464:
1243:. They are also recorded from Lower Jurassic (Bonet and Benveniste-Velasquez, 1971; Buge and Monniot, 1972) and the Tertiary from France (Deflandre-Riguard, 1949, 1956; Durand, 1952; Deflandre and Deflandre-Rigaud, 1956; Bouche, 1962; Lezaud, 1966; Monniot and Buge, 1971; Varol and Houghton, 1996). Older (Triassic) records are ambiguous. The representatives of the genus Cystodytes (family Polycitoridae) have been described from the Pliocene of France by Monniot (1970, 1971) and Deflandre-Rigaud (1956), and from Eocene of France by Monniot and Buge (1971), and lately from the Late Eocene of S Australia by Łukowiak (2012).
971:. Self-fertilized eggs develop with a substantially higher frequency of anomalies during cleavage than cross-fertilized eggs (23% vs. 1.6%). Also, a significantly lower percentage of larvae derived from self-fertilized eggs metamorphose, and the growth of the colonies derived from their metamorphosis is significantly lower. These findings suggest that self-fertilization gives rise to inbreeding depression associated with developmental deficits that are likely caused by expression of deleterious recessive mutations.
114:
658:. The gonads are located in the abdomen or postabdomen, and include one testis and one ovary, each of which opens via a duct into the cloaca. Broadly speaking, the ascidians can be divided into species which exist as independent animals (the solitary ascidians) and those which are interdependent (the colonial ascidians). Different species of ascidians can have markedly different reproductive strategies, with colonial forms having mixed modes of reproduction.
137:
762:
1640:
1252:
640:
1045:
987:
In other species, the postabdomen can elongate and break up into a string of separate buds, which can eventually form a new colony. In some, the pharyngeal part of the animal degenerates, and the abdomen breaks up into patches of germinal tissue, each combining parts of the epidermis, peritoneum, and
952:
is highly self-fertile. However, non-self sperm out-compete self-sperm in fertilization competition assays. Gamete recognition is not absolute allowing some self-fertilization. It was speculated that self-incompatibility evolved to avoid inbreeding depression, but that selfing ability was retained to
940:
is a hermaphrodite that releases sperm and eggs into the surrounding seawater almost simultaneously. It is self-sterile, and thus has been used for studies on the mechanism of self-incompatibility. Self/non-self-recognition molecules play a key role in the process of interaction between sperm and the
692:
affinities. But one group, the molgulid ascidians, have evolved tailless species on at least four separate occasions, and even direct development. A notochord is formed early in development and always consists of a row of exactly 40 cells. The nerve tube enlarges in the main body, and will eventually
752:
can be reached in as little as a few weeks. Since the larva is more advanced than its adult, this type of metamorphosis is called 'retrogressive metamorphosis'. This feature is a landmark for the 'theory of retrogressive metamorphosis or ascidian larva theory'; the true chordates are hypothesized to
415:
Sea squirts are rounded or cylindrical animals ranging from about 0.5 to 10 cm (0.2 to 4 in) in size. One end of the body is always firmly fixed to rock, coral, or some similar solid surface. The lower surface is pitted or ridged, and in some species has root-like extensions that help the
1846:
of sea squirts is simple, rapid, and easily manipulated. Because each embryo contains relatively few cells, complex processes can be studied at the cellular level, while remaining in the context of the whole embryo. The eggs of some species contain little yolk and are therefore transparent making
544:
The heart is a curved muscular tube lying in the postabdomen, or close to the stomach. Each end opens into a single vessel, one running to the endostyle, and the other to the dorsal surface of the pharynx. The vessels are connected by a series of sinuses, through which the blood flows. Additional
617:. The number of cells within the central nervous system is very small. The neural tube is composed of the sensory vesicle, the neck, the visceral or tail ganglion, and the caudal nerve cord. The anteroposterior regionalization of the neural tube in ascidians is comparable to that in vertebrates.
