands in the vast ocean between Asia and Europe. He also theorized that at least some of the unknown landmass would lie within the known latitudes which humans could inhabit, and therefore would be inhabited.
1411:
and made no allowance for it. He used a dip angle of 34 arc minutes in his calculations, but refraction can typically alter the measured dip angle by about 1/6, making his calculation only accurate to within about 20% of the true value.
2363:
888:(variously dated between the 8th century and 16th century). Muslim scholars made advances to the map-making traditions of earlier cultures, explorers and merchants learned in their travels across the
1627:. The earliest surviving world maps based on a rectangular coordinate grid are attributed to al-Mustawfi in the 14th or 15th century (who used invervals of ten degrees for the lines), and to
2387:
4436:
2402:
4894:
5624:
1772:
856:
1034:
in the 9th century. These works stimulated an interest in geography (particularly gazetteers) but were not slavishly followed. Instead, Arabian and
Persian cartography followed
1922:
Ibn Simʿūn describes a dry compass used for determining qibla. Like
Peregrinus' compass, however, Ibn Simʿūn's compass did not feature a compass card. In the 14th century, the
4899:
3742:
4084:
1668:(1304–1368?) wrote "Rihlah" (Travels) based on three decades of journeys, covering more than 120,000 km through northern Africa, southern Europe, and much of Asia.
5764:
4921:
2301:
1611:
or cylindrical equidistant projection. The earliest surviving rectangular coordinate map is dated to the 13th century and is attributed to
Hamdallah al-Mustaqfi al-
1612:
4723:
4009:
3964:
3847:
King, David A. (December 2003), "14th-Century
England or 9th-Century Baghdad? New Insights on the Elusive Astronomical Instrument Called Navicula de Venetiis",
2679:
2571:
1490:
and explorers with the information inherited from the classical geographers to create the most accurate map of the world in pre-modern times. With funding from
925:
Islamic geography began in the 8th century, influenced by
Hellenistic geography, combined with what explorers and merchants learned in their travels across the
3423:...that the floating fish-shaped iron leaf spread outside China as a technique, we know from the description of Muhammad al' Awfi just two hundred years later
1117:
reconstructed from the works of other authors (mostly from the eastern parts of the Islamic world) who seem to have reused some of its contents. According to
4936:
4452:
4067:
2012:
1011:. Al-Mamun also commanded the production of a large map of the world, which has not survived, though it is known that its map projection type was based on
753:
1791:
315 (927–28 AD). In the Islamic world, astrolabes were used to find the times of sunrise and the rising of fixed stars, to help schedule morning prayers (
1198:, wrote extensively of the peoples, products, and customs of areas in the Muslim world, with little interest in the non-Muslim realms, and produced world
5036:
2021:
1109:
849:
3871:
In Synchrony with the Heavens, Studies in Astronomical Timekeeping and Instrumentation in Medieval Islamic Civilization: Instruments of Mass Calculation
2332:
1280:
5675:
4926:
4728:
4552:
2175:
1353:
4948:
4444:
2286:
4904:
4864:
2868:
2849:
2659:
1395:(973–1048) devised a novel method of determining the Earth's radius by means of the observation of the height of a mountain. He carried it out at
1166:("climes" or provinces). Balkhi and his followers reoriented geographic knowledge in order to bring it in line with certain concepts found in the
1092:. However, this type of projection had been used in ancient Egyptian star-maps and was not to be fully developed until the 15 and 16th centuries.
1907:, al-Ashraf includes several paragraphs on the construction of a compass bowl (ṭāsa). He then uses the compass to determine the north point, the
4931:
4036:
4943:
4886:
3779:
3633:
3406:
3285:
3228:
3119:
Hermann A. Die älteste türkische Weltkarte (1076 η. Ch.) // Imago Mundi: Jahrbuch der Alten Kartographie. — Berlin, 1935. — Bd.l. — S. 21—28.
2633:
2581:
2495:
842:
3476:
Savage-Smith, Emilie (1988). "Gleanings from an Arabist's Workshop: Current Trends in the Study of Medieval Islamic Science and Medicine".
1873:
witnessed the use of a compass on a ship trip some forty years earlier, some scholars are inclined to antedate its first appearance in the
1084:(973–1048) later developed ideas which are seen as an anticipation of the polar coordinate system. Around 1025, he describes a polar equi-
2347:
2316:
5784:
3333:
1439:'s size, which he found spanned only two-fifths of the Earth's circumference, reasoning that the geological processes that gave rise to
1702:
Muslim scholars invented and refined a number of scientific instruments in mathematical geography and cartography. These included the
5737:
3064:
4622:
3978:
3904:
3882:
3730:
3534:
3104:
3002:
2527:
1129:, Jayhani's diplomatic correspondence allowed him to collect much valuable information from people in faraway lands. Nevertheless,
992:
5670:
5634:
4869:
4809:
4708:
4150:
1320:, while al-Khwarizmi almost correctly estimated it at nearly 50 degrees of longitude. Al-Ma'mun's geographers "also depicted the
1085:
2199:
1679:
1081:
933:). Muslim scholars engaged in extensive exploration and navigation during the 9th-12th centuries, including journeys across the
5769:
5759:
4837:
4060:
746:
4355:
5629:
5383:
5029:
4242:
4165:
1487:
717:
404:
4350:
3993:: Mathematische Geographie und Kartographie im Islam und ihr Fortleben im Abendland, Historische Darstellung, Teil 1–3
1214:
5489:
4703:
4545:
3722:
History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Volume IV. The age of achievement: A. D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century
1762:
1352:. Most medieval Muslim geographers continued to use al-Khwarizmi's prime meridian. Other prime meridians used were set by
1263:
1053:
515:
4211:
3919:
Hudud al-'Alam, The Regions of the World A Persian Geography, 372 A.H. - 982 A.D. translated and explained by V. Minorsky
1868:. The fish-shaped iron leaf described indicates that this early Chinese design has spread outside of China. The earliest
1045:
Having received Greek writings directly and without Latin intermediation, Arabian and Persian geographers made no use of
5655:
5416:
4964:
4640:
945:. Various Islamic scholars contributed to the development of geography and cartography, with the most notable including
442:
1301:, consisting of a list of 2402 coordinates of cities and other geographical features following a general introduction.
5779:
5774:
5074:
5059:
4909:
4859:
4842:
4799:
4794:
4698:
4650:
4401:
3138:
1742:
1694:
722:
670:
1537:
in Arabic, served as a major tool for Italian, Dutch and French mapmakers from the 16th century to the 18th century.
3129:
Barmore, Frank E. (April 1985), "Turkish Mosque Orientation and the Secular Variation of the Magnetic Declination",
4742:
4597:
4053:
3220:
1608:
1357:
1057:
1008:
739:
5531:
5022:
2677:
King, David A. (1996). "Astronomy and Islamic society: Qibla, gnomics and timekeeping". In Rashed, Roshdi (ed.).
816:
557:
110:
4832:
4538:
4309:
3259:
2854:
2664:
2440:
1234:
950:
4252:
1753:. It was widely used throughout the Muslim world, chiefly as an aid to navigation and as a way of finding the
1432:
5639:
5604:
5546:
5069:
3937:
3896:
3022:
1243:
1069:
826:
643:
630:
572:
120:
1380:
5459:
5426:
5174:
5104:
4713:
4468:
4045:
2435:
1832:
1808:
1408:
1061:
905:
806:
484:
452:
218:
148:
100:
3449:
1877:
accordingly. Al-Qibjāqī also reports that sailors in the Indian Ocean used iron fish instead of needles.
5581:
5421:
5393:
5274:
5124:
1837:
1707:
606:
447:
414:
361:
168:
5725:
2896:
1291:("Book on the appearance of the Earth") was completed in 833. It is a revised and completed version of
5599:
5571:
5472:
5450:
5408:
5308:
5179:
5169:
5139:
5109:
5079:
5064:
5048:
4804:
4655:
4582:
4499:
4283:
4190:
3751:
3177:
2430:
1959:
1908:
1675:
1392:
1297:
1029:
988:
811:
791:
786:
769:
650:
625:
597:
498:
432:
223:
213:
183:
153:
105:
80:
73:
62:
4033:
2844:
1251:
circles; unnecessary geographical details were eliminated. This approach is similar to that used in
5680:
5665:
5360:
5265:
5206:
5189:
5164:
5114:
4750:
4587:
4516:
4487:
4475:
4104:
3849:
3763:
3242:
2840:
2654:
2650:
2625:
2043:
979:. An important influence in the development of cartography was the patronage of the Abbasid caliph
727:
379:
250:
233:
208:
158:
85:
5708:
1499:
Climate zones were a chief organizational principle. A second and shortened copy from 1192 called
5701:
5561:
5511:
5350:
5221:
5184:
5159:
5149:
5144:
5129:
5119:
4824:
4718:
4602:
4324:
4247:
4221:
4145:
3836:
3808:
3585:
3503:
3364:
3263:
3150:
3018:
2960:
2942:
2888:
2369:
2354:
2259:
2229:
2211:
2080:
1888:
1765:
1738:
1635:
1515:
1491:
1461:
1256:
1238:
1143:
962:
909:
897:
885:
831:
821:
697:
660:
655:
587:
537:
366:
268:
228:
203:
193:
188:
173:
163:
125:
115:
4406:
4360:
4028:
1962:. An explicit value for the declination is given by ʿIzz al-Dīn al-Wafāʾī (fl. 1450s in Cairo).
1035:
946:
3610:
3168:
Martin, L. C. (1923), "Surveying and navigational instruments from the historical standpoint",
2570:
Kennedy, Edward S. (1996). "Mathematical Geography". In Rashed, Roshdi; Morelon, Régis (eds.).
