Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world

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often had a second plate on top of the first, which the user could swap out to account for their correct latitude. One of the most useful features of the device is that the projection created allows users to calculate and solve mathematical problems graphically which could otherwise be done only by using complex spherical trigonometry, allowing for earlier access to great mathematical feats. In addition to this, use of the astrolabe allowed for ships at sea to calculate their position given that the device is fixed upon a star with a known altitude. Standard astrolabes performed poorly on the ocean, as bumpy waters and aggressive winds made use difficult, so a new iteration of the device, known as a

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the stars. Those Muslim scientists brought with them the latest astronomical instruments as well as mathematical tools for predicting heavenly movements based on what those instruments revealed. The Korean government then sent their own astronomers to Beijing to learn from those Muslims. Even though there was nothing particularly religious about the calendar those Muslim scientists produced for East Asia, it became known unofficially as the Muslim Calendar. The government in both China and Korea continued to use Muslim calendrical techniques until the 16th century, when Christian missionaries from Europe brought even more advanced instruments and calculating techniques to China.

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efficiently and consistently, and its invention led to several mathematic advances which came from the problems that arose from using the instrument. The astrolabe's original purpose was to allow one to find the altitudes of the sun and many visible stars, during the day and night, respectively. However, they have ultimately come to provide great contribution to the progress of mapping the globe, thus resulting in further exploration of the sea, which then resulted in a series of positive events that allowed the world we know today to come to be. The astrolabe has served many purposes over time, and it has shown to be quite a key factor from medieval times to the present.

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a celestial globe was as an observational instrument. Al-Battani's treatise describes in detail the plotting coordinates for 1,022 stars, as well as how the stars should be marked. An armillary sphere had similar applications. No early Islamic armillary spheres survive, but several treatises on "the instrument with the rings" were written. In this context there is also an Islamic development, the spherical astrolabe, of which only one complete instrument, from the 14th century, has survived.

744:. He was unsuccessful in replacing Ptolemy's planetary model, as the numerical predictions of the planetary positions in his configuration were less accurate than those of the Ptolemaic model. One original aspects of al-Bitruji's system is his proposal of a physical cause of celestial motions. He contradicts the Aristotelian idea that there is a specific kind of dynamics for each world, applying instead the same dynamics to the sublunar and the celestial worlds. 1598:

to find the direction of Muslim prayer (or the direction of Mecca). Aside from these purposes, the astrolabe had a great influence on navigation, specifically in the marine world. This advancement made the calculation of latitude simpler, which led to an increase in sea exploration, and indirectly led to the Renaissance revolution, an increase in global trade activity, and ultimately the discovery of several of the world's continents.

1084: 629: 30: 7681: 1172:("Ten Thousand Year Calendar" or "Eternal Calendar"). He was known as "Zhamaluding" in China, where, in 1271, he was appointed by Khan as the first director of the Islamic observatory in Beijing, known as the Islamic Astronomical Bureau, which operated alongside the Chinese Astronomical Bureau for four centuries. Islamic astronomy gained a good reputation in China for its theory of planetary 1833: 1787: 1448: 7693: 352:(d. 950) described astronomy in terms of mathematics, music, and optics. He showed how astronomy could be used to describe the Earth's motion, and the position and movement of celestial bodies, and separated mathematical astronomy from science, restricting astronomy to describing the position, shape, and size of distant objects. Al-Farabi used the writings of 1328: 856: 369: 2620: 1597:

The astrolabe required the use of mathematics, and the development of the instrument incorporated azimuth circles, which opened a series of questions on further mathematical dilemmas. Astrolabes served the purpose of finding the altitude of the sun, which also meant that they provided one the ability

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That year, the Ming government summoned for the first time the astronomical officials to come south from the upper capital of Yuan. There were fourteen of them. In order to enhance accuracy in methods of observation and computation, Hongwu Emperor reinforced the adoption of parallel calendar systems,

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We can also see Muslim influence in the official calendars of the late Goryeo period. After they gained control of China, the Mongols invited Arab astronomers to Beijing to correct mistakes that had crept into Chinese calculations of the movements of the sun, the moon, the five visible planets, and

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describes how to design the constellation images on the globe, as well as how to use the celestial globe. However, it was in Iraq in the 10th century that astronomer Al-Battani was working on celestial globes to record celestial data. This was different because up until then, the traditional use for

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were invented by Muslims. Among them was the sine quadrant used for astronomical calculations, and various forms of the horary quadrant used to determine the time (especially the times of prayer) by observations of the Sun or stars. A center of the development of quadrants was 9th century Baghdad.

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in 1957, remains an open question. Since the Tusi couple was used by Copernicus in his reformulation of mathematical astronomy, there is a growing consensus that he became aware of this idea in some way. It has been suggested that the idea of the Tusi couple may have arrived in Europe leaving few

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As observatory development continued, Islamicate scientists began to pioneer the planetarium. The major difference between a planetarium and an observatory is how the universe is projected. In an observatory, you must look up into the night sky, on the other hand, planetariums allow for universes

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Nasir al-Din Tusi wanted to use the concept of Tusi couple to replace the "equant" concept in Ptolemic model. Since the equant concept would result in the moon distance to change dramatically through each month, at least by the factor of two if the math is done. But with the Tusi couple, the moon

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The largest function of the astrolabe is it serves as a portable model of space that can calculate the approximate location of any heavenly body found within the solar system at any point in time, provided the latitude of the observer is accounted for. In order to adjust for latitude, astrolabes

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depicting the twelve zodiac symbols exist in order to emphasize elite craftsmanship and carry blessings such as one example now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Coinage also carried zodiac imagery that bears the sole purpose of representing the month in which the coin was minted. As a result,

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These instruments could measure the altitude between a celestial object and the horizon. However, as Muslim astronomers used them, they began to find other ways to use them. For example, the mural quadrant, for recording the angles of planets and celestial bodies. Or the universal quadrant, for

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in 1577, which was on the same scale as those in Maragha and Samarkand. The observatory was short-lived however, as opponents of the observatory and prognostication from the heavens prevailed and the observatory was destroyed in 1580. While the Ottoman clergy did not object to the science of

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The astrolabe was arguably the most important instrument created and used for astronomical purposes in the medieval period. Its invention in early medieval times required immense study and much trial and error in order to find the right method of which to construct it to where it would work

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Our knowledge of the instruments used by Muslim astronomers primarily comes from two sources: first the remaining instruments in private and museum collections today, and second the treatises and manuscripts preserved from the Middle Ages. Muslim astronomers of the "Golden Period" made many

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names. A large corpus of literature from Islamic astronomy remains today, numbering approximately 10,000 manuscripts scattered throughout the world, many of which have not been read or catalogued. Even so, a reasonably accurate picture of Islamic activity in the field of astronomy can be

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Abu Bakr ibn al-Sarah al-Hamawi (d. 1329) was a Syrian astronomer that invented a quadrant called “al-muqantarat al-yusra”. He devoted his time to writing several books on his accomplishments and advancements with quadrants and geometrical problems. His works on quadrants include

1034:. Several Byzantine Greek manuscripts containing the Tusi-couple are still extant in Italy. Other scholars have argued that Copernicus could well have developed these ideas independently of the late Islamic tradition. Copernicus explicitly references several astronomers of the " 619:

was another engineer/scholar that tried to make sense of the motion of planets. He came up with the concept of lemma, which is a way of representing the epicyclical motion of planets without using Ptolemic method. Lemma was intended to replace the concept of equant as well.

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established his court as a center of patronage for astronomy. He studied it in his youth, and in 1420 ordered the construction of Ulugh Beg Observatory, which produced a new set of astronomical tables, as well as contributing to other scientific and mathematical advances.

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planets and stars to project at eye-level in a room. Scientist Ibn Firnas, created a planetarium in his home that included artificial storm noises and was completely made of glass. Being the first of its kind, it very similar to what we see for planetariums today.

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This model presenting how Nasir al-Din al-Tusi explain the motion of Earth, relative to the moon and the Sun using the Tusi couple. It is used to support that Earth rotates around something, and equant is not the correct way to explain the motion of the moon around

1762:, and the study of the heavens by Islamic astronomers has translated into artistic representations of the universe and astrological concepts. The Islamic world gleaned inspiration from Greek, Iranian, and Indian traditions to represent the stars and the universe. 655:, he set forth the principles that the Earth is at the center of the universe and that it has no motion of its own. He was aware that if the Earth rotated on its axis, this would be consistent with his astronomical parameters, but he considered this a problem of 1444:. The facility contained resting quarters for Hulagu Khan, as well as a library and mosque. Some of the top astronomers of the day gathered there, and from their collaboration resulted important modifications to the Ptolemaic system over a period of 50 years. 1245:

and the Hui. In the following years, the Ming Court appointed several Hui astrologers to hold high positions in the Imperial Observatory. They wrote many books on Islamic astronomy and also manufactured astronomical equipment based on the Islamic system.

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introduced some diagrams to geometrically compute the position of the planets based on Ptolemy's epicyclical theory. The first description of the construction of a solar (as opposed to planetary) equatorium is contained in Proclus's 5th century work

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dynasty encouraged the undertaking of extensive works in astronomy; such as the construction of a large-scale instruments with which observations were made in the year 950. This is known through recordings made in the zij of astronomers such as

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of stars could be calculated with these by inputting the location of the observer on the meridian ring of the globe. The initial blueprint for a portable celestial globe to measure celestial coordinates came from Spanish Muslim astronomer

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By the 10th century, texts had appeared that doubted that Ptolemy's works were correct. Islamic scholars questioned the Earth's apparent immobility, and position at the centre of the universe, now that independent investigations into the

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Ptolemy’s Almagest (a geocentric spherical Earth cosmic model) was translated at least five times in the late eighth and ninth centuries, which was the main authoritative work that informed the Arabic astronomical tradition.

554:, he criticized elements of the Ptolemy's theories. Other astronomers took up the challenge posed in this work, and went on to develop alternate models that resolved the difficulties identified by Ibn al-Haytham. In 1070, 4161:"Elizabethan Navigation – The Art of Navigation in England in Elizabethan and Early Stuart Times. Lieut.-Commander David W. Waters, R.N. 696 + xi pp., 87 plates, 43 diagrams. London (Hollis & Carter), 1958. 84s. net" 990:

and the Tusi couple, influenced Renaissance-era European astronomy and thus Copernicus. Copernicus used such devices in the same planetary models as found in Arabic sources. Furthermore, the exact replacement of the

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published an alternative geocentric system to Ptolemy's model. His system spread through most of Europe during the 13th century, with debates and refutations of his ideas continued to the 16th century. In 1217,

451:. The work introduced Ptolemaic concepts into Islamic science, and marked a turning point in Islamic astronomy, which had previously concentrated on translating works, but which now began to develop new ideas. 1515:

Brass Celestial Globe with an ascription to Hadi Isfahani and a date of 1197 AH/ 1782–3 AD of typical spherical form, the globe engraved with markings, figures and astrological symbols, inscriptive details

705:(b. 1403). The arguments and evidence used by Tusi and Qushji resemble those used by Copernicus to support the Earth's motion. However, it remains a fact that the Maragha school never made the big leap to 1566:

The device was incredibly useful, and sometime during the 10th century it was brought to Europe from the Muslim world, where it inspired Latin scholars to take up an interest in both math and astronomy.

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constructed one such instrument in which, unlike its predecessors, did not depend on the latitude of the observer, and could be used anywhere. This instrument became known in Europe as the Saphea.

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In 1384, a Chinese astrolabe was made for observing stars based on the instructions for making multi-purposed Islamic equipment. In 1385, the apparatus was installed on a hill in northern Nanjing.

594:, which contained 16 fundamental problems he found with Ptolemaic astronomy, and by doing this, set off a chain of Islamic scholars that would attempt to solve these problems. Scholars such as 1589:

Mid-17th century astrolabe inscribed with Quranic verses and Persian poetry as well as technical information, with five interchangeable plates corresponding to the latitudes of major cities

1850: 830:(d. 1525 or 1526) and Shams al-Din al-Khafri (fl. 1525). However, the vast majority of works written in this and later periods in the history of Islamic sciences are yet to be studied. 8094: 8072: 1339:

The first systematic observations in Islam are reported to have taken place under the patronage of al-Mamun. Here, and in many other private observatories from Damascus to Baghdad,

1233:(1328–1398), in the first year of his reign (1368), conscripted Han and non-Han astrology specialists from the astronomical institutions in Beijing of the former Mongolian Yuan to 5554: 1463:

In 1420, prince Ulugh Beg, himself an astronomer and mathematician, founded another large observatory in Samarkand, the remains of which were excavated in 1908 by Russian teams.

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were used primarily for solving problems in celestial astronomy. Today, 126 such instruments remain worldwide, the oldest from the 11th century. The altitude of the Sun, or the

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all worked to produce new models for solving Tusi's 16 Problems, and the models they worked to create would become widely adopted by astronomers for use in their own works.

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In the 12th century, non-heliocentric alternatives to the Ptolemaic system were developed by some Islamic astronomers in al-Andalus, following a tradition established by

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latitude solving astronomical problems. The horary quadrant, for finding the time of day with the sun. The almucantar quadrant, which was developed from the astrolabe.

8217: 8099: 5706: 7618: 1995: 1075:, who described how a reciprocating linear motion of a celestial body could be produced by a combination of circular motions similar to those proposed by al-Tusi. 673:

The fact that some people did believe that the earth is moving on its own axis is further confirmed by an Arabic reference work from the 13th century which states:

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manuscript traces, since it could have occurred without the translation of any Arabic text into Latin. One possible route of transmission may have been through

5681: 681:), the earth is in a constant circular motion, and what appears to be the motion of the heavens is actually due to the motion of the earth and not the stars. 4997:

Alberuni's India: An Account of the Religion, Philosophy, Literature, Geography, Chronology, Astronomy, Customs, Laws and Astrology of India about A.D. 1030

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In the late 13th century, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi created the Tusi couple, as pictured above. Other notable astronomers from the later medieval period include

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Swerdlow, Noel M. (1973-12-31). "The Derivation and First Draft of Copernicus's Planetary Theory: A Translation of the Commentariolus with Commentary".