535:
just below the atrial siphon. In some highly developed colonial species, clusters of individuals may share a single cloaca, with all the atrial siphons opening into it, although the buccal siphons all remain separate. A series of glands lie on the outer surface of the intestine, opening through
556:
Unusually, the heart of sea squirts alternates the direction in which it pumps blood every three to four minutes. There are two excitatory areas, one at each end of the heart, with first one being dominant, to push the blood through the ventral vessel, and then the other, pushing it dorsally.
423:
The upper surface of the animal, opposite to the part gripping the substratum, has two openings, or siphons. When removed from the water, the animal often violently expels water from these siphons, hence the common name of "sea squirt". The body itself can be divided into up to three regions,
823:
takes place: this results in macroscopic tadpole-like larvae. When mature, these larvae exit the atrial siphon of the adult and then settle close to the parent colony (often within meters). The combined effect of short sperm range and philopatric larval dispersal results in local population
827:
Trauma or predation often results in fragmentation of a colony into subcolonies. Subsequent zooid replication can lead to coalescence and circulatory fusion of the subcolonies. Closely related colonies which are proximate to each other may also fuse if they coalesce and if they are
455:
The pharynx is surrounded by an atrium, through which water is expelled through a second, usually smaller, siphon. Cords of connective tissue cross the atrium to maintain the general shape of the body. The outer body wall consists of connective tissue, muscle fibres, and a simple
979:
Many colonial sea squirts are also capable of asexual reproduction, although the means of doing so are highly variable between different families. In the simplest forms, the members of the colony are linked only by rootlike projections from their undersides known as
945:
is mechanistically similar to self-incompatibility systems in flowering plants. Self-incompatibility promotes out-crossing, and thus provides the adaptive advantage at each generation of masking deleterious recessive mutations (i.e. genetic complementation).
811:
develop into microscopic larvae that may be carried great distances by oceanic currents. The larvae of sessile forms which survive eventually settle and complete maturation on the substratum- then they may bud asexually to form a colony of zooids.
381:
There are 2,300 species of ascidians and three main types: solitary ascidians, social ascidians that form clumped communities by attaching at their bases, and compound ascidians that consist of many small individuals (each individual is called a
967:(protogynous) hermaphrodite, and in a colony, eggs are ovulated about two days before the peak of sperm emission. Thus self-fertilization is avoided, and cross-fertilization is favored. Although avoided, self-fertilization is still possible in
420:, along with proteins and calcium salts. Unlike the shells of molluscs, the tunic is composed of living tissue and often has its own blood supply. In some colonial species, the tunics of adjacent individuals are fused into a single structure.
1095:
have been invaded by non-native sea squirts that have been introduced by accident from the iceaneic shipping industry. Several factors, including quick attainment of sexual maturity, tolerance of a wide range of environments, and a lack of
860:
are left behind as the sperm enters and drives through the coat; this translocation of the mitochondria might provide the necessary force for penetration. The sperm swims through the perivitelline space, finally reaching the egg
439:
and contains numerous perforations, or stigmata, arranged in a grid-like pattern around its circumference. The beating of the cilia sucks water through the siphon, and then through the stigmata. A long ciliated groove, or
824:
structures of closely related individuals/inbred colonies. Generations of colonies which are restricted in dispersal are thought to accumulate adaptions to local conditions, thereby providing advantages over newcomers.
2401:
888:
The dramatic rearrangement of egg cytoplasm following fertilization, called ooplasmic segregation, determines the dorsoventral and anteroposterior axes of the embryo. There are at least three types of sea squirt egg
2588:
Gasparini F, Manni L, Cima F, Zaniolo G, Burighel P, Caicci F, Franchi N, Schiavon F, Rigon F, Campagna D, Ballarin L (July 2014). "Sexual and asexual reproduction in the colonial ascidian
Botryllus schlosseri".
2451:
Sawada H, Morita M, Iwano M (August 2014). "Self/non-self recognition mechanisms in sexual reproduction: new insight into the self-incompatibility system shared by flowering plants and hermaphroditic animals".
712:
lined with small clefts opening into a surrounding atrium. The mouth and anus are originally at opposite ends of the animal, with the mouth only moving to its final (posterior) position during metamorphosis.