5431:
5251:
5211:
4665:
4660:
4632:
4391:
4114:
4003:
3996:
3974:
3913:
3900:
3878:
3775:
3726:
3629:
3530:
3495:
3402:
3281:
3224:
3212:
3193:
3100:
3094:
2998:
2992:
2629:
2577:
2523:
2491:
1943:
1885:
1841:
1804:
1671:
1604:
1495:
1309:
1178:, and ignored the non-Islamic world. This distinguished them from earlier geographers such as
958:
665:
457:
351:
313:
255:
3944:
3626:
Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 1, Physics
3330:
1233:
Islamic regional cartography is usually categorized into three groups: that produced by the "
5713:
5526:
5398:
5283:
5201:
5134:
4767:
4690:
4461:
4422:
4140:
4135:
3874:
3858:
3828:
3800:
3771:
3577:
3487:
3319:
3185:
3142:
2952:
2880:
2613:
2483:
2379:
2374:
2187:
2032:
1857:
1788:
1780:
1715:
1466:
1455:
1365:
1089:
801:
552:
419:
304:
245:
178:
95:
57:
3523:"Ashraf: al-Malik al-Ashraf (Mumahhid al-Dīn) ʿUmar ibn Yūsuf ibn ʿUmar ibn ʿAlī ibn Rasūl"
3355:
Kreutz, Barbara M. (1973) "Mediterranean Contributions to the Medieval Mariner's Compass",
5494:
5287:
5194:
5096:
5001:
4617:
4561:
4278:
4040:
3337:
3072:
2253:
2223:
1985:
1976:
1869:
1400:
1012:
984:
942:
520:
308:
238:
138:
2614:
2479:
Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures
1186:, who described the whole world as they knew it. The geographers of this school, such as
3755:
3568:
Tibbetts, G. R. (1973). "Comparisons between Arab and Chinese Navigational Techniques".
3181:
1308:'s most famous geographer, corrected Ptolemy's gross overestimate for the length of the
1072:
to a different coordinate system centred on a specific point on the sphere, in this the
5556:
5551:
5516:
5436:
5378:
5239:
4996:
4854:
4612:
4592:
4293:
4130:
3917:
3791:
3478:
2869:"Nation, identity and the fascination with forensic science in Sherlock Holmes and CSI"
2193:
2007:
1643:
1620:
1584:
1560:
1337:
1321:
1316:
to the eastern shores of the Mediterranean); Ptolemy overestimated it at 63 degrees of
1313:
1179:
1126:
1118:
1101:
1065:
1039:
1004:
987:, determining the distance on Earth that corresponds to one degree of latitude along a
938:
702:
582:
577:
542:
462:
399:
288:
3862:
5753:
5521:
5484:
5313:
5260:
4814:
4607:
4493:
4314:
4273:
4185:
3930:
3840:
3812:
3604:
3589:
3189:
3154:
2964:
2892:
2487:
2409:
2065:
1927:
1616:
1552:
1546:
1419:(1037), Al-Biruni theorized the existence of a landmass along the vast ocean between
1252:
1219:
692:
680:
547:
510:
332:
322:
3542:
3522:
3507:
1042:
several degrees eastward, and modifying many of Ptolemy's geographical coordinates.
5660:
5499:
5336:
5255:
5244:
5229:
5154:
4986:
4319:
4288:
4180:
4175:
4099:
2699:
2393:
2235:
2181:
2142:
1947:
1865:
1853:
1647:
1628:
1624:
1572:
1479:
1436:
1325:
1191:
1158:, had a conservative and religious character: it was only interested in describing
1007:
used in the Hellenistic world. These efforts also enabled Muslims to calculate the
934:
930:
893:
881:
525:
317:
293:
278:
198:
1799:
first described over 1,000 different uses of an astrolabe, in areas as diverse as
1619:
parallel lines were separated by one degree intervals, and the map was limited to
1603:
Suhrāb, a late 10th-century Muslim geographer, accompanied a book of geographical
1305:
980:
3720:
1844:'s diagram of the compass and Qibla. From MS Cairo TR 105, copied in Yemen, 1293.
983:, who reigned from 813 to 833. He commissioned several geographers to perform an
5589:
5541:
5536:
5477:
5467:
5279:
5269:
4680:
4569:
4329:
2247:
2241:
2169:
2131:
1860:
talebook from 1232, where a compass is used for navigation during a trip in the
1665:
1519:
996:
901:
877:
777:
615:
567:
562:
503:
493:
346:
300:
45:
3832:
1938:
and a magnetic compass. He invented it for the purpose of finding the times of
1768:
is the first person credited with building the astrolabe in the Islamic world.
17:
5594:
5344:
5322:
5297:
5292:
4268:
4170:
4109:
3581:
2323:
2217:
2163:
2115:
2105:
1900:
1874:
1659:
1651:
1567:. Approximately one third of the map survives; it shows the western coasts of
1431:. He argued for its existence on the basis of his accurate estimations of the
1345:
1195:
620:
337:
3197:
2884:
2396:'s atlas of the world (14th century), a manuscript copied in the 17th century
1958:
while aligning the compass with the pole star indicates that he was aware of
1348:(the prime meridian previously set by Ptolemy) and 70 degrees to the west of
5566:
5388:
5368:
5331:
5327:
5045:
4874:
4577:
4396:
4206:
4155:
3970:
3819:
King, David A. (2002), "A Vetustissimus Arabic Text on the Quadrans Vetus",
3280:. Trans. Joe Laredo. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 74.
3217:
The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: a Sourcebook
2930:
2684:
2413:
2292:
2271:
2265:
2038:
1955:
1812:
1800:
1734:
1703:
1655:
1639:
1564:
1556:
1494:(1097–1154), al-Idrisi drew on the knowledge collected at the University of
1385:
1341:
1317:
1270:
longest day. In his maps, many dominant geographical features can be found.
1203:
1183:
1130:
954:
926:
889:
873:
685:
675:
592:
475:
409:
389:
356:
342:
37:
3499:
1388:
to estimate the radius and circumference of the Earth in the 11th century.
995:). Thus his patronage resulted in the refinement of the definition of the
5340:
4365:
4216:
4160:
2621:
2417:
2205:
2157:
2095:
2049:
1904:
1588:
1483:
1428:
1259:
1227:
1187:
1155:
1024:
896:). Islamic geography had three major fields: exploration and navigation,
4024:
1344:
at the eastern shore of the Mediterranean, 10–13 degrees to the east of
5504:
5373:
5317:
5301:
5234:
4969:
4787:
4782:
4375:
4370:
4226:
3712:
3399:
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam
3368:
2956:
2059:
1935:
1919:
1861:
1849:
1796:
1750:
1746:
1723:
1719:
1440:
1396:
1349:
1292:
1151:
1046:
1016:
976:
969:
530:
394:
327:
283:
3324:
3307:
3278:
Celestial Treasury: From the Music of Spheres to the Conquest of Space
4991:
4979:
4974:
4738:
4645:
4334:
1711:
1580:
1576:
1568:
1475:
1424:
1404:
1361:
1175:
1122:
972:
2723:
2721:
2719:
2717:
2715:
2713:
2595:
2593:
1973:("qibla instrument") for a device used for orienting towards Mecca.
5014:
3804:
3740:
Douglas, A. Vibert (1973), "Al-Biruni, Persian Scholar, 973–1048",
3491:
3397:
Schmidl, Petra G. (2014-05-08). "Compass". In Ibrahim Kalin (ed.).
3146:
1745:
introduced angular scales to the design, adding circles indicating
4847:
4777:
4760:
4530:
4481:
3932:
The Development of the Rudder, A.D. 100-1337: A Technological Tale
2947:
1939:
1923:
1915:
1896:
1892:
1881:
1836:
1820:
1816:
1792:
1758:
1754:
1693:
1683:
1592:
1579:
with reasonable accuracy. Various Atlantic islands, including the
1369:
1329:
1213:
1199:
1171:
1167:
1147:
1077:
1073:
2789:
2787:
2092:("Similitudes and Images of the Earth"), written in 920 or after
1771:
The mathematical background was established by Muslim astronomer
1472:
The Recreation for Him Who Wishes to Travel Through the Countries
4772:
4755:
4675:
4670:
3686:
3684:
2785:
2783:
2781:
2779:
2777:
2775:
2773:
2771:
2769:
2767:
2742:
2740:
2738:
2736:
2520:
Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and South Asian Societies
1931:
1420:
5018:
4534:
4049:
1333:
1965:
Premodern Arabic sources refer to the compass using the term
1162:("Islamic lands"), which the school divided into 20 or more
44:
3266:, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation, 2005.
3096:
Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia
2810:
2808:
2806:
2804:
2802:
2126:("The Finest Divisions Concerning Knowledge of the Climes")
1607:
with instructions for making a rectangular world map, with
3647:
3645:
3331:
http://www.uib.no/jais/v001ht/01-081-132schmidl1.htm#_ftn4
3093:
Glick, Thomas F.; Livesey, Steven; Wallis, Faith (2014).
1038:
in adopting a rectangular projection, shifting Ptolemy's
3725:. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publications. p. 745.
3351:
3349:
3347:
3345:
2476:
Buang, Amriah (2014). "Geography in the Islamic World".
1142:
The Balkhī school of terrestrial mapping, originated by
4077:
Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world
3789:
King, David A. (1983), "The Astronomy of the Mamluks",
3606:
Ancient history of China to the end of the Chóu dynasty
3570:
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
1642:, where he illuminated the cities and places of the
1528:
S. P. Scott, History of the Moorish Empire in Europe
1285:
5648:
5617:
5580:
5458:
5449:
5407:
5359:
5220:
5095:
5088:
4957:
4885:
4823:
4737:
4689:
4631:
4568:
4509:
4435:
4415:
4384:
4343:
4302:
4261:
4235:
4199:
4123:
4092:
4083:
3743:
Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada
3609:. New York, The Columbia university press. p.
1634:In the 11th century, the Karakhanid Turkic scholar
1384:Diagram illustrating a method proposed and used by
3308:"Two Early Arabic Sources On The Magnetic Compass"
1678:by the 15th century, when the Egyptian astronomer
2599:
1510:On the work of al-Idrisi, S. P. Scott commented:
1336:as Ptolemy had done. " Al-Khwarizmi thus set the
3276:Lachièz-Rey, Marc; Luminet, Jean-Pierre (2001).