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Sundials were frequently placed on mosques to determine the time of prayer. One of the most striking examples was built in the 14th century by the

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In Synchrony with the Heavens, Studies in Astronomical Timekeeping and Instrumentation in Medieval Islamic Civilization: The Call of the Muezzin

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were probably made by ancient Greeks, although no findings nor descriptions have been preserved from that period. In his comment on Ptolemy's

8121: 8064: 6381: 6131: 5424: 5356: 5323: 5298: 5162: 5144: 5091: 5061: 4904: 4874: 4848: 4777: 4747: 4722: 4661: 4631: 4480: 4138: 4096: 4044: 3963: 3774: 3722: 3662: 3623: 3591: 3531: 3462: 3282: 3210: 3046: 3011: 2934: 2903: 2628: 2005: 5540: 6202: 6085: 2926: 1883: 6906: 6030: 915: 1050:, and Alpetragius (Al-Bitruji), but he does not show awareness of the existence of any of the later astronomers of the Maragha school. 6268: 5082: 4896: 3033: 2253: 1467: 1332: 2000: 1207:, which was largely accepted at Kublai's court. These possible influences include a pseudo-geometrical method for converting between 7800: 1916: 1865: 1819:

astrological symbols could have been used as both decoration, and a means to communicate symbolic meanings or specific information.

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served as a basis for calendar reform being more accurate than the existing Chinese-based calendars. A Korean translation of the

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in its assimilation of foreign material and the amalgamation of the disparate elements of that material to create a science with

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The translation of two important works into Chinese was completed in 1383: Zij (1366) and al-Madkhal fi Sina'at Ahkam al-Nujum,

1027: 479:. However, it also corrected Ptolemy based on the findings of earlier Arab astronomers. Al-Farghani gave revised values for the 8015: 7267: 1144:

Several Chinese astronomers worked at the Maragheh observatory, founded by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi in 1259 under the patronage of

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Mathematical Methods in Ptolemy's Analemma. In Ptolemy's Science of the Stars in the Middle Ages. Ptolemaeus Arabus et Latinus

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van Dalen, Benno (2002), "Islamic Astronomical Tables in China: The Sources for Huihui li", in Ansari, S. M. Razaullah (ed.),

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world during the "Golden Age", chiefly as an aid to finding the qibla. The earliest known example is dated to 927/8 (AH 315).

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Brass astrolabes were an invention of Late Antiquity. The first Islamic astronomer reported as having built an astrolabe is

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Some historians maintain that the thought of the Maragheh observatory, in particular the mathematical devices known as the

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CRITICAL REMARKS ON THE USE OF MEDIEVAL ECLIPSE RECORDS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF LONG-TERM CHANGES IN THE EARTH'S ROTATION

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shortly afterwards resemble the style of instrumentation built at Maragheh. In particular, the "simplified instrument" (

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In Synchrony with the Heavens, Studies in Astronomical Timekeeping and Instrumentation in Medieval Islamic Civilization

8212: 8202: 8087: 8037: 8020: 7977: 7972: 7876: 7828: 6821: 6700: 6574: 5368:(1994a), "Early Arabic Critique of Ptolemaic Cosmology: A Ninth-Century Text on the Motion of the Celestial Spheres", 1138: 1088: 176: 5807: 5696: 4960:(1998). "Configuring the Universe: Aporetic, Problem Solving, and Kinematic Modeling as Themes of Arabic Astronomy". 1890: 4377: 4206: 7920: 7775: 7604: 7386: 7178: 6075: 6065: 5686: 5576: 4915: 4793: 4769: 4739: 4714: 4513: 3686: 3038: 2836: 2698: 2616: 2081: 1212: 930: 753: 616: 492: 116: 4995: 1843: 1637: 901:"), was frequently cited by European astronomers and received several reprints, including one with annotations by 651:(b. 973) discussed the possibility of whether the Earth rotated about its own axis and around the Sun, but in his 7625: 7442: 7407: 7400: 7247: 6938: 6342: 6146: 5923: 5416: 5307: 4858: 4826: 3975:

El-Rouayheb, Khaled (2008). "The Myth of "The Triumph of Fanaticism" in the Seventeenth-Century Ottoman Empire".

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on Renaissance thought is clear and explicit, the claim of direct influence of the Maragha school, postulated by

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in the early 9th century. Astronomical research was greatly supported by al-Mamun through the House of Wisdom.

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Guessoum, N. (June 2008), "Copernicus and Ibn Al-Shatir: does the Copernican revolution have Islamic roots?",

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made tables for these instruments which considerably shortened the time needed to make specific calculations.

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It has been argued that Copernicus could have independently discovered the Tusi couple or took the idea from

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over a period of two centuries. Fragments of texts during this period show that Arab astronomers adopted the

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Berggren*, J. L. (December 1991). "Medieval Islamic Methods for Drawing Azimuth Circles on the Astrolabe".

7891: 7562: 7435: 7428: 7351: 7145: 6579: 6539: 6353: 6294: 6253: 6080: 6060: 5979: 5857: 5197: 2362: 2216: 2107: 1629:. This work of Al Biruni uses the same gear trains preserved in a 6th century Byzantine portable sundial. 1607: 1572: 1200: 1148:

in Persia. One of these Chinese astronomers was Fu Mengchi, or Fu Mezhai. In 1267, the Persian astronomer

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The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 3: The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries

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The earliest known description of a planetary equatorial is contained in early 11th century treatise by

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translation and compilation of Islamic astronomical tables, a task that was carried out by the scholars

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Abbasi, Mubashir Ul-Haq (2014). "An Astrolabe by Muhammad Muqim of Lahore Dated 1047 AH (1637–38 CE)".

2201: 1942: 663: 4889: 4616: 7982: 7833: 7760: 7524: 7456: 7274: 7212: 7003: 6980: 6973: 6865: 6839: 6680: 6650: 6055: 6035: 5726: 5625: 5610: 5377: 5211: 4929: 4683: 4315: 4250: 3582:

Richard Bulliet, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson, and David Northrup.

3566: 3416: 3235: 3128: 2817: 2751: 2517: 2301: 2061: 1957: 1642: 1422: 1340: 1176:, which did not exist in Chinese astronomy at the time, and for its accurate prediction of eclipses. 1060: 844: 736:, who considered the Ptolemaic model mathematical, and not physical. Al-Bitruji proposed a theory on 686: 585: 555: 377: 191: 4360:

Tuncer Oren (2001). "Advances in Computer and Information Sciences: From Abacus to Holonic Agents",

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improvements to instruments already in use before their time, such as adding new scales or details.

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had officially abandoned the tradition of Chinese-Islamic astronomy in 1659. The Muslim astronomer

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Yunli Shi (10 January 2002), "The Korean Adaptation of the Chinese-Islamic Astronomical Tables",

3740: 3728: 3498: 3450: 3432: 3350: 3251: 3184: 3176: 3101: 2767: 2731: 2710: 2541: 2096: 2066: 1952: 1610: 1343: 1035: 1018: 656: 637: 211: 207: 61: 6441: 6100: 2506:"A Sixteenth-Century Arabic Critique of Ptolemaic Astronomy: The Work of Shams Al-Din Al-Khafri" 1989: 1264: 45:, England. The astrolabe consists of a disk engraved with the positions of the celestial bodies. 3365: 1268: 7843: 7838: 7810: 7590: 7576: 7375: 7360: 7337: 7281: 7049: 6901: 6896: 6770: 6630: 6289: 6171: 6105: 5817: 5420: 5352: 5319: 5294: 5158: 5140: 5087: 5057: 5028: 4900: 4870: 4844: 4806: 4773: 4743: 4718: 4657: 4627: 4476: 4266: 4180: 4134: 4092: 3959: 3922: 3905:

Yunli Shi (January 2003). "The Korean Adaptation of the Chinese-Islamic Astronomical Tables".

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Yunli Shi (January 2003), "The Korean Adaptation of the Chinese-Islamic Astronomical Tables",

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Islamic astronomy played a significant role in the revival of ancient astronomy following the

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during the 13th century. Here, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi supervised its technical construction at

1315:

with Islamic astronomy works of Jamal ad-Din, was studied in Joseon Korea during the time of

941:, and others frequently cited him or his observations. His data is still used in geophysics. 7945: 7868: 7495: 7474: 7309: 7302: 6911: 6880: 6755: 6745: 6675: 6534: 6494: 6479: 6402: 6367: 6347: 6212: 6197: 5918: 5767: 5656: 5468: 5385: 5315: 5266: 5219: 5108: 5020: 4971: 4937: 4920: 4866: 4798: 4691: 4323: 4258: 4172: 4126: 4084: 3984: 3914: 3838: 3796: 3710: 3611:

The history of the relations between the Low Countries and China in the Qing era (1644–1911)

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The instruments were used to read the time of the Sun rising and fixed stars. al-Zarqali of

1414: 1316: 1302: 1260: 1196: 1161: 979:, explained it in detail and compared it with Ptolemy's. Copernicus cited his system in the 863: 826:

Several major astronomical works were produced in the early 16th century, including ones by

737: 551: 515: 504: 432: 295: 199: 109: 89: 4449:. Bibliotheca scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana. Karl Manitius (ed.). Leipzig: 3290: 3270: 2962: 1281:), which was published in China a number of times until the early 18th century, though the 1010:) of Damascus. Copernicus' lunar and Mercury models are also identical to Ibn al-Shatir's. 8179: 7795: 7739: 7641: 7316: 7233: 7171: 7126: 7070: 6816: 6750: 6514: 6469: 5999: 5873: 5842: 5777: 5605: 5532: 5521: 4641: 3752: 3557:

Rufus, W. C. (May 1939), "The Influence of Islamic Astronomy in Europe and the Far East",

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African Cultural Astronomy: Current Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy research in Africa

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Ptolemaic Astronomy, Islamic Planetary Theory, and Copernicus's Debt to the Maragha School

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Subtelny, Maria E. (2010). "Tamerlane and his descendants: from paladins to patrons". In

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would just rotate around Earth resulting in the correct observation and applied concept.

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Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering

5215: 4933: 4687: 4319: 4254: 3570: 3420: 3239: 3132: 3000:

Light from the East: How the Science of Medieval Islam Helped to Shape the Western World

2755: 2521: 8174: 8032: 7790: 7770: 7488: 7421: 7323: 6660: 6635: 6421: 6284: 5938: 5913: 5898: 5883: 5847: 5716: 5257: 5231: 5193: 4840: 4762: 4695: 4646: 4262: 3159: 3084: 2269: 2127: 1811:

palace, has a bath dome decorated with the Islamic zodiac and other celestial designs.

1478: 1475: 1406: 1286: 1226: 1126: 1114: 1083: 1031: 921: 811: 628: 539: 519: 299: 5223: 5077: 3028: 1067:

Another possible source for Copernicus's knowledge of this mathematical device is the

214:. These were based on the rising and setting of particular stars, and this indigenous 29: 8196: 7992: 7785: 7546: 6780: 6690: 6564: 6434: 6427: 6126: 5994: 5969: 5908: 5513: 5456: 5434: 5404: 5397: 5365: 5278: 5120: 5069: 5049: 5040: 4991: 4983: 4949: 4509: 4335: 4192: 3934: 3858: 3816: 3732: 3502: 3436: 3361: 3346: 3188: 3105: 3029:"Al-Battānī, Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad Ibn Jābir Ibn Sinān al-Raqqī al-Ḥarrānī al–Ṣābi" 2957: 2771: 2714: 2545: 2221: 1800: 1391: 1118: 1072: 968: 902: 859: 786: 706: 514:

found errors in Ptolemy's calculations. Ptolemy calculated that the Earth's angle of

431:

in 830. It contained tables for the movements of the Sun, the Moon, and the planets

401: 393: 215: 57: 5480: 3325: 8164: 7502: 7481: 7099: 6610: 6504: 6217: 6151: 6004: 5747: 5711: 5459:(2000), "Arabic versus Greek Astronomy: A Debate over the Foundations of Science", 4884: 4614:

Dallal, Ahmad (1999). "Science, Medicine and Technology". In Esposito, John (ed.).

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Islam in the Era of Globalization: Muslim Attitudes Towards Modernity and Identity

3316:

Viktor Blåsjö, "A Critique of the Arguments for Maragha Influence on Copernicus",

2919:

Holbrook, Jarita; Medupe, Rodney Thebe; Urama, Johnson O., eds. (1 January 2008).

1814:

The Islamic zodiac and astrological visuals can be seen in examples of metalwork.

1606:

Abu Rayhan Biruni designed an instrument he called "Box of the Moon", which was a

1179:

Some of the astronomical instruments constructed by the famous Chinese astronomer

522:

every 100 years. Ibn Yunus calculated the rate of change to be one degree every 70

417: 5527: 5050:"Biṭrūjī: Nūr al-Dīn Abū Isḥāq [Abū Jaʿfar] Ibrāhīm ibn Yūsuf al-Biṭrūjī" 4733: 4130: 3880: 3609: 1152:, who previously worked at Maragha observatory, presented Kublai Khan with seven 7858: 7747: 7569: 6785: 6775: 6740: 6549: 6529: 6408: 6248: 5984: 5933: 5893: 5661: 5411:

A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam

4957: 3203:

A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam

3062: 2264: 2248: 1984: 1832: 1754:

Examples of cosmological imagery in Islamic art can be found in objects such as

1729: 1646: 1528: 1437: 1430: 1307: 1273: 1242: 1145: 1134: 976: 926: 871: 827: 476: 464: 373: 346: 69: 17: 5472: 5389: 5112: 5006: 4160: 4078: 3428: 2689:

Ragep, F. Jamil (2001a), "Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's Motion in Context",

2529: 7539: 7516: 6996: 6730: 6720: 6710: 6615: 6595: 6519: 6187: 6136: 5974: 5964: 5802: 5797: 5782: 5024: 4916:"Freeing Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic Influence on Science" 4327: 4176: 4088: 4077:

Rodríguez-Arribas, Josefina; Burnett, Charles; Ackermann, Silke (2018-12-18),

4010: 3918: 3842: 3800: 3714: 3457:, vol. 2, Berlin / Heidelberg / New York: Springer-Verlag, p. 1035, 3003: 2740:"Freeing Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic Influence on Science" 2706: 2242: 2165: 2159: 2154: 2091: 2086: 2040: 2035: 1786: 1755: 1743: 1709: 1657:

Muslims made several important improvements to the theory and construction of

1614: 1536:(d. 1145). Another skillful Muslim astronomer working on celestial globes was 1387: 1100: 1047: 987: 945: 890: 797: 722: 718: 702: 579: 484: 475:("A compendium of the science of stars"). The book gave a summary of Ptolemic 238:

when Arab astronomers introduced mathematics to their study of the night sky.