584:
close to the digestive tract. The morula cells help to form the tunic, and can often be found within the tunic substance itself. In some species, the morula cells possess pigmented reducing agents containing
1992:. In: Shenkar, N.; Gittenberger, A.; Lambert, G.; Rius, M.; Moreira Da Rocha, R.; Swalla, B. J.; Turon, X. (2017). Ascidiacea World Database. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species on 2017-09-15.
1918:, which is expected to provide information about complex developmental processes and regulation of genes in vertebrates. Gene expression in embryos of sea squirts can be conveniently inhibited using
504:
food particles as they pass through the stigmata, and is collected in the ridge on the dorsal surface. The ridge bears a groove along one side, which passes the collected food downwards and into the
815:
The picture is more complicated for the philopatrically dispersed ascidians: sperm from a nearby colony (or from a zooid of the same colony) enter the atrial siphon and fertilization takes place
807:(very short-range dispersal). Broadcast spawners release sperm and ova into the water column and fertilization occurs near to the parent colonies. Some species are also viviparous. Resultant
832:. Ascidians were among the first animals to be able to immunologically distinguish self from non-self as a mechanism to prevent unrelated colonies from fusing to them and parasitizing them.
925:
side of the embryo. In the second phase, the myoplasm moves to the subequatorial zone and extends into a crescent, which marks the future posterior of the embryo. The ectoplasm with the
1946:
Fedonkin, M. A.; Vickers-Rich, P.; Swalla, B. J.; Trusler, P.; Hall, M. (2012). "A new metazoan from the
Vendian of the White Sea, Russia, with possible affinities to the ascidians".
620:
Although there is no true brain, the largest ganglion is located in the connective tissue between the two siphons, and sends nerves throughout the body. Beneath this ganglion lies an
748:
grow from the body to permanently attach the animal to the substratum. The siphons of the juvenile ascidian become orientated to optimise current flow through the feeding apparatus.
803:
Different colonial ascidian species produce sexually derived offspring by one of two dispersal strategies – colonial species are either broadcast spawners (long-range dispersal) or
1462:
nested inside
Ascidiacea. A grouping of Thaliacea and Ascidiacea to the exclusion of Appendicularia had already been suggested for a long time, under the name of Acopa. Brusca
1695:). When served raw, they have a chewy texture and peculiar flavor likened to "rubber dipped in ammonia" which has been attributed to a naturally occurring chemical known as
435:
As its name implies, the pharyngeal region is occupied mainly by the pharynx. The large buccal siphon opens into the pharynx, acting like a mouth. The pharynx itself is
917:. In the first phase of ooplasmic segregation, the myoplasmic actin-filament network contracts to rapidly move the peripheral cytoplasm (including the myoplasm) to the
4216:
775:
Some ascidians, especially in
Molgulidae family, have direct development in which the embryo develops directly into the juvenile without developing a tailed larva.
995:, for instance, the individual essentially splits into two, with the pharynx growing a new digestive tract and the original digestive tract growing a new pharynx.
4242:
984:. Buds containing food storage cells can develop within the stolons and, when sufficiently separated from the 'parent', may grow into a new adult individual.
4342:
4347:
2300:
545:
sinuses run from that on the dorsal surface, supplying blood to the visceral organs, and smaller vessels commonly run from both sides into the tunic.
4190:
463:
4229:
3319:
432:. In many sea squirts, the postabdomen, or even the entire abdomen, are absent, with their respective organs being located more anteriorly.
1200:
Ascidians are soft-bodied animals, and for this reason, their fossil record is almost entirely lacking. The earliest reliable ascidians is
1870:
position: as an approximation of ancestral chordates, they can provide insight into the link between chordates and ancestral non-chordate
624:
that empties into the pharynx. The gland is formed from the nerve tube, and is therefore homologous to the spinal cord of vertebrates.
3533:
193:
3462:
3302:
2507:
2123:
4304:
1007:
2910:
Buge, E.; Monniot, F. O. (1972). "Nouveaux
Spicules D'Ascidiesde L'Ypresien du Bassin de Paris et du Toarcien des Deux-Sevres".