1779:(c. 920 AD), which was translated into Latin by
3709:Arab geography in the ninth and tenth centuries
3628:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 279–80.
3023:"So, Who Did Discover America? | History Today"
1512:
3663:
3450:"Early Arabic Sources on the Magnetic Compass"
2997:. Harvard University Press. pp. 216–217.
2793:
2746:
2727:
1954:In the 15th century, the description given by
1514:The compilation of Edrisi marks an era in the
1241:, and the type that are uniquely found in the
5625:Geographic data and information organizations
5030:
4546:
4061:
3966:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science
3719:Bosworth, C. E.; Asimov, M. S., eds. (2003).
2683:. Vol. 1. London, UK and New York, USA:
2680:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science
2573:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science
1787:). The earliest surviving astrolabe is dated
1682:(d. 1469/1471) measured it as 7 degrees from
1587:, are depicted, as is the mythical island of
850:
747:
8:
3527:The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers
3444:
3442:
2576:. Vol. 3. Routledge. pp. 185–201.
1474:, in 1154. He incorporated the knowledge of
3401:. Oxford University Press. pp. 144–6.
3053:. Harvard University Press. pp. 461–2.
2655:"Abu Arrayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni"
1969:(lit. "bowl") for the floating compass, or
1914:In 1300, an Arabic treatise written by the
5455:
5092:
5037:
5023:
5015:
4553:
4539:
4531:
4089:
4068:
4054:
4046:
4008:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3301:
3299:
3297:
2516:The Beginnings of a Cartographic Tradition
2338:The Persian Gulf in a regional map of the
2022:Abu Abdallah Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Jayhani
1737:were adopted and further developed in the
1615:, who based it on the work of Suhrāb. The
1022:Islamic cartographers inherited Ptolemy's
908:. Islamic geography reached its apex with
870:Medieval Islamic geography and cartography
857:
843:
776:
765:
754:
740:
602:
480:
28:
5676:National Council for Geographic Education
3435:Kitāb Kanz al-tujjār fī maʿrifat al-aḥjār
3323:
2946:
2565:
2563:
2561:
2559:
2557:
2555:
2518:, in: John Brian Harley, David Woodward:
1533:Al-Idrisi's atlas, originally called the
3690:
3675:
3651:
3525:. In Thomas Hockey; et al. (eds.).
3392:
3390:
3388:
3380:Jawāmeʿ al-ḥekāyāt wa-lawāmeʿ al-rewāyāt
3044:
3042:
2916:
2826:
2814:
2758:
2001:Khordadbeh–Jayhani tradition geographers
1379:
1226:(Book of postal routes and kingdoms) of
968:Islamic geography was patronized by the
937:, in addition to regions such as China,
5765:Geography in the medieval Islamic world
4025:"How Greek Science Passed to the Arabs"
3963:Rashed, Roshdi; Morelon, Régis (1996),
3051:History of the Moorish Empire in Europe
2978:
2850:MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive
2660:MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive
2545:
2543:
2541:
2539:
2537:
2535:
2471:
2469:
2467:
2465:
2463:
2461:
2457:
2282:
1891:described the use of the compass as a "
1698:Astrolabe from 9th century North Africa
1638:was the first to draw a unique Islamic
1170:, emphasised the central importance of
768:
605:
483:
36:
4001:
3989:Geschichte Des Arabischen Schrifttums
3925:. London: Luzac & Co. p. 546.
2522:, Chicago, 1992, pp. 90–107 (97-100),
2307:Schematic map of Sicily in the Arabic
2124:Aḥsan al-taqāsīm fi maʾarfat al-aqalīm
1934:device incorporating both a universal
3529:. New York: Springer. pp. 66–7.
3312:Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies
3065:"Slide #219: World Maps of al-Idrisi"
2029:("Book of Roads and Kingdoms", lost)
1368:, and by another anonymous writer at
7:
5720:
4034:Islamic Geography in the Middle Ages
3821:Journal for the History of Astronomy
3766:(2004). Savage-Smith, Emilie (ed.).
3555:
1895:indicator" to find the direction to
5732:
3170:Transactions of the Optical Society
2612:Koetsier, T.; Bergmans, L. (2005).
1275:Book on the appearance of the Earth
3945:"BĪRŪNĪ, ABŪ RAYḤĀN iv. Geography"
953:(founder of the "Balkhi school"),
25:
3863:10.1111/j.1600-0498.2003.450117.x
2935:International Journal of Sciences
2873:Saudi Aramco World, May–June 2007
2378:(1154), one of the most advanced
2322:10th century map of the World by
2112:("Book of the Face of the Earth")
1523:various countries, were engraved.
1154:, and significantly developed by
5731:
5719:
5707:
5696:
5695:
5671:International Geography Olympiad
4729:Reception in early modern Europe
4724:Contributions to Medieval Europe
4151:Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani
2488:10.1007/978-94-007-3934-5_8611-2
2401:
2386:
2362:
2346:
2331:
2315:
2300:
2285:
2138:("Correct Account of the Lands")
1427:, or what is today known as the
1354:Abū Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdānī
1255:maps, most notable used in the "
1086:azimuthal equidistant projection
1003:in Arabic) in comparison to the
3213:"Mathematics in Medieval Islam"
3131:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
2994:The Lost Art of Finding Our Way
5384:Geographic information science
4166:Khashkhash Ibn Saeed Ibn Aswad
3929:Mott, Lawrence V. (May 1991),
3707:Alavi, S. M. Ziauddin (1965),
2016:("Book of Roads and Kingdoms")
1880:Late in the 13th century, the
1674:and geographers were aware of
1662:) as the centre of the world.
1281:Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī
405:Geographic information science
1:
5490:Geographic information system
3306:Schmidl, Petra G. (1996–97).
3211:Berggren, J. Lennart (2007),
2600:Edson & Savage-Smith 2004
2549:Edson and Savage-Smith (2004)
2119:
2053:
2014:Kitāb al-Masālik wa-l-Mamālik
1946:also introduced the 32-point
1464:produced his medieval atlas,
1224:Kitab al-Masalik wa'l-Mamalik
1113:
1105:
516:Geographic information system
5417:Environmental social science
4965:Arab Agricultural Revolution
3768:Medieval Views of the Cosmos
3215:, in Katz, Victor J. (ed.),
2416:(1513) showing parts of the
2088:("Images of the Climes") or
2027:Kitāb al-Masālik wal-Mamālik
1848:The earliest reference to a
1503:is known by scholars as the
1096:Khordadbeh–Jayhani tradition
1068:methods in order to convert
443:Environmental social science
4402:Mir Ahmed Nasrallah Thattvi
3363:(3: July), p. 367–383
3139:University of Chicago Press
2929:Sparavigna, Amelia (2013).
2867:Covington, Richard (2007).
2295:'s world map (10th century)
1286:
993:al-Ma'mun's arc measurement
671:Non-representational theory
5801:
5785:Science in the Middle Ages
4454:Book of Roads and Kingdoms
4446:Book of Roads and Kingdoms
3833:10.1177/002182860203300302
3715:: Aligarh University Press
3664:Bosworth & Asimov 2003
3521:Schmidl, Petra G. (2007).
3221:Princeton University Press
3190:10.1088/1475-4878/24/5/302
3099:. Routledge. p. 261.
2991:Huth, John Edward (2013).
2931:"The Science of Al-Biruni"
2794:Bosworth & Asimov 2003
2747:Bosworth & Asimov 2003
2728:Bosworth & Asimov 2003
2616:Mathematics and the Divine
2482:. Springer. pp. 1–5.
2408:Surviving fragment of the
2090:al-Amthila wa-suwar al-ard
1926:astronomer and timekeeper
1830:
1609:equirectangular projection
1544:
1453:
1358:Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi
1206:and twenty regional maps.
1058:Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi
1009:circumference of the Earth
5691:
5532:Global Positioning System
5055:
4917:Geography and cartography
4623:Influences on Western art
3603:Hirth, Friedrich (1908).
3582:10.1017/s0041977x00098013
2098:(died mid-10th century):
2074:Balkhi school geographers
1563:admiral and cartographer
817:Environmental determinism
558:Global Positioning System
111:Environmental determinism
4351:Abd-al-Razzāq Samarqandī
3943:Pingree, David (2010b).
3938:Texas A&M University
3624:Needham, Joseph (1962).
3260:National Maritime Museum
2885:10.1177/1367877907080149
2855:University of St Andrews
2665:University of St Andrews
2441:Cartography of Palestine
2102:("Roads and Kingdoms").
1795:). In the 10th century,
1559:compiled in 1513 by the
1150:) in early 10-thcentury
1052:In the 9th century, the
5640:National mapping agency
5605:Survey (human research)
5547:Participant observation
3969:, vol. 1 & 3,
3897:Oxford University Press
3869:King, David A. (2005),
3678:, p. xviii–xix, 5.
2357:'s Diwan (11th century)
2134:(Abulfeda, 1273–1331):
1930:(1304–1375) invented a
1815:, timekeeping, prayer,
1680:'Abd al-'Aziz al-Wafa'i
1237:", the type devised by
1202:, each one featuring a
827:Quantitative revolution
631:Survey (human research)
573:Participant observation
121:Quantitative revolution
5770:Medieval cartographers
5760:History of cartography
5630:Geographical societies
5427:Landscape architecture
4469:Kitab al-Rawd al-Mitar
4356:Ghiyāth al-dīn Naqqāsh
3891:McGrail, Sean (2004),
3357:Technology and Culture
3258:Dr. Emily Winterburn (
3069:Henry Davis Consulting
2700:"Projection Reference"
2436:History of cartography
2100:al-Masālik wal-Mamālik
1899:. In a treatise about
1845:
1833:History of the compass
1739:medieval Islamic world
1699:
1531:
1409:atmospheric refraction
1389:
1230:
1062:spherical trigonometry
906:mathematical geography
872:refer to the study of
807:History of cartography
644:Theoretical Approaches
453:Landscape architecture
101:History of cartography
49:
5422:Environmental studies
5394:Statistical geography
5275:Environmental science
4900:Alchemy and chemistry
4253:Abu'l Abbas al-Hijazi
3987:Sezgin, Fuat (2000),
3949:www.iranicaonline.org
3049:Scott, S. P. (1904).
