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In 1888, the Joint
Commissioner of Ladakh requested India's Foreign Department to demarcate boundaries across northern and eastern Kashmir in a clear manner. After much back and forth, the department concluded that Johnson (and those who followed him) had an unconvincing view of the Indus watershed
127:
range. The
British preference among the three choices varied over time based on the perception of their strategic interests in India. The Ardagh–Johnson Line represented the "forward school" that wanted to advance the boundary as forward as possible as a defence against the growing Russian empire.
504:, p. 103: "Huang Tachin (also Hung Chun or Hung Tajen) was a Chinese diplomat accredited to Russia as well as Germany, Austria-Hungary and Holland in 1887-90. During these years he rendered into Chinese a series of thirty-five maps, relating for the most part to the Sino-Russian borders."
339:
Since the late 1800s, local government officials were increasingly unhappy with accuracy of such traverse-maps and as a result, new surveys (along with boundary commissions) were frequently set up. However, extremely inhospitable geological conditions of
Northeast Kashmir and difficulty in
437:
193:. No names were used for the boundary lines in the northeast of Kashmir prior to these authors. Scholar Steven Hoffman later used "Ardagh–Johnson Line" to refer to the line generally shown on British maps, which differs from the "Johnson line" in its northern boundary.
355:. At the time Britain was concerned at the danger of Russian expansion as China weakened, and Ardagh argued that his line was more defensible. The Ardagh line was effectively a modification of the Johnson line, and became known as the "Ardagh–Johnson Line".
371:, the British officially used the Ardagh–Johnson Line. From 1917 to 1933, the "Postal Atlas of China", published by the Government of China in Peking showed the boundary in Aksai Chin as per the Ardagh–Johnson line, which runs along the
167:. He surveyed the region now called Aksai Chin in 1865. The results of the survey were published in a "Kashmir Atlas" in 1868. The boundaries shown therein have been reproduced in practically all British and international maps of the
243:, provided a map which coincided with the Ardagh–Johnson line in broad details. It showed the boundary of Xinjiang up to Raskam. In the east, it was similar to the Ardagh–Johnson line, placing Aksai Chin in Kashmir territory.
453:
425:
387:
in 1947, the government of India fixed its official boundary in the west, which included the Aksai Chin, in a manner that resembled the Ardagh–Johnson Line. India's basis for defining the border was “
217:
was commissioned to undertake a survey of "beyond and to the north of the Chang Chenmo valley", as a part of the
Kashmir Series. Accordingly, he engaged in a hasty north–south traverse survey of the
695:, pp. 73, 78: "Clarke added that a Chinese map drawn by Hung Ta-chen, Minister in St. Petersburg, confirmed the Johnson alignment showing West Aksai Chin as within British (Kashmir) territory."
465:
178:
was the chief of the
British military intelligence in London, who formally proposed to the British Indian government the alignment drawn by Johnson as the boundary of India in 1897.
42:
413:
128:
Following the
Chinese reluctance to acquiesce to the more conservative Macartney–MacDonald Line, the British eventually reverted to the forward line in the
278:
631:, p. 272, footnote 2 of Chapter 2: "The names now used for the several proposed borders of British days were coined by Alastair Lamb in his
722:
1053:
1006:
975:
874:
853:
328:
1032:
205:
Johnson's map of the Aksai Chin and Kunlun region (distorted due to equipment fault). His proposed boundary line is marked in dark green
317:
304:
71:
749:
344:
and their traverse-maps were too imprecise (and lacking in details) to serve the purpose of adjudicating territorial boundaries.
1082:
1087:
282:
119:
The Ardagh–Johnson Line is one of three boundary lines considered by the
British Indian government, the other two being the
842:
120:
53:
459:
Postal Map of China published by the
Government of China in 1917. The boundary in Aksai Chin is as per the Johnson line.
384:
322:
144:
267:
1016:
923:
580:
210:
156:
101:
286:
271:
340:
determining water-sheds across the Aksai Chin meant a continued lack of precision surveys covering this region.
232:
was within the territory of
Kashmir. The boundary of Kashmir that he drew, stretching from Sanju Pass to the
88:
Map 1: The Ardagh–Johnson line marked in red as the "traditional boundary" of the state of Jammu and
Kashmir
20:
635:
book. Prior to that, it seems that the only Kashmir boundary given an official name was the Durand Line".