1028:, is employed in the repair of AP sites during early embryonic development. Lack of such repair leads to abnormal development.
2634:"CiApex1 has AP endonuclease activity and abrogated AP site repair disrupts early embryonic development in Ciona intestinalis"
2413:
Bates, William R. (1988). "Polarization of ooplasmic segregation and dorsal-ventral axis determination in ascidian embryos".
416:
animal grip the surface. The body wall is covered by a smooth thick tunic, which is often quite rigid. The tunic consists of
4234:
865:
and entering the egg. This prompts rapid modification of the vitelline coat, through processes such as the egg's release of
3123:
3080:
Stach, T; Turbeville, J.M. (December 2002). "Phylogeny of
Tunicata inferred from molecular and morphological characters".
2632:
Igarashi, Kento; Funakoshi, Masafumi; Kato, Seiji; Moriwaki, Takahito; Kato, Yuichi; Zhang-Akiyama, Qiu-Mei (2019-04-27).
4362:
2141:"Vanadocytes, cells hold the key to resolving the highly selective accumulation and reduction of vanadium in ascidians"
4352:
4138:
4125:
2312:
Ogura, Y; Sasakura, Y (2013). "Ascidians as excellent models for studying cellular events in the chordate body plan".
1212:
716:
The larva selects and settles on appropriate surfaces using receptors sensitive to light, orientation to gravity, and
627:
Sea squirts lack special sense organs, although the body wall incorporates numerous individual receptors for touch,
136:
964:
375:
740:: various organs (such as the larval tail and fins) are lost while others rearrange to their adult positions, the
4337:
4247:
3345:
3037:Łukowiak, M. (2012). "First Record of Late Eocene Ascidians (Ascidiacea, Tunicata) from Southeastern Australia".
1855:
imaging. Its maternally-derived proteins are naturally associated with pigment (in a few species only), so cell
553:, is excreted directly from the blood through the walls of the pharynx, and expelled through the atrial siphon.
894:
1015:
479:
2534:
Jiang D, Smith WC (October 2005). "Self- and cross-fertilization in the solitary ascidian Ciona savignyi".
4078:
3526:
662:
2683:"The Simple Chordate Ciona intestinalis Has a Reduced Complement of Genes Associated with Fanconi Anemia"
881:
in waves, mostly from internal stores. The temporary large increase in calcium concentration prompts the
684:
As a general rule, the larva possesses a long tail, containing muscles, a hollow dorsal nerve tube and a
428:, while the abdomen contains most of the other bodily organs, and the postabdomen contains the heart and
4278:
1848:
1843:
1823:
1725:
1260:
1156:
914:
820:
2986:
Porter, S. M. (2010). "Calcite and aragonite seas and the de novo acquisition of carbonate skeletons".
669:
from other individuals. A fertilized egg spends 12 hours to a few days developing into a free-swimming
4296:
3408:"Novel genes involved in Ciona intestinalis embryogenesis: Characterization of gene knockdown embryos"
2681:
Stanley, Edward C.; Azzinaro, Paul A.; Vierra, David A.; Howlett, Niall G.; Irvine, Steven Q. (2016).
4257:
4164:
4143:
3089:
3046:
2995:
2958:
2919:
2864:
2809:
2774:
2739:
2251:
2015:
1955:
1838:
Several factors make sea squirts good models for studying the fundamental developmental processes of
1176:
784:
991:
In yet others, budding begins shortly after the larva has settled onto the substrate. In the family
389:
Sea squirts feed by taking in water through a tube, the oral siphon. The water enters the mouth and
4332:
4309:
1856:
1060:
1033:
655:
444:, runs along one side of the pharynx, and a projecting ridge along the other. The endostyle may be
371:
1989:
1159:"). As chemical defenses, many sea squirts intake and maintain an extremely high concentration of
1088:
function in adult tissues. This property has made some species sensitive indicators of pollution.