2698:Rankin, Bill (2006).
1840:
1697:
1654:. He showed the lake
1433:Earth's circumference
1383:
1217:
1054:Persian mathematician
912:in the 12th century.
448:Environmental studies
415:Statistical geography
48:
5635:Geoscience societies
5600:Interview (research)
5572:Land change modeling
5473:Computer cartography
5451:Techniques and tools
5309:Earth system science
4284:Ibn Said al-Maghribi
3764:Savage-Smith, Emilie
3693:, p. xviii–xix.
3382:by Muhammad al-ʿAwfī
3247:Golden Age of Persia
3027:www.historytoday.com
3021:(12 December 2013).
2841:Robertson, Edmund F.
2651:Robertson, Edmund F.
2514:Gerald R. Tibbetts,
2431:History of geography
2208:(Avicenna, 980–1037)
1990:Pingchow Table Talks
1960:magnetic declination
1676:magnetic declination
1460:The Arab geographer
1393:Abu Rayhan al-Biruni
1330:open bodies of water
1210:Regional cartography
812:Historical geography
770:History of geography
626:Interview (research)
598:Land change modeling
499:Computer cartography
433:Integrated geography
106:Historical geography
74:History of geography
5681:Spatial citizenship
5666:Geographers on Film
5656:Geography education
5266:Atmospheric science
4810:Early social change
4709:Early social change
4488:The Meadows of Gold
4105:Abu Hanifa Dinawari
3756:1973JRASC..67..209D
3243:Richard Nelson Frye
3182:1923TrOS...24..289M
3166:See p. 289 of
3019:Starr, S. Frederick
2839:O'Connor, John J.;
2761:, p. xvi–xvii.
2704:Radical Cartography
2687:. pp. 128–184.
2649:O'Connor, John J.;
2309:Book of Curiosities
2214:(Dreses, 1100–1165)
2196:(Alhazen, 965–1039)
2160:(Alkindus, 801–873)
2044:The Meadows of Gold
1996:Notable geographers
1757:, the direction of
1244:Book of curiosities
1076:, the direction to
921:8th and 9th century
380:Technical geography
32:Part of a series on
5780:Islamic Golden Age
5775:Arab cartographers
5562:Statistical survey
5512:Geologic modelling
5351:Quaternary science
4325:Hamdallah Mustawfi
4248:Muhammad al-Idrisi
4222:Mahmud al-Kashgari
4146:Abu Zayd al-Balkhi
4039:2015-10-23 at the
3914:Minorsky, Vladimir
3893:Boats of the World
3666:, p. 218–219.
3421:Needham p. 12-13 "
3336:2014-09-02 at the
3264:Using an Astrolabe
2957:10.18483/ijSci.364
2730:, p. 217–218.
2370:Muhammad al-Idrisi
2355:Mahmud al-Kashgari
2260:Mahmud al-Kashgari
2230:Hamdollah Mostowfi
2212:Muhammad al-Idrisi
2110:Kitāb Sūrat al-ard
2108:(died after 978):
2081:Abu Zayd al-Balkhi
1889:al-Malik al-Ashraf
1846:
1766:Muhammad al-Fazari
1743:Muslim astronomers
1700:
1672:Muslim astronomers
1636:Mahmud al-Kashgari
1516:history of science
1492:Roger II of Sicily
1462:Muhammad al-Idrisi
1390:
1332:, not land-locked
1287:Kitāb ṣūrat al-Arḍ
1257:London Underground
1239:Muhammad al-Idrisi
1231:
1144:Abu Zayd al-Balkhi
963:Muhammad al-Idrisi
951:Abū Zayd al-Balkhī
910:Muhammad al-Idrisi
898:physical geography
886:Islamic Golden Age
832:Critical geography
822:Regional geography
698:Post-structuralism
588:Statistical survey
538:Geologic modelling
367:Quaternary science
269:Physical geography
126:Critical geography
116:Regional geography
50:
5747:
5746:
5613:
5612:
5445:
5444:
5432:Landscape ecology
5252:Coastal geography
5012:
5011:
4980:elementary school
4598:Geometric pattern
4528:
4527:
4431:
4430:
4392:Sulaiman Al Mahri
4212:Abu Saʿīd Gardēzī
4191:Qudama ibn Ja'far
4115:Sulaiman al-Tajir
3997:Frankfurt am Main
3781:978-1-85124-184-2
3635:978-0-521-05802-5
3558:, pp. 547–8)
3408:978-0-19-981257-8
3325:10.5617/jais.4547
3287:978-0-521-80040-2
3230:978-0-691-11485-9
2635:978-0-444-50328-2
2602:, pp. 61–63.
2583:978-0-415-12410-2
2497:978-94-007-3934-5
2200:Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī
1785:De Motu Stellarum
1761:. Eighth-century
1575:and the coast of
1310:Mediterranean Sea
1160:mamlakat al-Islām
1082:Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī
1070:polar coordinates
959:Abu Rayhan Biruni
867:
866:
764:
763:
612:
611:
490:
489:
458:Landscape ecology
352:Landscape ecology
314:Coastal geography
16:(Redirected from
5792:
5735:
5734:
5723:
5722:
5711:
5699:
5698:
5527:Geovisualization
5456:
5399:Spatial analysis
5284:Paleoclimatology
5093:
5039:
5032:
5025:
5016:
4887:Medieval science
4555:
4548:
4541:
4532:
4476:Mu'jam Al-Buldan
4462:Tabula Rogeriana
4456:(ibn Khordadbeh)
4141:Ahmad ibn Fadlan
4136:Ahmad ibn Rustah
4090:
4070:
4063:
4056:
4047:
4013:
4007:
3999:
3983:
3959:
3957:
3955:
3926:
3924:
3909:
3887:
3875:Brill Publishers
3865:
3857:(1–4): 204–226,
3843:
3815:
3785:
3772:Bodleian Library
3758:
3736:
3694:
3688:
3679:
3673:
3667:
3661:
3655:
3649:
3640:
3639:
3621:
3615:
3614:
3600:
3594:
3593:
3565:
3559:
3552:
3546:
3540:
3518:
3512:
3511:
3473:
3467:
3466:
3464:
3463:
3454:
3446:
3437:
3432:
3426:
3419:
3413:
3412:
3394:
3383:
3377:
3371:
3353:
3340:
3329:
3327:
3303:
3292:
3291:
3273:
3267:
3256:
3250:
3240:
3234:
3233:
3208:
3202:
3201:
3164:
3158:
3157:
3126:
3120:
3117:
3111:
3110:
3090:
3084:
3083:
3081:
3080:
3071:. Archived from
3061:
3055:
3054:
3046:
3037:
3036:
3034:
3033:
3015:
3009:
3008:
2988:
2982:
2975:
2969:
2968:
2950:
2926:
2920:
2914:
2908:
2907:
2905:
2904:
2895:. Archived from
2864:
2858:
2857:
2836:
2830:
2829:, p. xviii.
2824:
2818:
2812:
2797:
2791:
2762:
2756:
2750:
2744:
2731:
2725:
2708:
2707:
2695:
2689:
2688:
2674:
2668:
2667:
2646:
2640:
2639:
2619:
2609:
2603:
2597:
2588:
2587:
2567:
2550:
2547:
2530:
2512:
2506:
2505:
2473:
2405:
2390:
2380:early world maps
2375:Tabula Rogeriana
2366:
2350:
2335:
2319:
2304:
2289:
2188:Ahmad ibn Fadlan
2136:Taqwīm al-Buldān
2121:
2055:
2033:Ahmad ibn Rustah
1781:Plato Tiburtinus
1775:in his treatise
1716:celestial sphere
1529:
1467:Tabula Rogeriana
1456:Tabula Rogeriana
1449:Tabula Rogeriana
1366:Indian astronomy
1289:
1115:
1107:
1090:celestial sphere
1056:and geographer,
859:
852:
845:
802:Age of Discovery
780:
766:
756:
749:
742:
603:
553:Geovisualization
481:
420:Spatial analysis
305:Paleoclimatology
96:Age of Discovery
29:
21:
5800:
5799:
5795:
5794:
5793:
5791:
5790:
5789:
5750:
5749:
5748:
5743:
5687:
5644:
5609:
5576:
5495:Distributed GIS
5441:
5403:
5355:
5288:Palaeogeography
5216:
5084:
5051:
5043:
5013:
5008:
4953:
4881:
4870:Early sociology
4819:
4783:decision-making
4733:
4714:Early conquests
4685:
4627:
4564:
4562:Islamic studies
4559:
4529:
4524:
4505:
4500:Kitab al-Kharaj
4427:
4411:
4380:
4361:Ahmad ibn Mājid
4339:
4298:
4279:Yaqut al-Hamawi
4257:
4231:
4195:
4119:
4079:
4074:
4041:Wayback Machine
4029:De Lacy O'Leary
4021:
4016:
4000:
3986:
3981:
3962:
3953:
3951:
3942:
3922:
3912:
3907:
3890:
3885:
3868:
3846:
3818:
3788:
3782:
3762:Edson, Evelyn;
3761:
3739:
3733:
3718:
3703:
3698:
3697:
3689:
3682:
3674:
3670:
3662:
3658:
3650:
3643:
3636:
3623:
3622:
3618:
3602:
3601:
3597:
3567:
3566:
3562:
3553:
3549:
3537:
3520:
3519:
3515:
3486:(2): 246–266 .