718:
347:
In 1897 a British military officer, Sir John Ardagh, proposed a boundary line along the crest of the
883:
Johnson, W. H. (1867), "Report on His Journey to Ilchí, the Capital of Khotan, in Chinese Tartary",
160:
333:
175:
105:
998:
201:
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133:
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447:. The boundary, marked with a thin dot-dashed line, matches the Johnson line for Aksai Chin.
372:
1065:
Himalayan Frontiers: A Political Review of British, Chinese, Indian, and Russian Rivalries
444:
218:
214:
190:
164:
149:
471:
The map shows the Indian claim line in black dashes which is based on the Johnson line.
240:
229:
375:. The "Peking University Atlas", published in 1925, also put the Aksai Chin in India.
1076:
1063:
984:
957:
844:
The Frontier Complex: Geopolitics and the Making of the India-China Border, 1846–1962
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680:
583:(1867), "Report on His Journey to Ilchí, the Capital of Khotan, in Chinese Tartary",
352:
182:
527:
525:
523:
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Aksai Chin, following the main trade route — averaging about thirty miles per day.
443:
Hung Ta-chen's map of the China border near Ladakh, 1893. Faithful reproduction by
1043:
965:
912:
492:
The organisation was called the "Great Trigonometrical Survey" in Johnson's time
368:
256:
168:
949:
392:
129:
84:
768:
124:
750:"Sino-Indian Border Dispute At Aksai Chin – A Middle Path For Resolution"
391:.”. Unlike the Johnson line, India did not claim the northern areas near
233:
109:
967:
An "agreed" frontier: Ladakh and India's northernmost borders, 1846-1947
904:
800:
604:
97:
568:
Phillimore, Historical Records of the Survey of India, Volume 5 (1968)
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396:
896:
628:
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531:
419:
Map of India, 1765, implicitly showed the Aksai Chin region in India
327:
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236:
along the Kunlun mountains, is referred to as the "Johnson Line".
228:'s border was at Brinjga, in the Kunlun mountains, and the entire
225:
200:
143:
113:
83:
1034:
Historical Records of the Survey of India, Volume 5: 1844 to 1861
829:
Fisher, Margaret W.; Rose, Leo E.; Huttenback, Robert A. (1963),
936:
Lall, John (1989), "Maps and Traditional Boundaries of Ladakh",
250:
25:
990:
India–China Boundary Problem 1846–1947: History and Diplomacy
431:
Map of India, 1870, apparently incorporating the Johnson Line
812:
735:
704:
692:
616:
224:
The resulting map was published in 1867. Johnson noted that
789:
Fisher, Rose & Huttenback, Himalayan Battleground 1963
681:
Fisher, Rose & Huttenback, Himalayan Battleground 1963
1037:, The Surveyor General of India – via archive.org
585:
The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London
49:
832:
Himalayan Battleground: Sino-Indian Rivalry in Ladakh
367:
resulted in power shifts in China, and by the end of
757:
Journal of Development Alternatives and Area Studies
239:
In 1893, Hung Ta-chen, a senior Chinese official at
108:
as the official boundary of India. It abuts China's
19:"Johnson Line" redirects here. For the company, see
841:
181:The term "Johnson boundary" was used by historian
132:area, which was then inherited by the independent
885:The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society
321:Map 3: Boundary of Kashmir shown in the 1909
39:The examples and perspective in this article
8:
801:Raghavan, War and Peace in Modern India 2010
544:Noorani, India–China Boundary Problem (2010)
332:Map 4: Jammu and Kashmir in 1946 map by the
1017:"Survey of Kashmir and Jammu, 1855 to 1865"
629:Hoffmann, India and the China Crisis (1990)
556:Hoffmann, India and the China Crisis (1990)
546:, Chapter 4, "Two Schools on the Boundary".
532:Hoffmann, India and the China Crisis (1990)
285:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
721:. Marine Corps Command and Staff College.
999:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198070689.001.0001
848:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
305:Learn how and when to remove this message
72:Learn how and when to remove this message
189:(1964) and "Johnson line" by journalist
668:
656:
517:
485:
409:
159:was the lead surveyor of Ladakh in the
148:Map 2: Boundary of Kashmir in the 1888
931:, Australian National University Press
725:from the original on 11 November 2011.