4357:
3388:
3271:
3062:
3019:
2833:
2663:
2614:
2567:
2551:
2376:
2337:
2283:
2174:
2047:
1971:
1884:
1810:
1023:
841:
445:
131:
122:
929:
nucleus ends up at the animal hemisphere while the endoplasm ends up in the vegetal hemisphere.
4283:
795:. Zooids within a colony are usually genetically identical and some have a shared circulation.
523:
runs upwards from the stomach parallel to the oesophagus and eventually opens, through a short
500:
along its margins. The mucus then flows in a sheet across the surface of the pharynx, trapping
4265:
4151:
3519:
3458:
3429:
3380:
3363:
Satoh N (2003). "The ascidian tadpole larva: comparative molecular development and genomics".
3298:
3229:
3178:
3105:
3011:
2892:
2825:
2712:
2655:
2606:
2559:
2513:
2503:
2469:
2430:
2384:
2329:
2275:
2267:
2239:
2215:
2166:
2119:
2039:
2031:
2003:
1730:
1208:
898:
791:. Colonies can survive for decades. An ascidian colony consists of individual elements called
546:
250:
492:
The pharynx forms the first part of the digestive system. The endostyle produces a supply of
4270:
3419:
3372:
3263:
3219:
3209:
3168:
3158:
3097:
3054:
3003:
2966:
2927:
2882:
2872:
2817:
2782:
2747:
2702:
2694:
2645:
2598:
2543:
2495:
2461:
2422:
2368:
2321:
2259:
2205:
2156:
2140:
2023:
1963:
1799:
1676:
1050:
922:
845:
761:
516:
469:
424:
although these are not clearly distinct in most species. The pharyngeal region contains the
4221:
4116:
1032:
also has a set of genes that encode proteins homologous to those employed in the repair of
3935:
3689:
3655:
3582:
2490:
Bernstein, H; Hopf, FA; Michod, RE (1987). "The
Molecular Basis of the Evolution of Sex".
2301:
Molgula pugetiensis is a
Pacific tailless ascidian within the Roscovita clade of molgulids
1915:
1894:
are small and easily manipulated; comparisons with the genomes of other organisms such as
1794:
1746:
1579:
1509:
1353:
1304:
1184:
1172:
1019:
1011:
941:
vitelline coat of the egg. It appears that self/non-self recognition in ascidians such as
862:
829:
749:
327:
225:
209:
1910:
provides valuable information regarding chordate evolution. A collection of over 480,000
3093:
3050:
2999:
2962:
2923:
2868:
2813:
2778:
2743:
2255:
2019:
1959:
3804:
3776:
3683:
3488:
3224:
3197:
3173:
3146:
2946:
2851:
Chen, J. -Y.; Huang, D. -Y.; Peng, Q. -Q.; Chi, H. -M.; Wang, X. -Q.; Feng, M. (2003).
2730:
Papadopoulou, C; Kanias, GD (1977). "Tunicate species as marine pollution indicators".
2707:
2682:
1890:
1734:
1688:
1559:
1380:
1221:
767:
628:
621:
348:
338:
258:
235:
217:
3198:"Phylogenomics resolves the evolutionary chronicle of our squirting closest relatives"
3101:
2931:
2887:
2852:
2499:
1639:
4326:
4047:
3952:
3815:
3759:
3291:
3007:
2751:
2618:
2426:
2287:
2051:
1975:
1860:
1803:
1758:
1668:
1255:
882:
849:
737:
651:
344:
70:
3392:
3275:
3066:
3023:
2837:
2667:
2571:
2402:
Colonial
Allorecognition, Hemolytic Rejection, and Viviparity in Botryllid Ascidians
2341:
2178:
1068:
The exceptional filtering capability of adult sea squirts causes them to accumulate
4156:
3927:
3882:
3787:
3731:
3568:
1871:
1867:
1718:
1701:
1277:
1180:
918:
910:
874:
857:
678:
613:
The ascidian central nervous system is formed from a plate that rolls up to form a
341:
324:
4130:
725:
1108:
cause significant economic problems, and sea squirt invasions have disrupted the
704:
life and extends to form a fin along the tail in the larva. The larva also has a
536:
collecting tubules into the stomach, although their precise function is unclear.