3475:
3474:
3470:
3461:
3459:
3457:Lancaster.ac.uk
3452:
3448:
3447:
3440:
3433:
3429:
3420:
3416:
3409:
3396:
3395:
3386:
3378:
3374:
3354:
3343:
3338:Wayback Machine
3305:
3304:
3295:
3288:
3275:
3274:
3270:
3257:
3253:
3241:
3237:
3231:
3223:, p. 519,
3210:
3209:
3205:
3167:
3165:
3161:
3128:
3127:
3123:
3118:
3114:
3107:
3092:
3091:
3087:
3078:
3076:
3063:
3062:
3058:
3048:
3047:
3040:
3031:
3029:
3017:
3016:
3012:
3005:
2990:
2989:
2985:
2976:
2972:
2928:
2927:
2923:
2915:
2911:
2902:
2900:
2866:
2865:
2861:
2838:
2837:
2833:
2825:
2821:
2817:, p. xvii.
2813:
2800:
2792:
2765:
2757:
2753:
2745:
2734:
2726:
2711:
2697:
2696:
2692:
2676:
2675:
2671:
2648:
2647:
2643:
2636:
2611:
2610:
2606:
2598:
2591:
2584:
2569:
2568:
2553:
2548:
2533:
2513:
2509:
2498:
2475:
2474:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2427:
2420:
2410:first World Map
2406:
2397:
2391:
2382:
2367:
2358:
2351:
2342:
2336:
2327:
2320:
2311:
2305:
2296:
2290:
2281:
2254:Ahmad Bin Majid
2224:Yaqut al-Hamawi
2154:
2086:Suwar al-aqālīm
2076:
2003:
1998:
1977:Friedrich Hirth
1944:Arab navigators
1918:astronomer and
1835:
1829:
1732:
1692:
1601:
1549:
1543:
1530:
1527:
1458:
1452:
1417:Codex Masudicus
1401:Pind Dadan Khan
1378:
1278:
1212:
1140:
1098:
1013:Marinus of Tyre
985:arc measurement
943:Southern Africa
923:
918:
863:
760:
710:
709:
646:
636:
635:
521:Distributed GIS
478:
468:
467:
435:
425:
424:
382:
372:
371:
309:Palaeogeography
271:
261:
260:
141:
139:Human geography
131:
130:
76:
23:
22:
18:Arab geographer
15:
12:
11:
5:
5798:
5796:
5788:
5787:
5782:
5777:
5772:
5767:
5762:
5752:
5751:
5745:
5744:
5742:
5741:
5729:
5717:
5705:
5692:
5689:
5688:
5686:
5685:
5684:
5683:
5678:
5673:
5668:
5663:
5652:
5650:
5646:
5645:
5643:
5642:
5637:
5632:
5627:
5621:
5619:
5615:
5614:
5611:
5610:
5608:
5607:
5602:
5597:
5592:
5586:
5584:
5578:
5577:
5575:
5574:
5569:
5564:
5559:
5557:Remote sensing
5554:
5552:Photogrammetry
5549:
5544:
5539:
5534:
5529:
5524:
5519:
5517:Geomathematics
5514:
5509:
5508:
5507:
5502:
5497:
5487:
5482:
5481:
5480:
5475:
5464:
5462:
5453:
5447:
5446:
5443:
5442:
5440:
5439:
5437:Time geography
5434:
5429:
5424:
5419:
5413:
5411:
5405:
5404:
5402:
5401:
5396:
5391:
5386:
5381:
5379:Geoinformatics
5376:
5371:
5365:
5363:
5357:
5356:
5354:
5353:
5348:
5334:
5325:
5320:
5311:
5306:
5305:
5304:
5295:
5290:
5277:
5272:
5258:
5249:
5248:
5247:
5242:
5240:Phytogeography
5237:
5226:
5224:
5218:
5217:
5215:
5214:
5209:
5204:
5199:
5198:
5197:
5192:
5187:
5177:
5172:
5167:
5162:
5157:
5152:
5147:
5142:
5137:
5132:
5127:
5122:
5117:
5112:
5107:
5101:
5099:
5090:
5086:
5085:
5083:
5082:
5077:
5072:
5067:
5062:
5056:
5053:
5052:
5044:
5042:
5041:
5034:
5027:
5019:
5010:
5009:
5007:
5006:
5005:
5004:
4999:
4994:
4984:
4983:
4982:
4977:
4967:
4961:
4959:
4955:
4954:
4952:
4951:
4946:
4941:
4940:
4939:
4929:
4924:
4919:
4914:
4913:
4912:
4902:
4897:
4891:
4889:
4883:
4882:
4880:
4879:
4878:
4877:
4867:
4862:
4857:
4852:
4851:
4850:
4840:
4835:
4829:
4827:
4821:
4820:
4818:
4817:
4812:
4807:
4802:
4797:
4792:
4791:
4790:
4785:
4780:
4778:use of analogy
4770:
4765:
4764:
4763:
4758:
4747:
4745:
4735:
4734:
4732:
4731:
4726:
4721:
4716:
4711:
4706:
4704:Historiography
4701:
4695:
4693:
4687:
4686:
4684:
4683:
4678:
4673:
4668:
4663:
4658:
4653:
4648:
4643:
4637:
4635:
4629:
4628:
4626:
4625:
4620:
4615:
4610:
4605:
4600:
4595:
4590:
4585:
4580:
4574:
4572:
4566:
4565:
4560:
4558:
4557:
4550:
4543:
4535:
4526:
4525:
4523:
4522:
4513:
4511:
4507:
4506:
4504:
4503:
4496:
4491:
4484:
4479:
4472:
4465:
4458:
4450:
4441:
4439:
4433:
4432:
4429:
4428:
4426:
4425:
4419:
4417:
4413:
4412:
4410:
4409:
4404:
4399:
4394:
4388:
4386:
4382:
4381:
4379:
4378:
4373:
4368:
4363:
4358:
4353:
4347:
4345:
4341:
4340:
4338:
4337:
4332:
4327:
4322:
4317:
4312:
4306:
4304:
4300:
4299:
4297:
4296:
4294:Ibn al-Mujawir
4291:
4286:
4281:
4276:
4271:
4265:
4263:
4259:
4258:
4256:
4255:
4250:
4245:
4239:
4237:
4233:
4232:
4230:
4229:
4224:
4219:
4214:
4209:
4203:
4201:
4197:
4196:
4194:
4193:
4188:
4183:
4178:
4173:
4168:
4163:
4158:
4153:
4148:
4143:
4138:
4133:
4131:Ibn Khordadbeh
4127:
4125:
4121:
4120:
4118:
4117:
4112:
4107:
4102:
4096:
4094:
4087:
4081:
4080:
4075:
4073:
4072:
4065:
4058:
4050:
4044:
4043:
4031:
4020:
4019:External links
4017:
4015:
4014:
3984:
3979:
3960:
3940:
3927:
3910:
3905:
3888:
3883:
3866:
3844:
3816:
3805:10.1086/353360
3799:(4): 531–555,
3786:
3780:
3759:
3737:
3731:
3716:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3696:
3695:
3680:
3668:
3656:
3654:, p. xix.
3641:
3634:
3616:
3595:
3576:(1): 97–108 .
3560:
3547:
3535:
3513:
3492:10.1086/354701
3468:
3438:
3427:
3414:
3407:
3384:
3372:
3341:
3293:
3286:
3268:
3251:
3235:
3229:
3203:
3176:(5): 289–303,
3159:
3147:10.1086/373112
3121:
3112:
3105:
3085:
3056:
3038:
3010:
3003:
2983:
2970:
2921:
2909:
2859:
2831:
2819:
2798:
2796:, p. 219.
2763:
2751:
2749:, p. 218.