77: 5102: 5032: 4810: 4802: 4270: 4184: 3988: 3926: 3850: 3808: 3247: 3082:

Roberts, V.; Kennedy, E. S. (1959). "The Planetary Theory of Ibn al-Shatir".

2537: 2505: 2369:, London: British Museum Press, pp. 143-174, (P148) ISBN 978-0714127330, 1996 1110:

introduced the concept of seven days in a week and made other contributions.

8052: 7755: 7634: 6961: 6765: 6705: 6484: 6263: 6207: 5878: 5812: 5787: 5671: 5348: 4757: 3523: 2577:, 24 (1971): 59–81; reprinted in David A. King and Mary Helen Kennedy, ed., 2236: 2186: 2133: 2117: 2076: 2046: 1804: 1777: 1666: 1650: 1579: 1483: 1456: 1386:

also established a similar observatory in Baghdad. Reports by Ibn Yunus and

1350:), solar parameters were established, and detailed observations of the Sun, 996: 919:, mentioned al-Battani no fewer than 23 times, and also mentions him in the 819: 815: 726: 667: 633: 511: 397: 349: 283: 271: 139: 53: 42: 34: 1732:, preserved only as a 13th-century Castillian translation contained in the 1133:

to Persia in 1210 and studied their calendar for use in the Mongol Empire.

588:

also exposed problems present in Ptolemy's work. In 1261, he published his

1447: 666:, accepted that the Earth rotates around its axis. Al-Biruni described an 177:

Cosmology in medieval Islam § Cosmology in the medieval Islamic world

6790: 6760: 6725: 6715: 6655: 6474: 5989: 5959: 5903: 5837: 5827: 5752: 5666: 4975: 4214: 3709:. Astrophysics and Space Science Library. Vol. 274. pp. 19–32. 3477:

Kren, Claudia (1971), "The Rolling Device of Naṣir al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī in the

2750:(Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions): 49–64 & 66–71, 2675: 2181: 2138: 1962: 1742:); the same book contains also a 1080/1081 treatise on the equatorial by 1725:, where he gives instructions on how to construct one in wood or bronze. 1674: 1362: 1173: 1014: 963: 536: 385: 357: 85: 4818: 4119:"Safavid Art, Science, and Courtly Education in the Seventeenth Century" 4003:"What is the purpose of the metal ring or semi-ring around some globes?" 2380:

Islam, Science, and the Challenge of History (The Terry Lectures Series)

1327: 495:. The book was circulated through the Muslim world, and translated into 368: 8147: 7965: 7960: 6695: 6685: 6620: 6569: 6509: 6499: 6464: 5822: 4788: 4450: 2972:. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 491. 1808: 1658: 1626: 1560: 1441: 1355: 1234: 1216: 1208: 1165: 1107: 1054: 605: 460: 444: 413: 353: 155: 151: 3255: 3180: 855: 8169: 8157: 8152: 7916: 7823: 7664: 6670: 6665: 5290: 5179: 3767:

Li, Qi, and Shu: An Introduction to Science and Civilization in China

3682: 2595: 2191: 1759: 1298: 1188: 1103: 1095:

Islamic influence on Chinese astronomy was first recorded during the

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vande Walle, Willy (2003). vande Walle, W.F.; Golvers, Noel (eds.).

566:, in which he discussed the issues arising from Ptolemy's theory of 5270: 4941: 3494: 3172: 3097: 2763: 1575:, was developed to counteract the difficult conditions of the sea. 1413:

with many other collaborators constructed a zij and formulated the

1271:, a Chinese scholar-official. These tables came to be known as the 1237:

to become officials of the newly established national observatory.

360:, a way of calculating the Sun's position from any fixed location. 8025: 7955: 7938: 7708: 6735: 6600: 6524: 4072: 4070: 2961: 1636: 1584: 1506: 1486:, which they did oppose, and successfully sought its destruction. 1446: 1326: 1157: 1082: 854: 627: 604: 496: 436: 367: 334: 326: 322: 314: 147: 97: 28: 1289:

was known for his attacks on the Jesuit's astronomical sciences.

1259:

Around 1384, during the Ming dynasty, Hongwu Emperor ordered the

1223:

in the calculation of the irregularity in the planetary motions.

7950: 7933: 7853: 7848: 4674:(May 1991), "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", 1622: 1618: 1512: 1426: 1379: 1351: 983:

while discussing theories of the order of the inferior planets.

550:("Doubts on Ptolemy"). While not disputing the existence of the 440: 7712: 6934: 6320: 5574: 5536: 3707:

Islamic Astronomical Tables in China: The Sources for Huihui li

3157:

E. S. Kennedy (Autumn 1966), "Late Medieval Planetary Theory",

2644:

Bausani, Alessandro (1973). "Cosmology and Religion in Islam".

1678:(timekeeper) of the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, ibn al-Shatir. 7106: 6393: 4538:. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. 63–69. 2820:(March 1972). "Theory and Observation in Medieval Astronomy", 1826: 1398:

indicate the use of sophisticated instruments for their time.

898: 641: 258: 5107:. Vol. Studies 1. Brepols Publishers. pp. 1:35–77. 1117:

in order to work on calendar making and astronomy during the

6930: 5333:

The Cambridge History of Science. Volume 2: Medieval Science

4764:

The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West

1936: 1697:

Rare Pearls on Operations with the Circle for Finding Sines.

882:

Several works of Islamic astronomy were translated to Latin

670:

invented by Sijzi based on the idea that the earth rotates.

4797:. Early Science and Medicine 15, no. 3 (2010) (3): 237–65. 4378:

A Byzantine Sundial-Calendar, reconstruction by M.T. Wright

4045:"An exhibition of Islamic art from the al-Sabah Collection" 3349:, "Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?" 2592:

History of Mankind, Vol 3: The Great medieval Civilisations

5335:(Cambridge UP, 2013), chapter 4 covers astronomy in Islam. 2563:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 215–220. 2898:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 184–5. 1405:

who established the first large observatory, probably in

250:

were of Indian and Persian origin. The most notable was

5502: 5439:"Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?" 2333: 2331: 1482:

astronomy, the observatory was primarily being used for

1436:

The most influential observatory was however founded by

1195:

show traces of Islamic influence. While formulating the

5503:

The Arab Union for Astronomy and Space Sciences (AUASS)

5255:

King, David A. (1983), "The Astronomy of the Mamluks",

5007:"Al-Qushjī's Reform of the Ptolemaic Model for Mercury" 4510:"Astronomy and Astrology in the Medieval Islamic World" 3705:

Benno, van Dalen (2002). Ansari, S.M. Razaullah (ed.).

2318: 2316: 582:, included a list of objections to Ptolemic astronomy. 246:

The first astronomical texts that were translated into

3366:"Islamic Science and the Making of Renaissance Europe" 202:, who had developed elaborate systems of mathematical 5155:

Astronomy and Astrology in the Medieval Islamic World

2613:

Religion, Learning and Science in the 'Abbasid Period

1219:

in the underlying parameters, and the application of

112:

in particular, which were translated and built upon.

5175:

Was Muslim Astronomy the Harbinger of Copernicanism?