4203:
4110:
3844:
3744:
3450:
2786:
2356:
1852:
866:
804:
614:
598:
400:) into a water chamber called the atrium, then exits through the atrial siphon.
113:
45:
3248:
2465:
1251:
3979:
3832:
3717:
3671:
3605:
3214:
2152:
1967:
1919:
1903:
1875:
1827:
1116:
1069:
1055:
992:
870:
853:
644:
590:
565:
561:
505:
457:
280:
90:
55:
4101:
3493:
3163:
2271:
2244:
Journal of
Experimental Zoology Part B: Molecular and Developmental Evolution
2035:
2008:
Journal of Experimental Zoology Part B: Molecular and Developmental Evolution
4177:
3971:
3661:
3635:
3562:
2877:
2238:
Alié, Alexandre; Hiebert, Laurel S.; Scelzo, Marta; Tiozzo, Stefano (2021).
2002:
Alié, Alexandre; Hiebert, Laurel S.; Scelzo, Marta; Tiozzo, Stefano (2021).
1839:
1819:
1774:
1696:
1536:
1486:
1459:
1400:
1331:
1281:
1269:
1236:
1216:
1136:
1109:
1105:
890:
878:
705:
685:
639:
577:
520:
497:
474:
441:
417:
404:
374:
animals after their larval phase: they then remain firmly attached to their
363:
359:
331:
298:
290:
148:
95:
3505:
3433:
3384:
3233:
3182:
3109:
3015:
2896:
2821:
2716:
2659:
2610:
2563:
2473:
2388:
2333:
2279:
2219:
2170:
2043:
601:) giving it a green colour. In that case the cells are also referred to as
3511:
2829:
2517:
2434:
2325:
4095:
3941:
3869:
3857:
3619:
3590:
3543:
2802:
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
2650:
2633:
1899:
1714:
1663:
1455:
1451:
1273:
1231:
1205:
1160:
1132:
1124:
1120:
1097:
906:
902:
745:
733:
721:
697:
694:
689:
594:
501:
397:
367:
355:
334:
267:
178:
168:
85:
80:
65:
60:
50:
3483:
2971:
2800:
Carlisle, D. B. (1968-08-13). "Vanadium and other metals in ascidians".
2263:
2027:
1112:
of several natural sub-tidal areas by smothering native animal species.
1100:, allow sea squirt populations to grow rapidly. Unwanted populations on
17:
4054:
3893:
3739:
3424:
3407:
2698:
2555:
2380:
2210:
2193:
2161:
1782:
1710:
1649:
1226:
1003:
741:
729:
709:
670:
550:
512:
449:
425:
394:
390:
100:
75:
2602:
1268:
The ascidians were on morphological evidence treated as sister to the
1139:. Some are also eaten by humans in many parts of the world, including
1044:
959:
is a colonial tunicate able to reproduce both sexually and asexually.
354:
Ascidians are found all over the world, usually in shallow water with
4208:
3960:
3917:
3906:
3556:
3058:
2765:
Lambert, G (2007). "Invasive sea squirts: A growing global problem".
2118:. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 1028–1042.
1914:
have been sequenced and are available to support further analysis of
1907:
1879:
1240:
1152:
1092:
1085:
1077:
981:
926:
808:
701:
532:
524:
158:
4072:
3376:
2547:
2372:
2072:(4th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 911–932.
496:
which is then passed into the rest of the pharynx by the beating of
27:
Group of non-vertebrate marine filter feeders comprising sea squirts
4195:
4182:
3289:
Rowthorn, Chris; Andrew Bender; John Ashburne; Sara Benson (2003).
3267:
2194:"Organization of Hox genes in ascidians: Present, past, and future"
2139:
Michibata, Hitoshi; Uyama Taro; Ueki Tatsuya; Kanamore Kan (2002).