2732:
2709:
2690:
2669:
2641:
2634:
2604:
2589:
2582:
2551:
2531:
2507:
2496:
2456:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2444:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2426:
2423:
2422:
2421:
2407:
2400:
2398:
2392:
2385:
2383:
2368:
2361:
2359:
2352:
2345:
2343:
2340:Atlas of Islam
2337:
2330:
2328:
2321:
2314:
2312:
2306:
2299:
2297:
2291:
2284:
2280:
2277:
2276:
2275:
2274:(16th century)
2269:
2263:
2257:
2251:
2245:
2239:
2233:
2227:
2221:
2215:
2209:
2203:
2197:
2194:Ibn al-Haytham
2191:
2190:(10th century)
2185:
2184:(10th century)
2179:
2173:
2167:
2161:
2153:
2150:
2149:
2148:
2147:
2146:
2139:
2129:
2128:
2127:
2122:945/946–991):
2113:
2075:
2072:
2071:
2070:
2069:
2068:
2063:
2057:
2047:
2036:
2035:(10th century)
2018:
2008:Ibn Khordadbeh
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1971:ālat al-qiblah
1828:
1825:
1731:
1728:
1691:
1688:
1644:Turkic peoples
1621:Southwest Asia
1600:
1597:
1585:Canary Islands
1545:Main article:
1542:
1539:
1525:
1501:Garden of Joys
1488:Arab merchants
1454:Main article:
1451:
1446:
1377:
1374:
1364:, a centre of
1338:Prime Meridian
1314:Canary Islands
1304:Al-Khwārizmī,
1277:
1272:
1211:
1208:
1180:Ibn Khordadbeh
1139:
1136:
1127:Samanid Empire
1119:Vasily Bartold
1102:Ibn Khordadbeh
1097:
1094:
1066:map projection
1040:Prime Meridian
939:Southeast Asia
922:
919:
917:
914:
865:
864:
862:
861:
854:
847:
839:
836:
835:
834:
829:
824:
819:
814:
809:
804:
799:
794:
789:
782:
781:
773:
772:
762:
761:
759:
758:
751:
744:
736:
733:
732:
731:
730:
725:
720:
712:
711:
708:
707:
706:
705:
703:Deconstruction
700:
690:
689:
688:
683:
673:
668:
663:
658:
653:
647:
642:
641:
638:
637:
634:
633:
628:
623:
618:
610:
609:
601:
600:
595:
590:
585:
583:Remote Sensing
580:
578:Photogrammetry
575:
570:
565:
560:
555:
550:
545:
543:Geomathematics
540:
535:
534:
533:
528:
523:
513:
508:
507:
506:
501:
488:
487:
479:
474:
473:
470:
469:
466:
465:
463:Time geography
460:
455:
450:
445:
436:
431:
430:
427:
426:
423:
422:
417:
412:
407:
402:
400:Geoinformatics
397:
392:
383:
378:
377:
374:
373:
370:
369:
364:
359:
354:
349:
340:
335:
330:
325:
320:
311:
298:
297:
296:
291:
289:Phytogeography
286:
272:
267:
266:
263:
262:
259:
258:
253:
248:
243:
242:
241:
236:
231:
221:
216:
211:
206:
201:
196:
191:
186:
181:
176:
171:
166:
161:
156:
151:
142:
137:
136:
133:
132:
129:
128:
123:
118:
113:
108:
103:
98:
93:
88:
83:
77:
72:
71:
68:
67:
66:
65:
60:
52:
51:
41:
40:
34:
33:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5797:
5786:
5783:
5781:
5778:
5776:
5773:
5771:
5768:
5766:
5763:
5761:
5758:
5757:
5755:
5740:
5739:
5730:
5728:
5727:
5718:
5716:
5715:
5710:
5706:
5704:
5703:
5694:
5693:
5690:
5682:
5679:
5677:
5674:
5672:
5669:
5667:
5664:
5662:
5659:
5658:
5657:
5654:
5653:
5651:
5647:
5641:
5638:
5636:
5633:
5631:
5628:
5626:
5623:
5622:
5620:
5616:
5606:
5603:
5601:
5598:
5596:
5593:
5591:
5588:
5587:
5585:
5583:
5579:
5573:
5570:
5568:
5565:
5563:
5560:
5558:
5555:
5553:
5550:
5548:
5545:
5543:
5540:
5538:
5535:
5533:
5530:
5528:
5525:
5523:
5522:Geostatistics
5520:
5518:
5515:
5513:
5510:
5506:
5503:
5501:
5498:
5496:
5493:
5492:
5491:
5488:
5486:
5485:Geochronology
5483:
5479:
5476:
5474:
5471:
5470:
5469:
5466:
5465:
5463:
5461:
5457:
5454:
5452:
5448:
5438:
5435:
5433:
5430:
5428:
5425:
5423:
5420:
5418:
5415:
5414:
5412:
5410:
5406:
5400:
5397:
5395:
5392:
5390:
5387:
5385:
5382:
5380:
5377:
5375:
5372:
5370:
5367:
5366:
5364:
5362:
5358:
5352:
5349:
5346:
5342:
5338:
5335:
5333:
5329:
5326:
5324:
5321:
5319:
5315:
5314:Geomorphology
5312:
5310:
5307:
5303:
5299:
5296:
5294:
5291:
5289:
5285:
5281:
5278:
5276:
5273:
5271:
5267:
5264:
5263:
5262:
5261:Earth science
5259:
5257:
5253:
5250:
5246:
5243:
5241:
5238:
5236:
5233:
5232:
5231:
5228:
5227:
5225:
5223:
5219:
5213:
5210:
5208:
5205:
5203:
5200:
5196:
5193:
5191:
5188:
5186:
5183:
5182:
5181:
5178:
5176:
5173:
5171:
5168:
5166:
5163:
5161:
5158:
5156:
5153:
5151:
5148:
5146:
5143:
5141:
5138:
5136:
5133:
5131:
5128:
5126:
5123:
5121:
5118:
5116:
5113:
5111:
5108:
5106:
5103:
5102:
5100:
5098:
5094:
5091:
5087:
5081:
5078:
5076:
5073:
5071:
5068:
5066:
5063:
5061:
5058:
5057:
5054:
5050:
5047:
5040:
5035:
5033:
5028:
5026:
5021:
5020:
5017:
5003:
5000:
4998:
4995:
4993:
4990:
4989:
4988:
4985:
4981:
4978:
4976:
4973:
4972:
4971:
4968:
4966:
4963:
4962:
4960:
4956:
4950:
4947:
4945:
4942:
4938:
4937:ophthalmology
4935:
4934:
4933:
4930:
4928:
4925:
4923:
4920:
4918:
4915:
4911:
4908:
4907:
4906:
4903:
4901:
4898:
4896:
4893:
4892:
4890:
4888:
4884:
4876:
4873:
4872:
4871:
4868:
4866:
4863:
4861:
4858:
4856:
4853:
4849:
4846:
4845:
4844:
4841:
4839:
4836:
4834:
4831:
4830:
4828:
4826:
4822:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4806:
4803:
4801:
4798:
4796:
4793:
4789:
4786:
4784:
4781:
4779:
4776:
4775:
4774:
4773:Jurisprudence
4771:
4769:
4766:
4762:
4759:
4757:
4754:
4753:
4752:
4749:
4748:
4746:
4744:
4740:
4736:
4730:
4727:
4725:
4722:
4720:
4717:
4715:
4712:
4710:
4707:
4705:
4702:
4700:
4697:
4696:
4694:
4692:
4688:
4682:
4679:
4677:
4674:
4672:
4669:
4667:
4664:
4662:
4659:
4657:
4654:
4652:
4649:
4647:
4644:
4642:
4639:
4638:
4636:
4634:
4630:
4624:
4621:
4619:
4616:
4614:
4611:
4609:
4606:
4604:
4601:
4599:
4596:
4594:
4591:
4589:
4586:
4584:
4581:
4579:
4576:
4575:
4573:
4571:
4567:
4563:
4556:
4551:
4549:
4544:
4542:
4537:
4536:
4533:
4521:
4519:
4515:
4514:
4512:
4508:
4502:
4501:
4497:
4495:
4494:Piri Reis map
4492:
4490:
4489:
4485:
4483:
4480:
4478:
4477:
4473:
4471:
4470:
4466:
4464:
4463:
4459:
4457:
4455:
4451:
4449:
4447:
4443:
4442:
4440:
4438:
4434:
4424:
4423:Evliya Çelebi
4421:
4420:
4418:
4414:
4408:
4405:
4403:
4400:
4398:
4395:
4393:
4390:
4389:
4387:
4383:
4377:
4374:
4372:
4369:
4367:
4364:
4362:
4359:
4357:
4354:
4352:
4349:
4348:
4346:
4342:
4336:
4333:
4331:
4328:
4326:
4323:
4321:
4318:
4316:
4313:
4311:
4308:
4307:
4305:
4301:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4275:
4274:Saadi Shirazi
4272:
4270:
4267:
4266:
4264:
4260:
4254:
4251:
4249:
4246:
4244:
4241:
4240:
4238:
4234:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4220:
4218:
4215:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4205:
4204:
4202:
4198:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4186:Al-Ramhormuzi
4184:
4182:
4179:
4177:
4174:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4128:
4126:
4122:
4116:
4113:
4111:
4108:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4098:
4097:
4095:
4091:
4088:
4086:
4082:
4078:
4071:
4066:
4064:
4059:
4057:
4052:
4051:
4048:
4042:
4038:
4035:
4032:
4030:
4026:
4023:
4022:
4018:
4011:
4005:
3998:
3995:(in German),
3994:
3992:
3985:
3982:
3980:0-415-12410-7
3976:
3972:
3968:
3967:
3961:
3950:
3946:
3941:
3939:
3935:
3933:
3928:
3921:
3920:
3915:
3911:
3908:
3906:0-19-927186-0
3902:
3898:
3894:
3889:
3886:
3884:90-04-14188-X
3880:
3876:
3872:
3867:
3864:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3851:
3845:
3842:
3838:
3834:
3830:
3826:
3822:
3817:
3814:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3793:
3787:
3783:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3760:
3757:
3753:
3749:
3745:
3744:
3738:
3734:
3732:9788120815964
3728:
3724:
3723:
3717:
3714:
3710:
3706:
3705:
3700:
3692:
3691:Minorsky 1937
3687:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3676:Minorsky 1937
3672:
3669:
3665:
3660:
3657:
3653:
3652:Minorsky 1937
3648:
3646:
3642:
3637:
3631:
3627:
3620:
3617:
3612:
3608:
3607:
3599:
3596:
3591:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3575:
3571:
3564:
3561:
3557:
3551:
3548:
3544:
3538:
3536:9780387310220
3532:
3528:
3524:
3517:
3514:
3509:
3505:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3489:
3485:
3481:
3480:
3472:
3469:
3458:
3451:
3445:
3443:
3439:
3436:
3431:
3428:
3424:
3418:
3415:
3410:
3404:
3400:
3393:
3391:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3376:
3373:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3352:
3350:
3348:
3346:
3342:
3339:
3335:
3332:
3326:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3302:
3300:
3298:
3294:
3289:
3283:
3279:
3272:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3255:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3239:
3236:
3232:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3207:
3204:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3163:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3125:
3122:
3116:
3113:
3108:
3106:9781135459321
3102:
3098:
3097:
3089:
3086:
3075:on 2006-06-26
3074:
3070:
3066:
3060:
3057:
3052:
3045:
3043:
3039:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3014:
3011:
3006:
3004:9780674072824
3000:
2996:
2995:
2987:
2984:
2980:
2974:
2971:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2941:(12): 52–60.