2857: 2855: 2853: 2801: 2799: 2797: 2795: 1559:(late 8th century). Astrolabes were popular in the 1378:, who systematically revised Ptolemy's catalogue of 8135: 8063: 8001: 7915: 7867: 7809: 7746: 7466: 7374: 7257: 7197: 7118: 7080: 7041: 7034: 6889: 6858: 6799: 6588: 6455: 6391: 6331: 6277: 6241: 6180: 6119: 6018: 5947: 5866: 5735: 5639: 5598: 5000:. Vol. 1. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner. 2782: 2780: 1857:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1013:While the influence of the criticism of Ptolemy by 5408: 4888: 4761: 4706: 4645: 4615: 2590:G. Wiet, V. Elisseeff, P. Wolff, J. Naudu (1975). 1042:: Albategnius (Al-Battani), Averroes (Ibn Rushd), 1003:was found in an earlier work by Ibn al-Shatir (d. 636:'s astronomical works that explains the different 578:("Recapitulation regarding Ptolemy"), produced in 317:, with its obligation to determine the five daily 138:A significant number of stars in the sky, such as 4891:An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines 3228:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 961:), which became a valid alternative to Ptolemy's 5314:, vol. 2: Instruments of Mass Calculation, 874:, thus eliminating the Ptolemaic eccentrics and 392:. Rotations of the circles cause a point on the 64:(9th–13th centuries), and mostly written in the 3304:Encyclopaedia of Islamic science and scientists 1693:Treatise on Operations with the Hidden Quadrant 337:) inspired intellectual progress in astronomy. 3271:"Ibn al-Shāṭir: ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn ʿAlī ibn Ibrāhīm" 1621:-wheels. This was an early example of a fixed- 570:, and proposed a solution. The anonymous work 68:. These developments mostly took place in the 7724: 6946: 5548: 5344:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 4469:The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy 3586:. 3. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2005. 1661:, which they inherited from their Indian and 1141:and an institution for astronomical studies. 953:finished a Latin translation of al-Bitruji's 423:The first major Muslim work of astronomy was 131:. Islamic astronomy also had an influence on 8: 5054:The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers 4648:Islam, Science, and the Challenge of History 3275:The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers 2573:E. S. Kennedy, "Al-Bīrūnī's Masudic Canon", 589: 572: 560: 544: 469: 276: 228: 220: 92:. It closely parallels the genesis of other 4392:"Saudi Aramco World :From Africa, in Ajami" 4306:Castro, F (2015). "The Astrolabe Project". 4207:"The Saphea Arzachelis Universal Astrolabe" 3644: 3642: 3455:A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy 3337:Claudia Kren, "The Rolling Device," p. 497. 1203:may have also been partially influenced by 7731: 7717: 7709: 7038: 6953: 6939: 6931: 6335: 6328: 6317: 5584: 5571: 5555: 5541: 5533: 4735:The Cambridge Concise History of Astronomy 4536:Cosmos and Community In Early Medieval Art 3390: 2993: 2991: 2730:Ragep, F. Jamil; Al-Qushji, Ali (2001b), 2725: 2723: 1917:Learn how and when to remove this message 1866:"Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world" 1421:. A modern version of this calendar, the 384:rotates inside a larger circle twice the 7611: 5056:. New York: Springer. pp. 133–134. 5052:. In Thomas Hockey; et al. (eds.). 4462: 4460: 3873:"Islam Struggles for a Toehold in Korea" 3603: 3601: 3599: 3552: 3550: 3273:. In Thomas Hockey; et al. (eds.). 2606: 2604: 2594:, p. 649. George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1929:Some of the below are from Hill (1993), 1168:, which was later known in China as the 39:Whipple Museum of the History of Science 8218:Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world 5564:Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world 5341:Rashed, Roshdi; Morelon, Régis (1996), 3769:, p. 105. Mineola: Dover Publications. 3277:. New York: Springer. pp. 569–70. 2312: 2297:Astrology in the medieval Islamic world 1792:Detail of the Interior of the bath dome 6361:Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity 5707:Khalid ibn Abd al‐Malik al‐Marwarrudhi 5331:Lindberg, D.C., and M. H. Shank, eds. 4789:"Al-Fārābī on the Method of Astronomy" 3748: 3738: 2982: 2873: 2579:Studies in the Islamic Exact Sciences, 2491: 2479: 2467: 2455: 2443: 2431: 2419: 2349: 2337: 2322: 2245:, also a mathematician and philosopher 1503:Celestial globes and armillary spheres 1279:Muslim System of Calendrical Astronomy 971:. Several European writers, including 640:, with respect to the position of the 404:along a diameter of the larger circle. 6382:The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries 5086:. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 4447:Hypotyposis Astronomicarum Positionum 4301: 4299: 4236: 4234: 4232: 3907:Archive for History of Exact Sciences 3831:Archive for History of Exact Sciences 3789:Archive for History of Exact Sciences 3700: 3698: 3696: 3516:Meuleman, Johan (30 September 2005). 3405:"Copernicus and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi" 3144: 3072:', Surveys in Geophysics 18: 213–223. 2927:Springer Science & Business Media 2861: 2805: 2407: 510:The 10th century Egyptian astronomer 376:is a mathematical device invented by 7: 7692: 5370:Journal for the History of Astronomy 4598: 4495: 4432: 4420: 4348: 3409:Journal for the History of Astronomy 3318:Journal for the History of Astronomy 2786: 2662: 2510:Journal for the History of Astronomy 2395: 1855:adding citations to reliable sources 2611:Young, M. J. L., ed. (2006-11-02). 1996:Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir 1740:Books of the knowledge of astronomy 1139:Beijing to construct an observatory 916:De revolutionibus orbium coelestium 6826: 5083:Dictionary of Scientific Biography 5078:"Al-Bitruji Al-Ishbili, Abu Ishaq" 4897:State University of New York Press 4696:10.1038/scientificamerican0591-100 4550:"Ewer base with Zodiac medallions" 4263:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1991.tb00864.x 3034:Dictionary of Scientific Biography 25: 5224:10.1038/scientificamerican0486-74 5005:Saliba, George (September 1993). 3677:Zhu, Siben; Walter Fuchs (1946). 2738:; van der Meer, Jitse M. (eds.), 1758:, astrological tools, and palace 1193:Gaocheng Astronomical Observatory 909:, in his book that initiated the 740:in which he wished to avoid both 491:of the Sun and the Moon, and the 162:, are still referred to by their 150:, and astronomical terms such as 123:, notably with the production of 7907:Reception in early modern Europe 7902:Contributions to Medieval Europe 7691: 7680: 7679: 7450:Southern African Large Telescope 6456: 5135:Ajram, K. (1992), "Appendix B", 4829:(1996). "Islamic Astronomy". In 4556:. The Metropolitan Museum of Art 4123:From Alexandria, Through Baghdad 1931:Islamic Science And Engineering' 1831: 1785: 1769: 1154:Persian astronomical instruments 1153: 1059:Commentary on the First Book of 866:, showing the multiplication of 862:'s model for the appearances of 699:Najm al-Din al-Qazwini al-Katibi 427:, produced by the mathematician 100:characteristics. These included 6086:Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al‐Farisi 4709:Islamic Science And Engineering 4308:Journal of Maritime Archaeology 4080:Astrolabes in Medieval Cultures 4034:: Golden Age of Persia. p. 163. 3655:Springer Science+Business Media 2386:. pp. 135. Kindle Location 947. 2382:. Yale University Press. 2012. 2254:Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf 1842:needs additional citations for 1468:Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf 6575:Schema for horizontal sundials 6091:Abu Ali al-Hasan al-Marrakushi 5616:Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī 5287:Islamic mathematical astronomy 5139:, Knowledge House Publishers, 5012:Arabic Sciences and Philosophy 4836:Astronomy before the Telescope 4398:. Aramco World. Archived from 4117:Brentjes, Sonja (2013-09-18), 2367:Astronomy before the Telescope 1735:Libros del saber de astronomia 1425:, is still in official use in 1038:" (10th to 12th centuries) in 884:starting from the 12th century 713:Alternative geocentric systems 701:(d. 1277), Tusi (b. 1201) and 429:Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi 412:was an academy established in 264:Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī 127:translations of Arabic works 1: 5514:History of Islamic Astrolabes 4390:Verde, Tom (September 2011). 3651:History of Oriental Astronomy 3201:Saliba, George (1995-07-01). 2504:Saliba, George (1994-02-01). 1540:(b. 903), whose treatise the 1361:During the 10th century, the 1331:Work in the observatorium of 1164:, as well as an astronomical 1004: 843:Islamic astronomy influenced 801: 790: 779: 768: 757: 677:According to the geometers ( 8143:Arab Agricultural Revolution 6833:Constantinople (Taqi al-Din) 5497:article on Islamic Astronomy 4159:Chilton, D. (January 1959). 4131:10.1007/978-3-642-36736-6_22 3302:N.K. Singh, M. Zaki Kirmani, 2144:Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī 2006:Al-Hasan ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir 1716:, 4th century mathematician 1199:in 1281, Shoujing's work in 6822:University of al-Qarawiyyin 6026:Ibn al-Banna' al-Marrakushi 5508:King Abdul Aziz Observatory 5499:(archived 18 December 2005) 5157:. Brookfield, VT: Ashgate. 5153:Kennedy, Edward S. (1998). 4618:The Oxford History of Islam 4534:Anderson, Benjamin (2017). 3679:The "Mongol Atlas" of China 2998:Freely, John (2015-03-30). 2646:Scientia/Rivista di Scienza 2561:Early Physics and Astronomy 2365:", In Walker, Christopher, 1348:al-Ma'mun's arc measurement 1267:, a Muslim astronomer, and 1089:Beijing Ancient Observatory 1026:, which translated some of 535:Between 1025 and 1028, the 325:(the direction towards the 294:from India in place of the 282:was also based upon Indian 33:18th century Persian brass 8234: 6066:Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi 5473:10.1162/106361400753373713 5390:10.1177/002182869402500205 5137:Miracle of Islamic Science 5113:10.1484/M.PALS-EB.5.120173 4794:Early Science and Medicine 4770:Cambridge University Press 4740:Cambridge University Press 4715:Edinburgh University Press 4514:Metropolitan Museum of Art 3871:Baker, Don (Winter 2006). 3687:Fu Jen Catholic University 3429:10.1177/002182867300400205 3403:Veselovsky, I. N. (1973), 3027:Hartner, Willy (1970–80). 2699:Cambridge University Press 2617:Cambridge University Press 2581:Beirut, 1983, pp. 573–595. 2530:10.1177/002182869402500102 2227:Shams al-Dīn al-Samarqandī 1156:, including a terrestrial 1064:, which Copernicus cited. 1030:'s works from Arabic into 999:used by Copernicus in the 931:Giovanni Battista Riccioli 493:circumference of the Earth 174: 60:, particularly during the 50:Medieval Islamic astronomy 8095:Geography and cartography 7801:Influences on Western art 7674: 7443:Large Binocular Telescope 7408:Extremely Large Telescope 7401:Extremely large telescope 6968: 6907:Medieval European science 6338: 6327: 6316: 6167:Sadr al-Shari'a al-Asghar 5924:Ibrahim ibn Said al-Sahli 5587: 5583: 5570: 5417:New York University Press 5025:10.1017/s0957423900001776 4914:Ragep, F. Jamil (2001b). 4471:. Oxford & New York: 4328:10.1007/s11457-015-9149-9 4177:10.1017/s0373463300045987 4089:10.1163/9789004387867_002 3919:10.1007/s00407-002-0060-z 3843:10.1007/s00407-002-0060-z 3801:10.1007/s00407-002-0060-z 3715:10.1007/978-94-015-9862-0 3584:The Earth and Its Peoples 2707:10.1017/s0269889701000060 2001:Ahmad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir 1374:was patronised by prince 1251:Introduction to Astrology 1113:Islamic astronomers were 1044:Thebit (Thābit ibn Qurra) 810:In the 15th century, the 776:Sadr al-Sharia al-Bukhari 659:rather than mathematics. 574:al-Istidrak ala Batlamyus 481:obliquity of the ecliptic 396:of the smaller circle to 56:developments made in the 7415:Gran Telescopio Canarias 6157:Nizam al-Din al-Nisapuri 6051:Muhyi al-Din al-Maghribi 5692:Ali ibn Isa al-Asturlabi 5528:Al-Sufi's constellations 5347:, 1, vol. & 3, 4803:10.1163/157338210X493941 4732:Hoskin, Michael (1999). 