4291:
2947:"A review and classification of fossil didemnid ascidian spicules"
1895:
1778:
1770:
1638:
1250:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1081:
1073:
1043:
760:
717:
674:
666:
638:
493:
462:
436:
429:
403:
Some authors now include the thaliaceans in Ascidiacea, making it
383:
4169:
1179:
harmful to predators and invaders. Some of these metabolites are
347:. Ascidians are characterized by a tough outer "tunic" made of a
3985:
3883:
Lissamphibia (modern amphibians: frogs, salamanders, caecilians)
1911:
1466:. treat Ascidiacea as a monophyletic group including Thaliacea.
1168:
1128:
1101:
661:
Solitary ascidians release many eggs from their atrial siphons;
586:
528:
4076:
3515:
2240:"The eventful history of nonembryonic development in tunicates"
2004:"The eventful history of nonembryonic development in tunicates"
1276:, but molecular evidence has suggested that ascidians could be
3501:
Ascidian Network for In Situ Expression and Embryological Data
3498:
3320:"Supersuckers: Masan's Tenacious Tentacles and Fiery Monkfish"
1450:
Recent studies have suggested an alternate phylogeny, placing
988:
digestive tract, and capable of growing into new individuals.
788:
819:
the atrium. Embryos are then brooded within the atrium where
3777:
Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish: sharks, rays, chimaeras)
1115:
Sea squirts are the natural prey of many animals, including
2853:"The first tunicate from the Early Cambrian of South China"
2068:
Brusca, Richard C.; Giribet, Gonzalo; Moore, Wendy (2023).
1164:
852:, the sperm passes through the follicle cells and binds to
736:
for attachment. Adhesive secretion prompts an irreversible
2357:"Direct Development in the Ascidian Molgula retortiformis"
1802:– it is consumed both raw and in seafood stews similar to
1662:
Various ascidians are eaten by humans around the world as
665:
in seawater takes place with the coincidental release of
126:, commonly known as the vase tunicate or as a sea squirt
3478:
708:
and a pigmented cup above the mouth, which opens into a
3406:
Hamada, M.; Wada, S.; Kobayashi, K.; Satoh, N. (2007).
2494:. Advances in Genetics. Vol. 24. pp. 323–70.
677:, which then takes no more than 36 hours to settle and
452:
gland of vertebrates, despite its differing function.
3147:"Immunity in Protochordates: The Tunicate Perspective"
1866:
Sea squirts are also valuable because of their unique
393:, flows through mucus-covered gill slits (also called
3256:
Publications of the Seto Marine Biological Laboratory
1859:
are easily labeled, allowing scientists to visualize
1091:
Over the last few hundred years, most of the world's
1988:
Gittenberger, A.; Shenkar, N.; Sanamyan, K. (2015).
4085:
3970:
3951:
3926:
3915:
3891:
3867:
3842:
3813:
3785:
3757:
3730:
3715:
3670:
3644:
3618:
3603:
3581:
848:cells that produce sperm-attracting substances. In
688:, both features clearly indicative of the animal's
279:
201:
130:
34:
3484:Encyclopedia of Marine Life of Britain and Ireland
3290:
2767:Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology
1705:is farmed in parts of Korea where it is known as
1215:). There are also two enigmatic species from the
869:into the seawater, so no more sperm can bind and
576:. The nephrocytes collect waste material such as
2857:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2583:
2581:
2529:
2527:
2446:
2444:
1709:and is added to various seafood dishes such as
1280:within the Tunicata, as shown in the following
2485:
2483:
1941:
1939:
953:allow reproduction at low population density.
560:There are four different types of blood cell:
3527:
1219:period with some affinity to the ascidians –
8:
1258:'s interpretation of several ascidians from
909:, and myoplasm containing pigment granules,
840:Sea squirt eggs are surrounded by a fibrous
3145:Franchi, Nicola; Ballarin, Loriano (2017).
1830:, but is now used mainly for fishing bait.
4073:
3967:
3923:
3899:
3875:
3850:
3825:
3797:
3769:
3727:
3723:
3676:
3648:
3628:
3615:
3611:
3578:
3534:
3520:
3512:
3249:"Phylogenetic Speculation of the Tunicata"
753:have evolved from sexually mature larvae.