2940:
2936:
2932:
2925:
2922:
2918:
2917:Pingree 2010b
2913:
2910:
2899:on 2008-05-12
2898:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2863:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2851:
2846:
2845:"Cartography"
2842:
2835:
2832:
2828:
2827:Minorsky 1937
2823:
2820:
2816:
2815:Minorsky 1937
2811:
2809:
2807:
2805:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2790:
2788:
2786:
2784:
2782:
2780:
2778:
2776:
2774:
2772:
2770:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2759:Minorsky 1937
2755:
2752:
2748:
2743:
2741:
2739:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2724:
2722:
2720:
2718:
2716:
2714:
2710:
2705:
2701:
2694:
2691:
2686:
2682:
2681:
2673:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2661:
2656:
2652:
2645:
2642:
2637:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2618:
2617:
2608:
2605:
2601:
2596:
2594:
2590:
2585:
2579:
2575:
2574:
2566:
2564:
2562:
2560:
2558:
2556:
2552:
2546:
2544:
2542:
2540:
2538:
2536:
2532:
2529:
2528:0-226-31635-1
2525:
2521:
2517:
2511:
2508:
2504:
2499:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2480:
2472:
2470:
2468:
2466:
2464:
2462:
2458:
2451:
2446:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2428:
2424:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2404:
2399:
2395:
2389:
2384:
2381:
2377:
2376:
2371:
2365:
2360:
2356:
2349:
2344:
2341:
2334:
2329:
2325:
2318:
2313:
2310:
2303:
2298:
2294:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2270:
2267:
2264:
2261:
2258:
2255:
2252:
2249:
2246:
2243:
2240:
2237:
2234:
2231:
2228:
2225:
2222:
2219:
2216:
2213:
2210:
2207:
2204:
2201:
2198:
2195:
2192:
2189:
2186:
2183:
2180:
2177:
2174:
2171:
2168:
2165:
2162:
2159:
2156:
2155:
2151:
2144:
2140:
2137:
2133:
2130:
2125:
2117:
2114:
2111:
2107:
2104:
2103:
2101:
2097:
2094:
2093:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2082:
2078:
2077:
2073:
2067:
2066:Muhammad Aufi
2064:
2061:
2058:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2045:
2040:
2037:
2034:
2031:
2030:
2028:
2024:
2023:
2019:
2017:
2015:
2010:
2009:
2005:
2004:
2000:
1995:
1993:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1978:
1974:
1972:
1968:
1963:
1961:
1957:
1952:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1928:Ibn al-Shatir
1925:
1921:
1917:
1912:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1887:
1883:
1878:
1876:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1843:
1839:
1834:
1826:
1824:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1763:mathematician
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1729:
1727:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1696:
1689:
1687:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1667:
1663:
1661:
1658:(in nowadays
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1632:
1631:(died 1430).
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1598:
1596:
1594:
1591:and possibly
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1553:Piri Reis map
1548:
1547:Piri Reis map
1541:Piri Reis map
1540:
1538:
1536:
1524:
1521:
1517:
1511:
1508:
1506:
1505:Little Idrisi
1502:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1468:
1463:
1457:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1413:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1387:
1382:
1375:
1373:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1326:Indian Oceans
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1302:
1300:
1299:
1294:
1290:
1288:
1282:
1276:
1273:
1271:
1267:
1265:
1262:" in 1931 by
1261:
1258:
1254:
1248:
1246:
1245:
1240:
1236:
1235:Balkhī school
1229:
1225:
1221:
1216:
1209:
1207:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1138:Balkhi school
1137:
1135:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1111:
1103:
1100:The works of
1095:
1093:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1050:
1048:
1043:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1032:
1027:
1026:
1020:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
986:
982:
978:
974:
971:
966:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
920:
915:
913:
911:
907:
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
879:
875:
871:
860:
855:
853:
848:
846:
841:
840:
838:
837:
833:
830:
828:
825:
823:
820:
818:
815:
813:
810:
808:
805:
803:
800:
798:
795:
793:
790:
788:
785:
784:
783:
779:
775:
774:
771:
767:
757:
752:
750:
745:
743:
738:
737:
735:
734:
729:
726:
724:
721:
719:
716:
715:
714:
713:
704:
701:
699:
696:
695:
694:
693:Postmodernism
691:
687:
684:
682:
681:Structuralism
679:
678:
677:
674:
672:
669:
667:
664:
662:
659:
657:
654:
652:
649:
648:
645:
640:
639:
632:
629:
627:
624:
622:
619:
617:
614:
613:
608:
604:
599:
596:
594:
591:
589:
586:
584:
581:
579:
576:
574:
571:
569:
566:
564:
561:
559:
556:
554:
551:
549:
548:Geostatistics
546:
544:
541:
539:
536:
532:
529:
527:
524:
522:
519:
518:
517:
514:
512:
511:Geochronology
509:
505:
502:
500:
497:
496:
495:
492:
491:
486:
482:
477:
472:
471:
464:
461:
459:
456:
454:
451:
449:
446:
444:
441:
440:
439:
434:
429:
428:
421:
418:
416:
413:
411:
408:
406:
403:
401:
398:
396:
393:
391:
388:
387:
386:
381:
376:
375:
368:
365:
363:
360:
358:
355:
353:
350:
348:
344:
341:
339:
336:
334:
333:Geomorphology
331:
329:
326:
324:
323:Earth science
321:
319:
315:
312:
310:
306:
302:
299:
295:
292:
290:
287:
285:
282:
281:
280:
277:
276:
275:
270:
265:
264:
257:
254:
252:
249:
247:
244:
240:
237:
235:
232:
230:
227:
226:
225:
222:
220:
217:
215:
212:
210:
207:
205:
202:
200:
197:
195:
192:
190:
187:
185:
182:
180:
177:
175:
172:
170:
167:
165:
162:
160:
157:
155:
152:
150:
147:
146:
145:
140:
135:
134:
127:
124:
122:
119:
117:
114:
112:
109:
107:
104:
102:
99:
97:
94:
92:
89:
87:
84:
82:
79:
78:
75:
70:
69:
64:
61:
59:
56:
55:
54:
53:
47:
43:
42:
39:
35:
31:
30:
27:
19:
5736:
5724:
5712:
5700:
5661:Geo-literacy
5618:Institutions
5500:Internet GIS
5460:Quantitative
5337:Soil science
5256:Oceanography
5245:Zoogeography
5230:Biogeography
5105:Agricultural
4987:Sufi studies
4958:Other fields
4916:
4838:Contemporary
4761:consultation
4583:Architecture
4517:
4498:
4486:
4474:
4467:
4460:
4453:
4445:
4416:17th century
4385:16th century
4344:15th century
4320:Ibn al-Wardi
4303:14th century
4289:Ibn al-Nafis
4262:13th century
4236:12th century
4200:11th century
4181:Al-Muqaddasi
4176:Ibn al-Faqih
4124:10th century
4100:Al-Khwarizmi
4076:
3990:
3988:
3965:
3952:. Retrieved
3948:
3931:
3918:
3892:
3870:
3854:
3848:
3824:
3820:
3796:
3790:
3767:
3747:
3741:
3721:
3708:
3671:
3659:
3625:
3619:
3605:
3598:
3573:
3569:
3563:
3550:
3526:
3516:
3483:
3477:
3471:
3460:. Retrieved
3456:
3434:
3430:
3422:
3417:
3398:
3379:
3375:
3360:
3356:
3315:
3311:
3277:
3271:
3254:
3246:
3238:
3216:
3206:
3173:
3169:
3162:
3134:
3130:
3124:
3115:
3095:
3088:
3077:. Retrieved
3073:the original
3068:
3059:
3050:
3030:. Retrieved
3026:
3013:
2993:
2986:
2973:
2938:
2934:
2924:
2912:
2901:. Retrieved
2897:the original
2879:(3): 17–21.
2876:
2872:
2862:
2848:
2834:
2822:
2754:
2703:
2693:
2678:
2672:
2658:
2644:
2615:
2607:
2572:
2519:
2515:
2510:
2501:
2478:
2394:Ibn al-Wardi
2373:
2339:
2308:
2244:(1304–1370s)
2236:Ibn al-Wardi
2182:Ibn al-Faqih
2143:Hafiz-i Abru
2135:
2123:
2109:
2099:
2089:
2085:
2079:
2042:
2026:
2025:(died 925):
2020:
2013:
2006:
1989:
1981:
1975:
1970:
1966:
1964:
1953:
1948:compass rose
1913:
1879:
1866:Persian Gulf
1856:occurs in a
1854:Muslim world
1847:
1784:
1777:Kitab az-Zij
1776:
1770:
1733:
1701:
1670:
1664:
1633:
1629:Hafiz-i Abru
1625:Central Asia
1602:
1573:North Africa
1550:
1534:
1532:
1513:
1509:
1504:
1500:
1486:gathered by
1480:Indian Ocean
1471:
1465:
1459:
1448:
1437:Afro-Eurasia
1416:
1414:
1391:
1303:
1296:
1284:
1279:
1274:
1268:
1249:
1242:
1232:
1223:
1192:al-Muqaddasi
1163:
1159:
1141:
1099:
1051:
1044:
1036:Al-Khwārizmī
1030:
1023:
1021:
1015:rather than
1000:
967:
947:Al-Khwārizmī
935:Muslim world
931:Afro-Eurasia
924:
894:Afro-Eurasia
882:Muslim world
869:
868:
796:
787:Graeco-Roman
526:Internet GIS
485:Quantitative
437:
384:
318:Oceanography
294:Zoogeography
279:Biogeography
273:
149:Agricultural
143:
90:
81:Graeco-Roman
26:
5738:WikiProject
5590:Ethnography
5582:Qualitative
5542:Map algebra
5537:Hydrography
5478:Web mapping
5468:Cartography
5280:Climatology
5270:Meteorology
5125:Development
4927:Mathematics
4588:Calligraphy
4330:Ibn Battuta
4310:Al-Dimashqi
4093:9th century
4085:Geographers
3991:X–XII
3827:: 237–255,
3750:: 209–211,
3543:PDF version
2979:1973, p.211
2268:(1465–1554)
2262:(1005–1102)
2256:(born 1432)
2250:(1332-1406)
2248:Ibn Khaldun
2242:Ibn Battuta
2238:(1291–1348)
2232:(1281–1349)
2226:(1179–1229)
2220:(1145–1217)
2170:Al-Dinawari
2145:(died 1430)
2141:(probably)
2132:Abu al-Fida
2084:(850–934):
2062:(died 1061)
2041:(896–956):
2011:(820–912):
1932:timekeeping
1884:Sultan and
1690:Instruments
1666:Ibn Battuta
1605:coordinates
1520:planisphere
1228:al-Istakhri
1060:, employed
997:Arabic mile
902:cartography
884:during the
878:cartography
728:Geographers
616:Ethnography
607:Qualitative
568:Map algebra
563:Hydrography
504:Web mapping
494:Cartography
347:Hydrography
301:Climatology
169:Development
5754:Categories
5595:Geopoetics
5409:Integrated
5345:Edaphology
5323:Glaciology
5298:Geophysics
5293:Geobiology
5180:Settlement
5170:Population
5140:Historical
5110:Behavioral
5070:Philosophy
5002:philosophy
4949:Psychology
4922:Inventions
4875:solidarity
4825:Philosophy
4805:Secularism
4719:Golden Age
4656:Capitalism
4603:Literature
4510:Influences
4448:(al-Bakrī)
4315:Abu'l-Fida
4269:Ibn Jubayr
4171:Ibn Hawqal
3770:. Oxford:
3462:2016-08-02
3318:: 81–132.