3989:10.1163/157006008X335930 3952:The History of the World 2847:.(inaccessible document) 1750:Astronomy in Islamic art 1215:, the systematic use of 742:epicycles and eccentrics 7510:Astrology and astronomy 7220:Gravitational radiation 6259:Baha' al-din al-'Amili 6233:'Abd al-'Aziz al-Wafa'i 6111:Fakhr al-Din al-Akhlati 6031:Ibn al‐Ha'im al‐Ishbili 5461:Perspectives on Science 5285:King, David A. (1986), 5101:Sidoli, Nathan (2020). 4963:Perspectives on Science 4624:Oxford University Press 4473:Oxford University Press 4083:, BRILL, pp. 1–2, 3956:Oxford University Press 3765:Ho, Peng Yoke. (2000). 3616:Leuven University Press 3269:King, David A. (2007). 3039:Charles Scribner's Sons 2969:Encyclopædia Britannica 2559:Pedersen, Olaf (1993). 2113:Abū al-Wafā' al-Būzjānī 1370:. The great astronomer 754:Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi 691:Samarkand observatories 617:Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi 546:Al-Shukuk ala Batlamyus 218:tradition was known as 190:notes that, unlike the 129:during the 12th century 7429:Hubble Space Telescope 6540:Navigational astrolabe 6295:Al Achsasi al Mouakket 6061:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi 5980:Al-Samawal al-Maghribi 5929:Ibn Mu'adh al-Jayyani 5858:Abu al-Hasan al-Ahwazi 5510:(archived 7 July 2007) 4787:Janos, Damien (2010). 3877:Harvard Asia Quarterly 2239:, also a mathematician 2217:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi 2108:Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi 1975:, also a mathematician 1807:, which was used as a 1654: 1590: 1517: 1460: 1415:Persian Solar Calendar 1336: 1319:in the 15th century. 1229:(r. 1368–1398) of the 1201:spherical trigonometry 1125:. The Chinese scholar 1092: 879: 765:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi 683: 645: 611: 600:Shams al-Din al-Khafri 596:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi 590: 573: 561: 545: 470: 405: 356:, as described in his 277: 229: 221: 212:empirical observations 186:The Islamic historian 46: 8078:Alchemy and chemistry 7533:Astroparticle physics 7268:Australian Aboriginal 6876:Hellenistic astronomy 6847:Samarkand (Ulugh Beg) 6641:Deferent and epicycle 6041:Alam al-Din al-Hanafi 6010:Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi 5652:Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi 5076:Samsó, Julio (1980). 5048:Samsó, Julio (2007). 4654:Yale University Press 4467:Evans, James (1998). 4165:Journal of Navigation 2841:Science and Its Times 2197:Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī 2176:Nur Ed-Din Al Betrugi 2057:Abd Al-Rahman Al Sufi 1979:Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi 1640: 1625:knowledge processing 1588: 1538:Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi 1510: 1453:Ulugh Beg Observatory 1450: 1372:Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi 1330: 1086: 1048:Arzachel (Al-Zarqali) 969:scholasticist circles 911:Copernican Revolution 858: 734:Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji 732:A notable example is 675: 632:An illustration from 631: 608: 598:, Ibn al-Shatir, and 416:under Abbasid caliph 371: 121:early medieval period 32: 8208:History of astronomy 7525:Astronomers Monument 7457:Very Large Telescope 7004:Astronomical symbols 6866:Babylonian astronomy 6681:Gravitational energy 6056:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi 6046:Najm al‐Din al‐Misri 5727:Yahya ibn Abi Mansur 5626:Mashallah ibn Athari 5611:Al-Fadl ibn Naubakht 4976:10.1162/posc_a_00552 4843:. pp. 143–174. 4396:saudiaramcoworld.com 2818:Bernard R. Goldstein 2302:History of astronomy 2256:, Ottoman astronomer 2207:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi 2072:Abū Ja'far al-Khāzin 1958:Mashallah ibn Athari 1851:improve this article 1776:The bath complex at 1643:Timbuktu Manuscripts 1423:Solar Hijri calendar 1409:. It was here where 1213:ecliptic coordinates 1137:brought Iranians to 586:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi 556:Abu Ubayd al-Juzjani 378:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi 341:Astronomical methods 234:was developed after 7988:Early social change 7887:Early social change 7598:List of astronomers 7011:Astronomical object 6807:Al-Azhar University 6626:Celestial mechanics 6416:Book of Fixed Stars 6375:The Book of Healing 6354:Aja'ib al-Makhluqat 6096:Ibn Ishaq al-Tunisi 6071:Zakariya al-Qazwini 5682:Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf 5677:Abu Hanifa Dinawari 5495:Scientific American 5443:Columbia University 5382:1994JHA....25..115S 5244:on 18 February 2008 5216:1986SciAm.254d..74G 5203:Scientific American 5198:"Islamic astronomy" 4934:2001Osir...16...49R 4831:Walker, Christopher 4688:1991SciAm.264e.100H 4676:Scientific American 4435:, pp. 167–168. 4423:, pp. 168–169. 4320:2015JMarA..10..205C 4255:1991Cent...34..309B 4217:on 10 December 2011 4032:Richard Nelson Frye 3977:Die Welt des Islams 3954:, pp. 264–74, 3948:John Morris Roberts 3657:, pp. 19–32 , 3571:1939PA.....47..233R 3481:of Nicole Oresme", 3421:1973JHA.....4..128V 3371:Library of Congress 3240:1973PAPhS.117..423S 3133:2008Obs...128..231G 2963:"Albategnius" 2756:2001Osir...16...49R 2732:Brooke, John Hedley 2665:, pp. 135–136. 2522:1994JHA....25...15S 2410:, pp. 243–245. 1968:Abu Hanifa Dinawari 1823:Notable astronomers 1718:Theon of Alexandria 1602:Mechanical calendar 1573:Mariner's astrolabe 1543:Book of Fixed Stars 1311:, a text combining 1221:cubic interpolation 1205:Islamic mathematics 1121:and the succeeding 1069:Questiones de Spera 907:Nicolaus Copernicus 899:Astronomical Tables 284:astronomical tables 84:, and later in the 8213:Islamic Golden Age 8203:Medieval astronomy 7584:Physical cosmology 6871:Egyptian astronomy 6812:House of Knowledge 6490:Astronomical clock 6300:Muhammad al-Rudani 5697:Banū Mūsā brothers 5647:Abu Ali al-Khayyat 5520:2016-08-12 at the 4055:on 31 October 2007 3364:(April 27, 2006). 3068:2012-10-23 at the 3061:Dalmau, W. (1997) 2736:Osler, Margaret J. 2691:Science in Context 2202:Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi 2097:Brethren of Purity 2067:Kushyar ibn Labban 1953:Muhammad al-Fazari 1655: 1611:lunisolar calendar 1591: 1557:Muhammad al-Fazari 1518: 1461: 1344:degree measurement 1337: 1197:Shoushili calendar 1093: 1036:Islamic Golden Age 1019:Otto E. Neugebauer 880: 664:Abu Sa'id al-Sijzi 662:His contemporary, 657:natural philosophy 646: 638:phases of the moon 612: 406: 400:back and forth in 304:Greek trigonometry 286:, compiled in the 62:Islamic Golden Age 47: 8190: 8189: 8158:elementary school 7776:Geometric pattern 7706: 7705: 7591:Quantum cosmology 7577:Planetary geology 7370: 7369: 7081:Celestial subject 6928: 6927: 6924: 6923: 6920: 6919: 6902:Chinese astronomy 6897:Byzantine science 6771:Temporal finitism 6701:Islamic cosmology 6631:Celestial spheres 6451: 6450: 6343:Arabic star names 6312: 6311: 6308: 6307: 6172:Fathullah Shirazi 6106:Al-Ashraf Umar II 5818:Ibrahim ibn Sinan 5621:Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī 5426:978-0-8147-8023-7 5358:978-0-415-12410-2 5325:978-90-04-14188-9 5300:978-0-86078-407-4 5182:on 2 January 2008 5172:Gill, M. (2005), 5164:978-0-86078-682-5 5146:978-0-911119-43-5 5093:978-0-684-10114-9 5063:978-0-387-31022-0 4906:978-0-7914-1515-3 4876:978-90-04-14188-9 4850:978-0-7141-2733-0 4779:978-0-521-52994-5 4749:978-0-521-57600-0 4724:978-0-7486-0455-5 4663:978-0-300-15911-0 4633:978-01951-0-799-9 4580:www.metmuseum.org 4498:, pp. 75–77. 4482:978-0-19-509539-5 4362:Turk J Elec Engin 4140:978-3-642-36735-9 4098:978-90-04-38786-7 3964:978-0-19-521043-9 3775:978-0-486-41445-4 3724:978-94-015-9862-0 3664:978-1-4020-0657-9 3625:978-90-5867-315-2 3592:978-0-618-42770-3 3559:Popular Astronomy 3533:978-1-135-78829-2 3464:978-0-387-06995-1 3284:978-0-387-31022-0 3212:978-0-8147-8023-7 3048:978-0-684-10114-9 3013:978-1-78453-138-6 2936:978-1-4020-6639-9 2905:978-0-521-85031-5 2630:978-0-521-02887-5 2363:Islamic Astronomy 2361:King, David A., " 2287: 2286: 2062:Abu Sa'id Gorgani 2024:Ibrahim ibn Sinan 1948:Ibrahim al-Fazari 1927: 1926: 1919: 1901: 1686:Several forms of 1472:large observatory 1358:were undertaken. 1313:Chinese astronomy 1106:astronomer named 1040:De Revolutionibus 1024:Byzantine science 981:De revolutionibus 955:Book of Cosmology 697:was discussed by 649:Abu Rayhan Biruni 455:Doubts on Ptolemy 380:in which a small 208:pre-Islamic Arabs 182:Pre-Islamic Arabs 133:Chinese astronomy 117:loss of knowledge 16:(Redirected from 8225: 8065:Medieval science 7733: 7726: 7719: 7710: 7699: 7695: 7694: 7687: 7683: 7682: 7667: 7658: 7651: 7644: 7637: 7628: 7621: 7614: 7612:Medieval Islamic 7607: 7600: 7593: 7586: 7579: 7572: 7565: 7556: 7549: 7542: 7535: 7528: 7519: 7512: 7505: 7498: 7496:Astroinformatics 7491: 7484: 7477: 7475:Archaeoastronomy 7459: 7452: 7445: 7438: 7436:Keck Observatory 7431: 7424: 7417: 7410: 7403: 7396: 7389: 7363: 7354: 7347: 7340: 7333: 7331:Medieval Islamic 7326: 7319: 7312: 7305: 7298: 7291: 7284: 7277: 7270: 7250: 7243: 7236: 7229: 7222: 7215: 7208: 7190: 7181: 7174: 7167: 7160: 7158: 7150: 7148: 7136: 7129: 7109: 7102: 7095: 7073: 7066: 7059: 7052: 7039: 7027: 7020: 7013: 7006: 6999: 6990: 6983: 6976: 6955: 6948: 6941: 6932: 6912:Indian astronomy 6881:Indian astronomy 6849: 6842: 6835: 6756:Sublunary sphere 6746:Specific gravity 6646:Earth's rotation 6535:Mural instrument 6480:Armillary sphere 6403:Alfonsine tables 6368:Tabula Rogeriana 6348:Islamic calendar 6336: 6329: 6318: 6213:Sibt al-Maridini 6198:Jamshid al-Kashi 5919:Said al-Andalusi 5722:Thābit ibn Qurra 5657:Abu Said Gorgani 5631:Yaʿqūb ibn Ṭāriq 5585: 5572: 5557: 5550: 5543: 5534: 5483: 5452: 5450: 5449: 5430: 5414: 5400: 5361: 5328: 5316:Brill Publishers 5303: 5281: 5251: 5250: 5249: 5240:, archived from 5232:Hassan, Ahmad Y. 5227: 5189: 5188: 5187: 5178:, archived from 5168: 5149: 5124: 5097: 5067: 5044: 5001: 4987: 4953: 4910: 4895:(2nd ed.). 4894: 4880: 4867:Brill Publishers 4854: 4822: 4783: 4767: 4753: 4728: 4712: 4698: 4667: 4651: 4637: 4621: 4602: 4596: 4590: 4589: 4587: 4586: 4572: 4566: 4565: 4563: 4561: 4546: 4540: 4539: 4531: 4525: 4524: 4522: 4520: 4505: 4499: 4493: 4487: 4486: 4464: 4455: 4454: 4445:Proclus (1909). 4442: 4436: 4430: 4424: 4418: 4412: 4411: 4409: 4407: 4387: 4381: 4374: 4368: 4358: 4352: 4346: 4340: 4339: 4303: 4294: 4293: 4281: 4275: 4274: 4238: 4227: 4226: 4224: 4222: 4213:. 