7:
717:Calvin, James Barnard (April 1984).
644:
283:adding citations to reliable sources
617:Lamb, The China-India border (1964)
234:eastern edge of Chang Chenmo Valley
869:, University of California Press,
43:include all significant viewpoints
14:
1068:, Praeger – via archive.org
993:, Oxford University Press India,
835:, Praeger – via archive.org
813:Woodman, Himalayan Frontiers 1969
736:Woodman, Himalayan Frontiers 1969
705:Woodman, Himalayan Frontiers 1969
693:Woodman, Himalayan Frontiers 1969
163:team instituted 1847–1865 by the
925:The Sino-Indian Border in Ladakh
502:Mehra, An "agreed" frontier 1992
464:
452:
436:
424:
412:
389:chiefly by long usage and custom
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96:is the northeastern boundary of
30:
748:Verma, Virendra Sahai (2006).
1:
1045:War and Peace in Modern India
863:Hoffmann, Steven A. (1990),
719:"The China-India Border War"
970:, Oxford University Press,
379:Border of independent India
323:Imperial Gazetteer of India
171:till 1947. (See Maps 2–4.)
16:Boundary line in Aksai Chin
1104:
1042:Raghavan, Srinath (2010),
1031:Phillimore, R. H. (1968),
1015:Phillimore, R. H. (1960),
950:10.1177/000944558902500101
866:India and the China Crisis
18:
1062:Woodman, Dorothy (1969),
964:Mehra, Parshotam (1992),
917:, Oxford University Press
840:Gardner, Kyle J. (2021).
707:, pp. 101 and 360ff
121:Macartney–MacDonald Line
922:Lamb, Alastair (1973),
911:Lamb, Alastair (1964),
1088:Eponymous border lines
1048:, Palgrave Macmillan,
914:The China-India border
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206:
187:The China–India Border
153:
89:
21:Johnson Line (company)
1021:The Himalayan Journal
331:
320:
204:
147:
123:and a line along the
87:
279:improve this section
116:autonomous regions.
659:, pp. 76, 235.
570:, pp. 237–238.
334:National Geographic
219:hitherto-unexplored
176:John Charles Ardagh
106:John Charles Ardagh
104:and recommended by
94:Ardagh–Johnson Line
50:improve the article
1083:China–India border
815:, pp. 73, 78.
633:China-India Border
337:
326:
207:
154:
100:drawn by surveyor
90:
1055:978-1-137-00737-7
1008:978-0-19-908839-3
977:978-0-19-562758-9
876:978-0-520-06537-6
855:978-1-108-84059-0
619:, pp. 42–44.
365:Xinhai Revolution
349:Kun Lun Mountains
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134:Republic of India
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247:Ardagh Proposal
230:Karakash Valley
215:Survey of India
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191:Neville Maxwell
165:Survey of India
150:Survey of India
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102:William Johnson
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683:, p. 116.
673:
671:, pp. 76.
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581:Johnson, W. H.
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241:St. Petersburg
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197:Initial survey
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161:Kashmir Survey
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211:W. H. Johnson
209:In May 1865,
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183:Alastair Lamb
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938:China Report
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772:. Retrieved
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669:Gardner 2021
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385:independence
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363:In 1911 the
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277:Please help
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185:in his book
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152:map of India
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62:October 2019
59:
40:
944:(1): 1–10,
369:World War I
295:August 2021
169:British Raj
1077:Categories
763:(3): 6–8.
512:References
393:Shahidulla
130:Aksai Chin
958:154641762
774:30 August
769:1651-9728
645:Lall 1989
359:Aftermath
266:does not
140:Etymology
125:Karakoram
987:(2010),
891:: 1–47,
723:Archived
591:: 1–47,
110:Xinjiang
41:may not
905:1798517
605:1798517
403:Gallery
287:removed
272:sources
213:of the
98:Kashmir
48:Please
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1005:
974:
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603:
397:Khotan
226:Khotan
954:S2CID
929:(PDF)
901:JSTOR
753:(PDF)
601:JSTOR
480:Notes
383:Upon
114:Tibet
1050:ISBN
1003:ISBN
972:ISBN
871:ISBN
850:ISBN
776:2013
765:ISSN
395:and
270:any
268:cite
112:and
92:The
995:doi
946:doi
893:doi
593:doi
281:by
52:or
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69:(
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23:.
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