3141:: 81–98 ,
3079:2019-09-08
3032:2018-07-06
2903:2008-07-06
2624:. p.
2447:References
2324:Ibn Hawqal
2218:Ibn Jubayr
2202:(973–1048)
2166:(died 897)
2116:Al-Maqdisi
2106:Ibn Hawqal
2056:1040–1094)
1901:astrolabes
1886:astronomer
1875:Arab world
1831:See also:
1809:navigation
1773:Albatenius
1735:Astrolabes
1660:Kyrgyzstan
1652:Inner Asia
1617:orthogonal
1346:Alexandria
1312:(from the
1264:Harry Beck
1196:Ibn Hawqal
651:Behavioral
621:Geopoetics
338:Glaciology
224:Settlement
214:Population
184:Historical
154:Behavioral
5649:Education
5567:Surveying
5389:Geomatics
5369:Geodesign
5361:Technical
5332:Limnology
5328:Hydrology
5207:Strategic
5190:Transport
5165:Political
5155:Marketing
5115:Cognitive
5046:Geography
4997:cosmology
4992:mysticism
4970:Education
4910:cosmology
4905:Astronomy
4865:Astrology
4848:dialectic
4756:consensus
4751:Democracy
4666:Socialism
4633:Economics
4578:Arabesque
4520:(Ptolemy)
4518:Geography
4407:Amīn Rāzī
4397:Piri Reis
4207:Al-Biruni
4156:Al-Masudi
3971:Routledge
3850:Centaurus
3841:125329755
3813:144315162
3590:120284234
3556:King 1983
3198:1475-4878
3155:161732080
2977:Douglas (
2965:119230163
2948:1312.7288
2893:145173935
2685:Routledge
2452:Citations
2414:Piri Reis
2353:Map from
2293:Al-Masudi
2272:Amin Razi
2266:Piri Reis
2178:(893–945)
2172:(820–898)
2039:Al-Masudi
1984:found in
1982:chia-ling
1956:Ibn Majid
1842:Al-Ashraf
1813:surveying
1805:astrology
1801:astronomy
1730:Astrolabe
1704:astrolabe
1656:Issyk-Kul
1640:world map
1565:Piri Reis
1557:world map
1386:Al-Biruni
1376:Al-Biruni
1342:Old World
1318:longitude
1306:Al-Ma'mun
1298:Geography
1222:from the
1204:world map
1184:Al-Masudi
1131:Al-Masudi
1108:870) and
1031:Geography
981:al-Ma'mun
955:Al-Masudi
927:Old World
890:Old World
874:geography
718:Societies
686:Semiotics
676:Modernism
593:Surveying
410:Geomatics
390:Geodesign
357:Limnology
343:Hydrology
251:Strategic
234:Transport
209:Political
199:Marketing
159:Cognitive
38:Geography
5702:Category
5341:Pedology
5222:Physical
5185:Regional
5175:Religion
5160:Military
5150:Language
5145:Internet
5130:Economic
5120:Cultural
5089:Branches
5060:Glossary
4932:Medicine
4895:Timeline
4843:Theology
4800:Quietism
4768:Feminism
4743:politics
4699:Timeline
4366:Zheng He
4243:al-Zuhri
4217:Al-Bakri
4161:Istakhri
4037:Archived
4004:citation
3934:, Thesis
3916:(1937).
3508:33884974
3334:Archived
3249:. p. 163
2622:Elsevier
2503:compass.
2425:See also
2418:Americas
2206:Ibn Sina
2158:Al-Kindi
2096:Istakhri
2050:Al-Bakri
1988:'s book
1916:Egyptian
1909:meridian
1905:sundials
1747:azimuths
1741:, where
1708:quadrant
1589:Antillia
1526:—
1484:Far East
1482:and the
1429:Americas
1322:Atlantic
1260:Tube Map
1188:Istakhri
1156:Istakhri
1047:T-O maps
1025:Almagest
989:meridian
661:Feminist
656:Critical
362:Pedology
229:Regional
219:Religion
204:Military
194:Language
189:Internet
174:Economic
164:Cultural
5726:Commons
5505:Web GIS
5374:Geodesy
5318:Geology
5302:Geodesy
5235:Ecology
5212:Tourism
5080:Outline
5065:History
4944:Physics
4788:schools
4691:History
4681:Welfare
4661:Poverty
4651:Banking
4641:History
4618:Pottery
4593:Gardens
4376:Fei Xin
4371:Ma Huan
4227:Domiyat
4110:Ya'qubi
3752:Bibcode
3713:Aligarh
3701:Sources
3500:3049439
3369:3102323
3178:Bibcode
2279:Gallery
2176:Hamdani
2164:Ya'qubi
2060:Gardizi
1940:prayers
1936:sundial
1920:muezzin
1864:or the
1862:Red Sea
1858:Persian
1852:in the
1850:compass
1827:Compass
1823:, etc.
1797:al-Sufi
1751:horizon
1749:on the
1724:compass
1720:sundial
1648:Central
1613:Qazwini
1561:Ottoman
1496:Cordoba
1441:Eurasia
1415:In his
1397:Nandana
1350:Baghdad
1340:of the
1293:Ptolemy
1218:Map of
1200:atlases
1152:Baghdad
1125:of the
1110:Jayhani
1088:of the
1017:Ptolemy
1005:stadion
977:Baghdad
973:caliphs
970:Abbasid
916:History
880:in the
797:Islamic
792:Chinese
666:Marxist
531:Web GIS
476:Methods
395:Geodesy
328:Geology
284:Ecology
256:Tourism
91:Islamic
86:Chinese
63:Outline
5714:Portal
5202:Social
5135:Health
5049:topics
4975:Ijazah
4855:Ethics
4646:Agency
4613:Poetry
4335:Lin Nu
3977:
3954:4 July
3903:
3881:
3839:
3811:
3778:
3729:
3632:
3588:
3533:
3506:
3498:
3405:
3367:
3284:
3227:
3196:
3153:
3103:
3001:
2963:
2891:
2632:
2580:
2526:
2494:
2152:Others
1986:Zhu Yu
1924:Syrian
1882:Yemeni
1870:Arabic
1722:, and
1712:gnomon
1599:Others
1581:Azores
1577:Brazil
1569:Europe
1535:Nuzhat
1478:, the
1476:Africa
1425:Europe
1405:cubits
1362:Ujjain
1253:subway
1176:Arabia
1164:iqlīms
1146:(from
1123:vizier
900:, and
438:Fields
385:Fields
274:Fields
246:Social
179:Health
144:Fields
58:Portal
5195:Urban
5097:Human
5075:Index
4860:Logic
4833:Early
4815:State
4795:Peace
4676:Usury
4671:Trust
4608:Music
4482:Rihla
4437:Works
3923:(PDF)
3837:S2CID
3809:S2CID
3586:S2CID
3504:S2CID
3453:(PDF)
3365:JSTOR
3151:S2CID
3137:(2),
2961:S2CID
2943:arXiv
2889:S2CID
1897:Mecca
1893:Qibla
1821:Qibla
1817:Salat
1793:salat
1759:Mecca
1755:Qibla
1684:Cairo
1593:Japan
1555:is a
1370:Basra
1172:Mecca
1168:Quran
1148:Balkh
1078:Mecca
1074:Qibla
723:Index
239:Urban
4741:and
4570:Arts
4010:link
3975:ISBN
3956:2018
3901:ISBN
3879:ISBN
3792:Isis
3776:ISBN
3727:ISBN
3630:ISBN
3531:ISBN
3496:PMID
3479:Isis
3403:ISBN
3282:ISBN
3225:ISBN
3194:ISSN
3101:ISBN
2999:ISBN
2630:ISBN
2578:ISBN
2524:ISBN
2492:ISBN
1967:ṭāsa
1903:and
1650:and
1623:and
1583:and
1571:and
1551:The
1435:and
1423:and
1421:Asia
1356:and
1334:seas
1324:and
1220:Fars
1194:and
1182:and
1174:and
1064:and
1028:and
961:and
941:and
904:and
876:and
4739:Law
4027:by
3859:doi
3829:doi
3801:doi
3611:134
3578:doi
3488:doi
3320:doi
3262:),
3186:doi
3143:doi
2953:doi
2881:doi
2626:169
2484:doi
2412:of
2372:'s
1646:of
1470:or
1399:in
1360:at
1328:as
1295:'s
1283:'s
1001:mīl
975:of
5756::
5330:/
5316:/
5300:/
5286:/
5282:/
5268:/
5254:/
4006:}}
4002:{{
3973:,
3947:.
3936:,
3899:,
3895:,
3877:,
3873:,
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3823:,
3807:,
3797:74
3795:,
3774:.
3748:67
3746:,
3711:,
3683:^
3644:^
3584:.
3574:36
3572:.
3502:.
3494:.
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3387:^
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2801:^
2766:^
2735:^
2712:^
2702:.
2663:,
2657:,
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2628:.
2620:.
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2534:^
2500:.
2490:.
2460:^
2120:c.
2054:c.
1992:.
1942:.
1819:,
1811:,
1807:,
1803:,
1789:AH
1726:.
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1714:,
1710:,
1706:,
1686:.
1595:.
1507:.
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1266:.
1247:.
1190:,
1114:c.
1106:c.
1080:.
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