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Archived from 3868: 3862: 3861: 3826: 3820: 3819: 3784: 3778: 3763: 3757: 3756: 3750: 3746: 3744: 3736: 3702: 3691: 3690: 3674: 3668: 3667: 3646: 3637: 3636: 3634: 3632: 3605: 3594: 3580: 3574: 3573: 3554: 3545: 3544: 3542: 3540: 3513: 3507: 3506: 3474: 3468: 3467: 3451:Neugebauer, Otto 3447: 3441: 3440: 3400: 3394: 3388: 3382: 3381: 3379: 3378: 3358: 3352: 3344: 3338: 3335: 3329: 3324:(2014), 183–195 3314: 3308: 3300: 3294: 3288: 3266: 3260: 3259: 3223: 3217: 3216: 3198: 3192: 3191: 3154: 3148: 3142: 3136: 3135: 3116: 3110: 3109: 3079: 3073: 3059: 3053: 3052: 3024: 3018: 3017: 2995: 2986: 2980: 2974: 2973: 2965: 2954: 2948: 2947: 2945: 2943: 2916: 2910: 2909: 2888:Morgan, David O. 2883: 2877: 2871: 2865: 2859: 2848: 2834: 2828: 2815: 2809: 2803: 2790: 2784: 2775: 2774: 2727: 2718: 2717: 2686: 2680: 2672: 2666: 2660: 2654: 2653: 2641: 2635: 2634: 2608: 2599: 2588: 2582: 2571: 2565: 2564: 2556: 2550: 2549: 2501: 2495: 2489: 2483: 2477: 2471: 2465: 2459: 2453: 2447: 2441: 2435: 2429: 2423: 2417: 2411: 2405: 2399: 2393: 2387: 2376: 2370: 2359: 2353: 2347: 2341: 2335: 2326: 2320: 2232:Jamshīd al-Kāshī 2102:Abū Sahl al-Qūhī 2019:Sinan ibn Thabit 2013:Thābit ibn Qurra 1937: 1922: 1915: 1911: 1908: 1902: 1900: 1859: 1835: 1827: 1789: 1773: 1521:Celestial globes 1346:were performed ( 1317:Sejong the Great 1303:Islamic calendar 1187:) and the large 1162:armillary sphere 1115:brought to China 1009: 1006: 845:Malian astronomy 806: 803: 795: 792: 784: 781: 773: 770: 762: 759: 738:planetary motion 695:Earth's rotation 593: 576: 564: 552:geocentric model 548: 531: 530: 526: 516:axial precession 505:Ptolemaic system 473: 280: 268:Yaʿqūb ibn Ṭāriq 232: 224: 94:Islamic sciences 21: 18:Arabic astronomy 8233: 8232: 8228: 8227: 8226: 8224: 8223: 8222: 8193: 8192: 8191: 8186: 8131: 8059: 8048:Early sociology 7997: 7961:decision-making 7911: 7892:Early conquests 7863: 7805: 7742: 7740:Islamic studies 7737: 7707: 7702: 7690: 7678: 7670: 7663: 7654: 7647: 7642:X-ray telescope 7640: 7633: 7624: 7617: 7610: 7603: 7596: 7589: 7582: 7575: 7568: 7561: 7552: 7545: 7538: 7531: 7522: 7515: 7508: 7501: 7494: 7487: 7480: 7473: 7462: 7455: 7448: 7441: 7434: 7427: 7420: 7413: 7406: 7399: 7392: 7385: 7377: 7366: 7359: 7350: 7343: 7336: 7329: 7322: 7315: 7308: 7301: 7294: 7287: 7280: 7273: 7266: 7253: 7248:Multi-messenger 7246: 7239: 7232: 7225: 7218: 7211: 7204: 7193: 7186: 7177: 7170: 7163: 7156: 7153: 7144: 7139: 7132: 7125: 7114: 7105: 7098: 7087: 7076: 7071:Space telescope 7069: 7062: 7055: 7048: 7030: 7023: 7016: 7009: 7002: 6995: 6986: 6979: 6972: 6964: 6959: 6929: 6916: 6885: 6854: 6845: 6838: 6831: 6817:House of Wisdom 6795: 6751:Spherical Earth 6584: 6515:Equatorial ring 6495:Celestial globe 6470:Analog computer 6447: 6442:Sullam al-sama' 6387: 6323: 6304: 6273: 6237: 6176: 6115: 6014: 6000:Jabir ibn Aflah 5943: 5874:Abu Nasr Mansur 5862: 5843:Abolfadl Harawi 5778:Ahmad ibn Yusuf 5731: 5635: 5606:Ahmad Nahavandi 5594: 5579: 5566: 5561: 5522:Wayback Machine 5490: 5455: 5447: 5445: 5433: 5427: 5403: 5364: 5359: 5340: 5326: 5306: 5301: 5284: 5254: 5247: 5245: 5230: 5194:Gingerich, Owen 5192: 5185: 5183: 5171: 5165: 5152: 5147: 5134: 5131: 5129:Further reading 5100: 5094: 5075: 5064: 5047: 5004: 4990: 4956: 4913: 4907: 4885:Nasr, Seyyed H. 4883: 4877: 4865:. Vol. 1. 4857: 4851: 4825: 4786: 4780: 4756: 4750: 4731: 4725: 4703:Hill, Donald R. 4701: 4672:Hill, Donald R. 4670: 4664: 4640: 4634: 4613: 4610: 4605: 4597: 4593: 4584: 4582: 4574: 4573: 4569: 4559: 4557: 4548: 4547: 4543: 4533: 4532: 4528: 4518: 4516: 4508:Sarda, Marika. 4507: 4506: 4502: 4494: 4490: 4483: 4475:. p. 404. 4466: 4465: 4458: 4444: 4443: 4439: 4431: 4427: 4419: 4415: 4405: 4403: 4389: 4388: 4384: 4375: 4371: 4359: 4355: 4347: 4343: 4305: 4304: 4297: 4286:Islamic Studies 4283: 4282: 4278: 4240: 4239: 4230: 4220: 4218: 4205: 4204: 4200: 4158: 4157: 4153: 4145: 4143: 4141: 4116: 4115: 4111: 4103: 4101: 4099: 4076: 4075: 4068: 4058: 4056: 4043: 4042: 4038: 4030: 4026: 4016: 4014: 4013:on 2 April 2012 4001: 4000: 3996: 3974: 3973: 3969: 3946: 3942: 3904: 3903: 3899: 3886: 3884: 3870: 3869: 3865: 3828: 3827: 3823: 3786: 3785: 3781: 3764: 3760: 3747: 3737: 3725: 3704: 3703: 3694: 3676: 3675: 3671: 3665: 3648: 3647: 3640: 3630: 3628: 3626: 3607: 3606: 3597: 3581: 3577: 3565:(5): 233–238 , 3556: 3555: 3548: 3538: 3536: 3534: 3515: 3514: 3510: 3476: 3475: 3471: 3465: 3449: 3448: 3444: 3402: 3401: 3397: 3391:Veselovsky 1973 3389: 3385: 3376: 3374: 3360: 3359: 3355: 3345: 3341: 3336: 3332: 3315: 3311: 3301: 3297: 3285: 3268: 3267: 3263: 3225: 3224: 3220: 3213: 3200: 3199: 3195: 3167:(3): 365–378 , 3156: 3155: 3151: 3143: 3139: 3121:The Observatory 3118: 3117: 3113: 3081: 3080: 3076: 3070:Wayback Machine 3060: 3056: 3049: 3026: 3025: 3021: 3014: 3006:. p. 179. 2997: 2996: 2989: 2981: 2977: 2956: 2955: 2951: 2941: 2939: 2937: 2918: 2917: 2913: 2906: 2885: 2884: 2880: 2872: 2868: 2860: 2851: 2835: 2831: 2827:(1), p. 39-47 . 2816: 2812: 2804: 2793: 2785: 2778: 2729: 2728: 2721: 2688: 2687: 2683: 2673: 2669: 2661: 2657: 2643: 2642: 2638: 2631: 2610: 2609: 2602: 2589: 2585: 2572: 2568: 2558: 2557: 2553: 2503: 2502: 2498: 2490: 2486: 2478: 2474: 2466: 2462: 2454: 2450: 2442: 2438: 2430: 2426: 2418: 2414: 2406: 2402: 2398:, p. xvii. 2394: 2390: 2378:Dallal, Ahmad. 2377: 2373: 2360: 2356: 2348: 2344: 2340:, p. xxxi. 2336: 2329: 2321: 2314: 2310: 2293: 2288: 2275:Abolfadl Harawi 2260:Ahmad Nahavandi 2123:Abu Nasr Mansur 1943:Yaqūb ibn Tāriq 1923: 1912: 1906: 1903: 1860: 1858: 1848: 1836: 1825: 1797: 1796: 1795: 1794: 1793: 1790: 1782: 1781: 1774: 1752: 1706: 1684: 1635: 1604: 1553: 1534:Jabir ibn Aflah 1525:Right Ascension 1505: 1496: 1419:jalali calendar 1384:Sharaf al-Dawla 1325: 1295: 1127:Yeh-lu Chu'tsai 1081: 1032:Byzantine Greek 1007: 973:Albertus Magnus 959:Kitāb al-Hayʾah 939:Galileo Galilei 935:Johannes Kepler 853: 841: 836: 804: 793: 782: 771: 760: 750: 715: 626: 528: 524: 523: 507:were possible. 471:Kitab fi Jawami 457: 425:Zij al-Sindhind 410:House of Wisdom 388:of the smaller 366: 343: 288:Sasanian Empire 253:Zij al-Sindhind 244: 226:. The study of 184: 179: 173: 167:reconstructed. 66:Arabic language 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8231: 8229: 8221: 8220: 8215: 8210: 8205: 8195: 8194: 8188: 8187: 8185: 8184: 8183: 8182: 8177: 8172: 8162: 8161: 8160: 8155: 8145: 8139: 8137: 8133: 8132: 8130: 8129: 8124: 8119: 8118: 8117: 8107: 8102: 8097: 8092: 8091: 8090: 8080: 8075: 8069: 8067: 8061: 8060: 8058: 8057: 8056: 8055: 8045: 8040: 8035: 8030: 8029: 8028: 8018: 8013: 8007: 8005: 7999: 7998: 7996: 7995: 7990: 7985: 7980: 7975: 7970: 7969: 7968: 7963: 7958: 7956:use of analogy 7948: 7943: 7942: 7941: 7936: 7925: 7923: 7913: 7912: 7910: 7909: 7904: 7899: 7894: 7889: 7884: 7882:Historiography 7879: 7873: 7871: 7865: 7864: 7862: 7861: 7856: 7851: 7846: 7841: 7836: 7831: 7826: 7821: 7815: 7813: 7807: 7806: 7804: 7803: 7798: 7793: 7788: 7783: 7778: 7773: 7768: 7763: 7758: 7752: 7750: 7744: 7743: 7738: 7736: 7735: 7728: 7721: 7713: 7704: 7703: 7701: 7700: 7688: 7675: 7672: 7671: 7669: 7668: 7661: 7660: 7659: 7652: 7645: 7631: 7630: 7629: 7622: 7615: 7608: 7594: 7587: 7580: 7573: 7566: 7559: 7558: 7557: 7543: 7536: 7529: 7520: 7513: 7506: 7499: 7492: 7489:Astrochemistry 7485: 7478: 7470: 7468: 7464: 7463: 7461: 7460: 7453: 7446: 7439: 7432: 7425: 7422:Hale Telescope 7418: 7411: 7404: 7397: 7390: 7382: 7380: 7372: 7371: 7368: 7367: 7365: 7364: 7357: 7356: 7355: 7341: 7334: 7327: 7320: 7313: 7306: 7299: 7292: 7285: 7278: 7271: 7263: 7261: 7255: 7254: 7252: 7251: 7244: 7237: 7230: 7223: 7216: 7209: 7201: 7199: 7195: 7194: 7192: 7191: 7184: 7183: 7182: 7168: 7161: 7155:Visible-light 7151: 7137: 7130: 7122: 7120: 7116: 7115: 7113: 7112: 7111: 7110: 7096: 7084: 7082: 7078: 7077: 7075: 7074: 7067: 7060: 7053: 7045: 7043: 7036: 7032: 7031: 7029: 7028: 7021: 7014: 7007: 7000: 6993: 6992: 6991: 6977: 6969: 6966: 6965: 6960: 6958: 6957: 6950: 6943: 6935: 6926: 6925: 6922: 6921: 6918: 6917: 6915: 6914: 6909: 6904: 6899: 6893: 6891: 6887: 6886: 6884: 6883: 6878: 6873: 6868: 6862: 6860: 6856: 6855: 6853: 6852: 6851: 6850: 6843: 6836: 6824: 6819: 6814: 6809: 6803: 6801: 6797: 6796: 6794: 6793: 6788: 6783: 6778: 6773: 6768: 6763: 6758: 6753: 6748: 6743: 6738: 6733: 6728: 6723: 6718: 6713: 6708: 6703: 6698: 6693: 6688: 6683: 6678: 6673: 6668: 6663: 6661:Elliptic orbit 6658: 6653: 6648: 6643: 6638: 6636:Circular orbit 6633: 6628: 6623: 6618: 6613: 6608: 6603: 6598: 6592: 6590: 6586: 6585: 6583: 6582: 6577: 6572: 6567: 6562: 6557: 6552: 6547: 6542: 6537: 6532: 6527: 6522: 6517: 6512: 6507: 6502: 6497: 6492: 6487: 6482: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6461: 6459: 6453: 6452: 6449: 6448: 6446: 6445: 6438: 6431: 6424: 6422:Toledan Tables 6419: 6412: 6405: 6399: 6397: 6389: 6388: 6386: 6385: 6378: 6371: 6364: 6357: 6350: 6345: 6339: 6333: 6325: 6324: 6321: 6314: 6313: 6310: 6309: 6306: 6305: 6303: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6285:Yang Guangxian 6281: 6279: 6275: 6274: 6272: 6271: 6266: 6261: 6256: 6251: 6245: 6243: 6239: 6238: 6236: 6235: 6230: 6225: 6220: 6215: 6210: 6205: 6200: 6195: 6190: 6184: 6182: 6178: 6177: 6175: 6174: 6169: 6164: 6159: 6154: 6149: 6144: 6139: 6134: 6129: 6123: 6121: 6117: 6116: 6114: 6113: 6108: 6103: 6098: 6093: 6088: 6083: 6078: 6073: 6068: 6063: 6058: 6053: 6048: 6043: 6038: 6033: 6028: 6022: 6020: 6016: 6015: 6013: 6012: 6007: 6002: 5997: 5992: 5987: 5982: 5977: 5972: 5967: 5962: 5957: 5951: 5949: 5945: 5944: 5942: 5941: 5939:Ali ibn Khalaf 5936: 5931: 5926: 5921: 5916: 5914:Kushyar Gilani 5911: 5906: 5901: 5896: 5891: 5886: 5884:Ali ibn Ridwan 5881: 5876: 5870: 5868: 5864: 5863: 5861: 5860: 5855: 5850: 5848:Haseb-i Tabari 5845: 5840: 5835: 5830: 5825: 5820: 5815: 5810: 5805: 5800: 5795: 5790: 5785: 5780: 5775: 5770: 5765: 5760: 5755: 5750: 5745: 5739: 5737: 5733: 5732: 5730: 5729: 5724: 5719: 5717:Sahl ibn Bishr 5714: 5709: 5704: 5699: 5694: 5689: 5684: 5679: 5674: 5669: 5664: 5659: 5654: 5649: 5643: 5641: 5637: 5636: 5634: 5633: 5628: 5623: 5618: 5613: 5608: 5602: 5600: 5596: 5595: 5593: 5592: 5588: 5581: 5580: 5575: 5568: 5567: 5562: 5560: 5559: 5552: 5545: 5537: 5531: 5530: 5525: 5511: 5505: 5500: 5489: 5488:External links 5486: 5485: 5484: 5467:(4): 328–341, 5457:Saliba, George 5453: 5435:Saliba, George 5431: 5425: 5405:Saliba, George 5401: 5376:(2): 115–141, 5366:Saliba, George 5362: 5357: 5337: 5336: 5329: 5324: 5308:King, David A. 5304: 5299: 5282: 5271:10.1086/353360 5265:(4): 531–555, 5252: 5228: 5190: 5169: 5163: 5150: 5145: 5130: 5127: 5126: 5125: 5098: 5092: 5073: 5062: 5045: 5019:(2): 161–203. 5002: 4994:, ed. (1910). 4992:Sachau, Edward 4988: 4970:(3): 288–330. 4954: 4942:10.1086/649338 4911: 4905: 4881: 4875: 4859:King, David A. 4855: 4849: 4841:British Museum 4827:King, David A. 4823: 4784: 4778: 4754: 4748: 4729: 4723: 4699: 4668: 4662: 4638: 4632: 4609: 4606: 4604: 4603: 4591: 4567: 4541: 4526: 4500: 4488: 4481: 4456: 4437: 4425: 4413: 4382: 4369: 4353: 4341: 4314:(3): 205–234. 4295: 4276: 4249:(4): 309–344. 4228: 4211:astrolabes.org 4198: 4171:(1): 109–111. 4151: 4139: 4109: 4097: 4066: 4049:www.soas.ac.uk 4036: 4024: 3994: 3983:(2): 196–221. 3967: 3940: 3897: 3863: 3821: 3779: 3758: 3723: 3692: 3669: 3663: 3638: 3624: 3618:. p. 38. 3595: 3575: 3546: 3532: 3508: 3495:10.1086/350791 3489:(4): 490–498, 3469: 3463: 3442: 3395: 3383: 3353: 3339: 3330: 3309: 3295: 3283: 3261: 3218: 3211: 3193: 3173:10.1086/350144 3149: 3137: 3111: 3098:10.1086/348774 3092:(3): 232–234. 3074: 3054: 3047: 3019: 3012: 2987: 2975: 2960:, ed. (1911). 2958:Chisholm, Hugh 2949: 2935: 2911: 2904: 2878: 2876:, p. 171. 2866: 2849: 2829: 2810: 2791: 2776: 2764:10.1086/649338 2746:, 2nd Series, 2719: 2681: 2676:Hikmat al-'Ain 2667: 2655: 2636: 2629: 2600: 2583: 2566: 2551: 2496: 2484: 2472: 2460: 2448: 2446:, p. 164. 2436: 2434:, p. 163. 2424: 2412: 2400: 2388: 2371: 2354: 2342: 2327: 2325:, p. 162. 2311: 2309: 2306: 2305: 2304: 2299: 2292: 2289: 2285: 2284: 2279: 2278: 2277: 2272: 2270:Haly Abenragel 2267: 2262: 2257: 2251: 2246: 2240: 2234: 2229: 2224: 2219: 2214: 2209: 2204: 2199: 2194: 2189: 2184: 2179: 2171: 2170: 2169: 2163: 2157: 2152: 2147: 2141: 2136: 2131: 2128:Ibn al-Haytham 2125: 2120: 2115: 2110: 2105: 2099: 2094: 2089: 2084: 2079: 2074: 2069: 2064: 2059: 2052: 2051: 2050: 2044: 2038: 2033: 2028: 2027: 2026: 2021: 2010: 2009: 2008: 2003: 1998: 1987: 1982: 1976: 1970: 1965: 1960: 1955: 1950: 1945: 1935: 1925: 1924: 1839: 1837: 1830: 1824: 1821: 1791: 1784: 1783: 1775: 1768: 1767: 1766: 1765: 1764: 1751: 1748: 1705: 1702: 1683: 1680: 1665:predecessors. 1634: 1631: 1613:, employing a 1603: 1600: 1552: 1549: 1504: 1501: 1495: 1492: 1479:Constantinople 1376:'Adud al-Dawla 1324: 1321: 1294: 1291: 1287:Yang Guangxian 1227:Hongwu Emperor 1087:Layout of the 1080: 1077: 1001:Commentariolus 922:Commentariolus 852: 849: 840: 837: 835: 832: 749: 746: 714: 711: 625: 624:Earth rotation 622: 562:Tarik al-Aflak 558:published the 540:Ibn al-Haytham 518:varied by one 456: 453: 365: 362: 342: 339: 243: 240: 183: 180: 172: 169: 52:comprises the 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8230: 8219: 8216: 8214: 8211: 8209: 8206: 8204: 8201: 8200: 8198: 8181: 8178: 8176: 8173: 8171: 8168: 8167: 8166: 8163: 8159: 8156: 8154: 8151: 8150: 8149: 8146: 8144: 8141: 8140: 8138: 8134: 8128: 8125: 8123: 8120: 8116: 8115:ophthalmology 8113: 8112: 8111: 8108: 8106: 8103: 8101: 8098: 8096: 8093: 8089: 8086: 8085: 8084: 8081: 8079: 8076: 8074: 8071: 8070: 8068: 8066: 8062: 8054: 8051: 8050: 8049: 8046: 8044: 8041: 8039: 8036: 8034: 8031: 8027: 8024: 8023: 8022: 8019: 8017: 8014: 8012: 8009: 8008: 8006: 8004: 8000: 7994: 7991: 7989: 7986: 7984: 7981: 7979: 7976: 7974: 7971: 7967: 7964: 7962: 7959: 7957: 7954: 7953: 7952: 7951:Jurisprudence 7949: 7947: 7944: 7940: 7937: 7935: 7932: 7931: 7930: 7927: 7926: 7924: 7922: 7918: 7914: 7908: 7905: 7903: 7900: 7898: 7895: 7893: 7890: 7888: 7885: 7883: 7880: 7878: 7875: 7874: 7872: 7870: 7866: 7860: 7857: 7855: 7852: 7850: 7847: 7845: 7842: 7840: 7837: 7835: 7832: 7830: 7827: 7825: 7822: 7820: 7817: 7816: 7814: 7812: 7808: 7802: 7799: 7797: 7794: 7792: 7789: 7787: 7784: 7782: 7779: 7777: 7774: 7772: 7769: 7767: 7764: 7762: 7759: 7757: 7754: 7753: 7751: 7749: 7745: 7741: 7734: 7729: 7727: 7722: 7720: 7715: 7714: 7711: 7698: 7689: 7686: 7677: 7676: 7673: 7666: 7662: 7657: 7653: 7650: 7646: 7643: 7639: 7638: 7636: 7632: 7627: 7623: 7620: 7616: 7613: 7609: 7606: 7602: 7601: 7599: 7595: 7592: 7588: 7585: 7581: 7578: 7574: 7571: 7567: 7564: 7560: 7555: 7551: 7550: 7548: 7547:Constellation 7544: 7541: 7537: 7534: 7530: 7527: 7526: 7521: 7518: 7514: 7511: 7507: 7504: 7500: 7497: 7493: 7490: 7486: 7483: 7479: 7476: 7472: 7471: 7469: 7465: 7458: 7454: 7451: 7447: 7444: 7440: 7437: 7433: 7430: 7426: 7423: 7419: 7416: 7412: 7409: 7405: 7402: 7398: 7395: 7391: 7388: 7384: 7383: 7381: 7379: 7373: 7362: 7358: 7353: 7349: 7348: 7346: 7342: 7339: 7335: 7332: 7328: 7325: 7321: 7318: 7314: 7311: 7307: 7304: 7300: 7297: 7293: 7290: 7286: 7283: 7279: 7276: 7272: 7269: 7265: 7264: 7262: 7260: 7256: 7249: 7245: 7242: 7238: 7235: 7231: 7228: 7224: 7221: 7217: 7214: 7210: 7207: 7203: 7202: 7200: 7198:Other methods 7196: 7189: 7185: 7180: 7176: 7175: 7173: 7169: 7166: 7162: 7159: 7152: 7147: 7142: 7138: 7135: 7134:Submillimetre 7131: 7128: 7124: 7123: 7121: 7117: 7108: 7104: 7103: 7101: 7097: 7094: 7093:Extragalactic 7090: 7086: 7085: 7083: 7079: 7072: 7068: 7065: 7061: 7058: 7057:Observational 7054: 7051: 7047: 7046: 7044: 7040: 7037: 7033: 7026: 7022: 7019: 7015: 7012: 7008: 7005: 7001: 6998: 6994: 6989: 6985: 6984: 6982: 6978: 6975: 6971: 6970: 6967: 6963: 6956: 6951: 6949: 6944: 6942: 6937: 6936: 6933: 6913: 6910: 6908: 6905: 6903: 6900: 6898: 6895: 6894: 6892: 6888: 6882: 6879: 6877: 6874: 6872: 6869: 6867: 6864: 6863: 6861: 6857: 6848: 6844: 6841: 6837: 6834: 6830: 6829: 6828: 6827:Observatories 6825: 6823: 6820: 6818: 6815: 6813: 6810: 6808: 6805: 6804: 6802: 6798: 6792: 6789: 6787: 6784: 6782: 6781:Triangulation 6779: 6777: 6774: 6772: 6769: 6767: 6764: 6762: 6759: 6757: 6754: 6752: 6749: 6747: 6744: 6742: 6739: 6737: 6734: 6732: 6729: 6727: 6724: 6722: 6719: 6717: 6714: 6712: 6709: 6707: 6704: 6702: 6699: 6697: 6694: 6692: 6691:Heliocentrism 6689: 6687: 6684: 6682: 6679: 6677: 6674: 6672: 6669: 6667: 6664: 6662: 6659: 6657: 6654: 6652: 6649: 6647: 6644: 6642: 6639: 6637: 6634: 6632: 6629: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6614: 6612: 6609: 6607: 6604: 6602: 6599: 6597: 6594: 6593: 6591: 6587: 6581: 6578: 6576: 6573: 6571: 6568: 6566: 6565:Shadow square 6563: 6561: 6558: 6556: 6553: 6551: 6548: 6546: 6543: 6541: 6538: 6536: 6533: 6531: 6528: 6526: 6523: 6521: 6518: 6516: 6513: 6511: 6508: 6506: 6503: 6501: 6498: 6496: 6493: 6491: 6488: 6486: 6483: 6481: 6478: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6463: 6462: 6460: 6458: 6454: 6444: 6443: 6439: 6437: 6436: 6435:Zij-i Sultani 6432: 6430: 6429: 6428:Zij-i Ilkhani 6425: 6423: 6420: 6418: 6417: 6413: 6411: 6410: 6406: 6404: 6401: 6400: 6398: 6396: 6395: 6390: 6384: 6383: 6379: 6377: 6376: 6372: 6370: 6369: 6365: 6363: 6362: 6358: 6356: 6355: 6351: 6349: 6346: 6344: 6341: 6340: 6337: 6334: 6330: 6326: 6319: 6315: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6288: 6286: 6283: 6282: 6280: 6276: 6270: 6267: 6265: 6262: 6260: 6257: 6255: 6252: 6250: 6247: 6246: 6244: 6240: 6234: 6231: 6229: 6226: 6224: 6221: 6219: 6216: 6214: 6211: 6209: 6206: 6204: 6203:Kadızade Rumi 6201: 6199: 6196: 6194: 6191: 6189: 6186: 6185: 6183: 6179: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6165: 6163: 6160: 6158: 6155: 6153: 6150: 6148: 6145: 6143: 6140: 6138: 6135: 6133: 6130: 6128: 6127:Ibn al-Shatir 6125: 6124: 6122: 6118: 6112: 6109: 6107: 6104: 6102: 6101:Ibn al‐Raqqam 6099: 6097: 6094: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6084: 6082: 6079: 6077: 6074: 6072: 6069: 6067: 6064: 6062: 6059: 6057: 6054: 6052: 6049: 6047: 6044: 6042: 6039: 6037: 6034: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6023: 6021: 6017: 6011: 6008: 6006: 6003: 6001: 5998: 5996: 5995:Ibn al-Kammad 5993: 5991: 5988: 5986: 5983: 5981: 5978: 5976: 5973: 5971: 5968: 5966: 5963: 5961: 5958: 5956: 5953: 5952: 5950: 5946: 5940: 5937: 5935: 5932: 5930: 5927: 5925: 5922: 5920: 5917: 5915: 5912: 5910: 5909:Ibn al-Saffar 5907: 5905: 5902: 5900: 5897: 5895: 5892: 5890: 5887: 5885: 5882: 5880: 5877: 5875: 5872: 5871: 5869: 5865: 5859: 5856: 5854: 5851: 5849: 5846: 5844: 5841: 5839: 5836: 5834: 5831: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5821: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5794: 5791: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5741: 5740: 5738: 5734: 5728: 5725: 5723: 5720: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5710: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5698: 5695: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5665: 5663: 5660: 5658: 5655: 5653: 5650: 5648: 5645: 5644: 5642: 5638: 5632: 5629: 5627: 5624: 5622: 5619: 5617: 5614: 5612: 5609: 5607: 5604: 5603: 5601: 5597: 5590: 5589: 5586: 5582: 5578: 5573: 5569: 5565: 5558: 5553: 5551: 5546: 5544: 5539: 5538: 5535: 5529: 5526: 5523: 5519: 5515: 5512: 5509: 5506: 5504: 5501: 5498: 5496: 5492: 5491: 5487: 5482: 5478: 5474: 5470: 5466: 5462: 5458: 5454: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5422: 5418: 5413: 5412: 5406: 5402: 5399: 5395: 5391: 5387: 5383: 5379: 5375: 5371: 5367: 5363: 5360: 5354: 5350: 5346: 5345: 5339: 5338: 5334: 5330: 5327: 5321: 5317: 5313: 5309: 5305: 5302: 5296: 5292: 5288: 5283: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5268: 5264: 5260: 5259: 5253: 5243: 5239: 5238: 5233: 5229: 5225: 5221: 5217: 5213: 5209: 5205: 5204: 5199: 5195: 5191: 5181: 5177: 5176: 5170: 5166: 5160: 5156: 5151: 5148: 5142: 5138: 5133: 5132: 5128: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5105: 5099: 5095: 5089: 5085: 5084: 5079: 5074: 5071: 5065: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5046: 5042: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5018: 5014: 5013: 5008: 5003: 4999: 4998: 4993: 4989: 4985: 4981: 4977: 4973: 4969: 4965: 4964: 4959: 4955: 4951: 4947: 4943: 4939: 4935: 4931: 4927: 4923: 4922: 4917: 4912: 4908: 4902: 4898: 4893: 4892: 4886: 4882: 4878: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4860: 4856: 4852: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4837: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4820: 4816: 4812: 4808: 4804: 4800: 4796: 4795: 4790: 4785: 4781: 4775: 4771: 4766: 4765: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4745: 4741: 4738:. Cambridge: 4737: 4736: 4730: 4726: 4720: 4716: 4711: 4710: 4704: 4700: 4697: 4693: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4677: 4673: 4669: 4665: 4659: 4655: 4650: 4649: 4643: 4642:Dallal, Ahmad 4639: 4635: 4629: 4625: 4620: 4619: 4612: 4611: 4607: 4600: 4595: 4592: 4581: 4577: 4571: 4568: 4555: 4554:metmuseum.org 4551: 4545: 4542: 4537: 4530: 4527: 4515: 4511: 4504: 4501: 4497: 4492: 4489: 4484: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4463: 4461: 4457: 4452: 4448: 4441: 4438: 4434: 4429: 4426: 4422: 4417: 4414: 4402:on 2014-11-30 4401: 4397: 4393: 4386: 4383: 4379: 4373: 4370: 4366: 4363: 4357: 4354: 4350: 4345: 4342: 4337: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4302: 4300: 4296: 4291: 4287: 4280: 4277: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4237: 4235: 4233: 4229: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4202: 4199: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4155: 4152: 4142: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4113: 4110: 4100: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4081: 4073: 4071: 4067: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4040: 4037: 4033: 4028: 4025: 4012: 4008: 4007:museodeco.com 4004: 3998: 3995: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3978: 3971: 3968: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3944: 3941: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3913:(1): 25–60 . 3912: 3908: 3901: 3898: 3894: 3883:on 2007-05-17 3882: 3878: 3874: 3867: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3837:(1): 25–60 , 3836: 3832: 3825: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3795:(1): 25–60 , 3794: 3790: 3783: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3762: 3759: 3754: 3742: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3701: 3699: 3697: 3693: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3673: 3670: 3666: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3645: 3643: 3639: 3627: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3612: 3604: 3602: 3600: 3596: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3579: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3553: 3551: 3547: 3535: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3520: 3512: 3509: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3473: 3470: 3466: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3446: 3443: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3415:(2): 128–30, 3414: 3410: 3406: 3399: 3396: 3392: 3387: 3384: 3373: 3372: 3367: 3363: 3362:George Saliba 3357: 3354: 3351: 3348: 3347:George Saliba 3343: 3340: 3334: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3313: 3310: 3307: 3305: 3299: 3296: 3292: 3286: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3265: 3262: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3222: 3219: 3214: 3208: 3205:. NYU Press. 3204: 3197: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3161: 3153: 3150: 3146: 3141: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3115: 3112: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3086: 3078: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3064: 3058: 3055: 3050: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3035: 3030: 3023: 3020: 3015: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2994: 2992: 2988: 2985:, p. 58. 2984: 2979: 2976: 2971: 2970: 2964: 2959: 2953: 2950: 2938: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2923: 2915: 2912: 2907: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2892:Reid, Anthony 2889: 2882: 2879: 2875: 2870: 2867: 2863: 2858: 2856: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2833: 2830: 2826: 2823: 2819: 2814: 2811: 2807: 2802: 2800: 2798: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2783: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2726: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2685: 2682: 2678: 2677: 2671: 2668: 2664: 2659: 2656: 2651: 2647: 2640: 2637: 2632: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2607: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2587: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2570: 2567: 2562: 2555: 2552: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2500: 2497: 2493: 2488: 2485: 2482:, p. 31. 2481: 2476: 2473: 2469: 2464: 2461: 2458:, p. 60. 2457: 2452: 2449: 2445: 2440: 2437: 2433: 2428: 2425: 2422:, p. 45. 2421: 2416: 2413: 2409: 2404: 2401: 2397: 2392: 2389: 2385: 2384:9780300177718 2381: 2375: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2358: 2355: 2352:, p. 29. 2351: 2346: 2343: 2339: 2334: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2319: 2317: 2313: 2307: 2303: 2300: 2298: 2295: 2294: 2290: 2283: 2280: 2276: 2273: 2271: 2268: 2266: 2263: 2261: 2258: 2255: 2252: 2250: 2247: 2244: 2241: 2238: 2235: 2233: 2230: 2228: 2225: 2223: 2222:Ibn al-Shatir 2220: 2218: 2215: 2213: 2210: 2208: 2205: 2203: 2200: 2198: 2195: 2193: 2190: 2188: 2185: 2183: 2180: 2178:(Alpetragius) 2177: 2174: 2173: 2172: 2167: 2164: 2161: 2158: 2156: 2153: 2151: 2148: 2145: 2142: 2140: 2137: 2135: 2132: 2129: 2126: 2124: 2121: 2119: 2116: 2114: 2111: 2109: 2106: 2103: 2100: 2098: 2095: 2093: 2090: 2088: 2085: 2083: 2080: 2078: 2075: 2073: 2070: 2068: 2065: 2063: 2060: 2058: 2055: 2054: 2053: 2048: 2045: 2042: 2039: 2037: 2034: 2032: 2029: 2025: 2022: 2020: 2017: 2016: 2014: 2011: 2007: 2004: 2002: 1999: 1997: 1994: 1993: 1991: 1988: 1986: 1983: 1980: 1977: 1974: 1971: 1969: 1966: 1964: 1961: 1959: 1956: 1954: 1951: 1949: 1946: 1944: 1941: 1940: 1939: 1938: 1934: 1932: 1921: 1918: 1910: 1899: 1896: 1892: 1889: 1885: 1882: 1878: 1875: 1871: 1868: – 1867: 1863: 1862:Find sources: 1856: 1852: 1846: 1845: 1840:This article 1838: 1834: 1829: 1828: 1822: 1820: 1817: 1812: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1801:desert castle 1788: 1779: 1772: 1763: 1761: 1757: 1749: 1747: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1736: 1731: 1726: 1724: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1703: 1701: 1698: 1694: 1689: 1681: 1679: 1677: 1676: 1670: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1652: 1648: 1645:showing both 1644: 1639: 1632: 1630: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1609: 1601: 1599: 1595: 1587: 1583: 1581: 1576: 1574: 1568: 1564: 1562: 1558: 1550: 1548: 1545: 1544: 1539: 1535: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1514: 1509: 1502: 1500: 1493: 1491: 1487: 1485: 1480: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1466:And finally, 1464: 1458: 1454: 1449: 1445: 1443: 1439: 1434: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1399: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1364: 1359: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1342: 1334: 1329: 1323:Observatories 1322: 1320: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1309: 1304: 1300: 1297:In the early 1292: 1290: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1275: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1257: 1254: 1252: 1247: 1244: 1238: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1177: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1142: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1119:Mongol Empire 1116: 1111: 1109: 1105: 1102: 1098: 1090: 1085: 1078: 1076: 1074: 1073:Nicole Oresme 1070: 1065: 1063: 1062: 1056: 1051: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1020: 1016: 1011: 1002: 998: 994: 989: 984: 982: 978: 974: 970: 966: 965: 960: 956: 952: 947: 944:Around 1190, 942: 940: 936: 932: 928: 924: 923: 918: 917: 912: 908: 904: 903:Regiomontanus 900: 896: 892: 887: 885: 877: 873: 869: 865: 861: 860:Ibn al-Shatir 857: 850: 848: 846: 838: 833: 831: 829: 824: 821: 817: 813: 808: 799: 788: 787:Ibn al-Shatir 777: 766: 755: 747: 745: 743: 739: 735: 730: 728: 724: 720: 712: 710: 708: 707:heliocentrism 704: 700: 696: 692: 688: 682: 680: 674: 671: 669: 665: 660: 658: 654: 653:Masudic Canon 650: 643: 639: 635: 630: 623: 621: 618: 607: 603: 601: 597: 592: 587: 583: 581: 577: 575: 569: 565: 563: 557: 553: 549: 547: 541: 538: 533: 521: 517: 513: 508: 506: 500: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 478: 474: 472: 466: 462: 454: 452: 450: 446: 442: 438: 434: 430: 426: 421: 419: 415: 411: 403: 402:linear motion 399: 395: 394:circumference 391: 387: 383: 379: 375: 370: 363: 361: 359: 355: 351: 348: 340: 338: 336: 332: 331:Sacred Mosque 328: 324: 320: 316: 311: 307: 305: 301: 297: 293: 292:sine function 289: 285: 281: 279: 273: 269: 265: 261: 260: 255: 254: 249: 241: 239: 237: 233: 231: 225: 223: 217: 216:constellation 213: 209: 205: 201: 197: 193: 189: 181: 178: 170: 168: 165: 161: 157: 153: 149: 145: 141: 136: 134: 130: 126: 122: 118: 113: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 58:Islamic world 55: 51: 44: 40: 36: 31: 27: 19: 8165:Sufi studies 8136:Other fields 8082: 8016:Contemporary 7939:consultation 7761:Architecture 7523: 7503:Astrophysics 7482:Astrobiology 7330: 7146:Far-infrared 7100:Local system 7035:Astronomy by 7025:... in space 6800:Institutions 6651:Eccentricity 6611:Astrophysics 6505:Compass rose 6440: 6433: 6426: 6414: 6407: 6392: 6380: 6373: 6366: 6359: 6352: 6218:Ibn al-Majdi 6193:Abd al‐Wajid 6152:Al-Wabkanawi 6147:Abū al‐ʿUqūl 6036:Jamal ad-Din 6005:Omar Khayyam 5833:Al-ʻIjliyyah 5808:Aṣ-Ṣaidanānī 5793:Ibn al-A'lam 5712:Al-Khwarizmi 5563: 5494: 5464: 5460: 5446:. Retrieved 5410: 5373: 5369: 5343: 5332: 5311: 5286: 5262: 5256: 5246:, retrieved 5242:the original 5236: 5207: 5201: 5184:, retrieved 5180:the original 5174: 5154: 5136: 5103: 5081: 5053: 5016: 5010: 4996: 4967: 4961: 4958:Sabra, A. I. 4925: 4919: 4890: 4862: 4835: 4792: 4763: 4734: 4708: 4682:(5): 64–69, 4679: 4675: 4647: 4622:. New York: 4617: 4594: 4583:. Retrieved 4579: 4570: 4558:. Retrieved 4553: 4544: 4535: 4529: 4517:. Retrieved 4503: 4491: 4468: 4446: 4440: 4428: 4416: 4404:. Retrieved 4400:the original 4395: 4385: 4372: 4367:(1): 63–70 . 4364: 4361: 4356: 4344: 4311: 4307: 4289: 4285: 4279: 4246: 4242: 4219:. Retrieved 4215:the original 4210: 4201: 4168: 4164: 4154: 4144:, retrieved 4122: 4112: 4102:, retrieved 4079: 4057:. Retrieved 4053:the original 4048: 4039: 4027: 4015:. Retrieved 4011:the original 4006: 3997: 3980: 3976: 3970: 3951: 3943: 3910: 3906: 3900: 3891: 3885:. Retrieved 3881:the original 3876: 3866: 3834: 3830: 3824: 3792: 3788: 3782: 3766: 3761: 3706: 3678: 3672: 3650: 3629:. Retrieved 3610: 3583: 3578: 3562: 3558: 3537:. Retrieved 3518: 3511: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3472: 3454: 3445: 3412: 3408: 3398: 3386: 3375:. Retrieved 3369: 3356: 3342: 3333: 3321: 3317: 3312: 3303: 3298: 3274: 3264: 3231: 3227: 3221: 3202: 3196: 3164: 3158: 3152: 3140: 3127:: 231–239 , 3124: 3120: 3114: 3089: 3083: 3077: 3057: 3037:. New York: 3032: 3022: 2999: 2978: 2967: 2952: 2940:. Retrieved 2921: 2914: 2895: 2881: 2869: 2845:Thomson Gale 2840: 2832: 2824: 2821: 2813: 2747: 2743: 2694: 2690: 2684: 2674: 2670: 2658: 2649: 2645: 2639: 2612: 2591: 2586: 2578: 2574: 2569: 2560: 2554: 2516:(1): 15–38. 2513: 2509: 2499: 2487: 2475: 2463: 2451: 2439: 2427: 2415: 2403: 2391: 2379: 2374: 2366: 2357: 2345: 2281: 2212:Ibn al-Nafis 2150:Omar Khayyám 2043:(Albatenius) 2031:Sind ibn Ali 1992:(Ben Mousa) 1973:Al-Khwarizmi 1930: 1928: 1913: 1904: 1894: 1887: 1880: 1873: 1861: 1849:Please help 1844:verification 1841: 1813: 1798: 1753: 1739: 1733: 1727: 1722: 1714:Handy Tables 1713: 1707: 1696: 1692: 1685: 1673: 1671: 1656: 1605: 1596: 1592: 1577: 1569: 1565: 1554: 1541: 1519: 1497: 1488: 1465: 1462: 1435: 1418: 1411:Omar Khayyám 1403:Malik Shah I 1400: 1368:Ibn al-A'lam 1360: 1338: 1306: 1296: 1283:Qing dynasty 1278: 1272: 1258: 1255: 1250: 1248: 1239: 1231:Ming dynasty 1225: 1184: 1181:Guo Shoujing 1178: 1169: 1150:Jamal ad-Din 1143: 1131:Genghis Khan 1129:accompanied 1123:Yuan dynasty 1112: 1097:Song dynasty 1094: 1068: 1066: 1058: 1052: 1039: 1012: 1000: 985: 980: 962: 958: 954: 951:Michael Scot 943: 920: 914: 895:Kitāb az-Zīj 894: 889:The work of 888: 881: 842: 825: 809: 751: 748:Later period 731: 716: 684: 678: 676: 672: 661: 652: 647: 613: 584: 571: 559: 543: 534: 509: 501: 468: 459:In 850, the 458: 424: 422: 407: 344: 319:prayer times 313:The rise of 312: 308: 275: 262:produced by 257: 251: 245: 242:Early period 236:Islamization 227: 219: 210:relied upon 204:astronomical 188:Ahmad Dallal 185: 137: 114: 110:Indian works 82:North Africa 74:Central Asia 54:astronomical 49: 48: 26: 8105:Mathematics 7766:Calligraphy 7570:Planetarium 7227:High-energy 7213:Cosmic rays 7165:Ultraviolet 6786:Tusi couple 6776:Trepidation 6741:Salah times 6676:Geocentrism 6550:Planisphere 6530:Graph paper 6457:Instruments 6409:Huihui Lifa 6290:Ehmedê Xanî 6249:Al-Birjandi 6228:al-Kubunani 5985:Abu al-Salt 5934:Al-Isfizari 5894:Ibn al-Samh 5773:Abu al-Wafa 5758:al-Khojandi 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2162:(Avempace) 2160:Ibn Bajjah 2155:Al-Khazini 2146:(Arzachel) 2092:Al-Saghani 2087:Al-Nayrizi 2082:Al-Marwazi 2049:(Abunaser) 2041:Al-Battani 2036:Al-Majriti 1907:March 2024 1877:newspapers 1744:Al-Zarqali 1708:Planetary 1617:and eight 1615:gear train 1608:mechanical 1551:Astrolabes 1516:throughout 1470:founded a 1388:al-Zarqali 1265:Mashayihei 1209:equatorial 1170:Wannian Li 988:Urdi lemma 946:al-Bitruji 897:("Book of 893:(d. 929), 891:al-Battani 870:using the 834:Influences 798:Ali Qushji 723:Ibn Tufail 719:Ibn Bajjah 679:muhandisīn 580:Al-Andalus 542:wrote his 485:precession 364:Golden Age 175:See also: 78:Al-Andalus 8175:cosmology 8170:mysticism 8148:Education 8088:cosmology 8083:Astronomy 8043:Astrology 8026:dialectic 7934:consensus 7929:Democracy 7844:Socialism 7811:Economics 7756:Arabesque 7635:Telescope 7241:Spherical 7188:Gamma-ray 7157:(optical) 6962:Astronomy 6766:Supernova 6721:Obliquity 6706:Moonlight 6606:Astrology 6485:Astrolabe 6264:Piri Reis 6254:al-Khafri 6223:al-Wafa'i 6208:Ulugh Beg 6188:Ali Kuşçu 6162:al-Jadiri 6081:al-Abhari 5879:al-Biruni 5813:Ibn Yunus 5788:Al-Qabisi 5763:al-Khazin 5672:Al-Mahani 5407:(1994b). 5398:122647517 5349:Routledge 5279:144315162 5121:242599669 5041:170118014 5033:0957-4239 4984:117426616 4950:142586786 4928:: 49–71. 4887:(1993) . 4811:1383-7427 4599:Hill 1993 4496:Nasr 1993 4433:King 1996 4421:King 1996 4349:Hill 1991 4336:162643992 4271:0008-8994 4243:Centaurus 4193:140551534 4185:0373-4633 3935:120199426 3927:1432-0657 3859:120199426 3851:1432-0657 3817:120199426 3809:1432-0657 3751:ignored ( 3741:cite book 3733:128707624 3524:Routledge 3503:144526697 3437:118453340 3248:0003-049X 3189:143569912 3106:143592051 2787:Huff 1993 2772:142586786 2715:145372613 2575:Al-Abhath 2546:117456123 2538:0021-8286 2396:King 2005 2237:Ulugh Beg 2187:Al-Jazari 2134:Al-Biruni 2130:(Alhacen) 2118:Ibn Yunus 2077:Al-Mahani 2047:Al-Farabi 2015:(Thebit) 1990:Banū Mūsā 1805:Qasr Amra 1778:Qasr Amra 1710:equatoria 1704:Equatoria 1688:quadrants 1682:Quadrants 1667:Khwarizmi 1651:astronomy 1580:Andalusia 1484:astrology 1457:Samarqand 1269:Wu Bozong 1174:latitudes 997:epicycles 868:epicycles 820:Samarkand 816:Ulugh Beg 727:Ibn Rushd 668:astrolabe 634:al-Biruni 512:Ibn Yunus 418:Al-Ma'mun 398:oscillate 350:Al-Farabi 272:Al-Mansur 140:Aldebaran 43:Cambridge 35:astrolabe 8110:Medicine 8073:Timeline 8021:Theology 7978:Quietism 7946:Feminism 7921:politics 7877:Timeline 7685:Category 7394:Category 7289:Egyptian 7206:Neutrino 7141:Infrared 7089:Galactic 7064:Sidewalk 7018:Glossary 6988:Timeline 6840:Maragheh 6791:Universe 6761:Sunlight 6726:Parallax 6716:Muwaqqit 6656:Ecliptic 6589:Concepts 6555:Quadrant 6475:Aperture 5990:Averroes 5960:Avempace 5904:Avicenna 5838:Nastulus 5828:al-Sijzi 5753:Al-Adami 5667:Al-Kindi 5518:Archived 5481:57562913 5437:(1999). 5310:(2005), 5196:(1986). 4861:(2005). 4819:20750216 4760:(1993). 4705:(1993). 4644:(2010). 4221:27 April 4059:27 April 4017:27 April 3479:De spera 3453:(1975), 3066:Archived 2894:(eds.). 2663:Nasr1993 2291:See also 2182:Averroes 2139:Avicenna 1963:Naubakht 1780:, Jordan 1760:frescoes 1675:muwaqqit 1659:sundials 1633:Sundials 1511:A Large 1363:Buwayhid 1341:meridian 1253:(1004). 1217:decimals 1015:Averroes 964:Almagest 591:Tadkhira 537:polymath 386:diameter 358:Analemma 321:and the 302:used in 106:Sassanid 86:Far East 8122:Physics 7966:schools 7869:History 7859:Welfare 7839:Poverty 7829:Banking 7819:History 7796:Pottery 7771:Gardens 7697:Commons 7649:history 7619:Russian 7467:Related 7376:Optical 7361:Tibetan 7345:Serbian 7338:Persian 7282:Chinese 7259:Culture 7179:History 7050:Amateur 6981:History 6974:Outline 6696:Inertia 6686:Gravity 6621:Azimuth 6570:Sundial 6560:Sextant 6510:Dioptra 6500:Compass 6465:Alidade 6076:al-Urdi 5899:Alhazen 5823:Ma Yize 5768:al-Qūhī 5743:al-Sufi 5378:Bibcode 5212:Bibcode 4930:Bibcode 4924:. 2nd. 4833:(ed.). 4684:Bibcode 4608:Sources 4451:Teubner 4316:Bibcode 4251:Bibcode 3567:Bibcode 3417:Bibcode 3236:Bibcode 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Knowledge (XXG)

Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world

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