700:of the adult. The tunic develops early in
112:
41:Cambrian "Stage 3" – Recent (but see text)
31:
3423:
3223:
3213:
3172:
3162:
2970:
2886:
2876:
2706:
2649:
2209:
2192:Ikuta, Tetsuro; Saiga, Hidetoshi (2005).
2160:
728:(small, finger-like nervous projections)
283:included but traditionally excluded taxa
3662:Thaliacea (pyrosomes, salps, doliolids)
2233:
2231:
2229:
1935:
1842:, such as cell-fate specification. The
1822:. It was once used as a food source by
885:and structural changes of development.
873:is avoided. After fertilization, free
3124:"Pyura sp. Evolution and Systematics"
3082:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
2109:
2107:
2105:
2103:
2101:
2099:
1878:from simple chordates. The sequenced
1155:(where they are sold under the name "
654:and conspicuous mature ascidians are
593:), giving the blood a red colour, or
362:(salps, doliolids and pyrosomes) and
7:
4297:29C75547-3A4D-F45B-8CBC-1C16A4D6D543
4258:f0202bcf-3144-4f73-9794-de1a9c5788f0
2097:
2095:
2093:
2091:
2089:
2087:
2085:
2083:
2081:
2079:
2063:
2061:
508:opening at the base of the pharynx.
4343:Cambrian Series 2 first appearances
3318:Gold, Jonathan (26 November 2008).
2945:Varol, O.; Houghton, S. D. (1996).
1552:
1529:
1502:
1479:
1469:
1373:
1346:
1324:
1297:
1287:
856:on the vitelline coat. The sperm's
2687:Evolutionary Bioinformatics Online
1054:) being used as a substrate for a
783:Colonial ascidians reproduce both
511:The esophagus runs downwards to a
25:
4348:Extant Cambrian first appearances
2492:Molecular Genetics of Development
2145:Microscopy Research and Technique
1022:1 (APEX1), an enzyme produced by
3805:Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish)
3352:. University of New South Wales.
3008:10.1111/j.1472-4669.2010.00246.x
358:over 2.5%. While members of the
135:
757:Direct development in ascidians
515:in the abdomen, which secretes
460:directly underlying the tunic.
3489:A fate map of the ascidian egg
3344:Hill, M.A. (22 October 2016).
3247:Tokioka, Takasi (1971-06-30).
1874:, as well as the evolution of
1163:in the blood, have a very low
631:, and the detection of light.
366:(larvaceans) swim freely like
1:
3102:10.1016/s1055-7903(02)00305-6
2951:Journal of Micropalaeontology
2932:10.1016/S0016-6995(72)80007-X
2500:10.1016/S0065-2660(08)60012-7
2454:Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun
3479:The Dutch Ascidians Homepage
3444:General and cited references
2752:10.1016/0025-326x(77)90431-3
2427:10.1016/0012-1606(88)90417-4
1834:Model organisms for research
1183:and are of potential use in
744:enlarges, and organs called
378:, such as rocks and shells.
3636:Appendicularia (larvaceans)
3457:. Oxford University Press.
2787:10.1016/j.jembe.2006.10.009
2638:Genes & Genetic Systems
1882:of the related sea squirts
1006:sites are a common form of
4379:
4063:denote paraphyletic groups
3942:Squamata (scaled reptiles)
3126:. University of Queensland
2466:10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.05.099
2355:Bates, William R. (1995).
2114:Barnes, Robert D. (1982).
1235:from the Onega Peninsula,
1034:DNA interstrand crosslinks
1004:Apurinic/apyrimidinic (AP)
386:) forming large colonies.
4034:
3980:Crocodilia (crocodilians)
3936:Rhynchocephalia (tuatara)
3902:
3878:
3853:
3828:
3800:
3772:
3726:
3679:
3651:
3631:
3614:
3577:
3551:
3215:10.1186/s12915-018-0517-4
3196:Giribet, Gonzalo (2018).
2732:Marine Pollution Bulletin
1968:10.1134/S0031030112010042
1769:), for example, raw with
1577:
1557:
1550:
1534:
1527:
1507:
1500:
1484:
1477:
1454:as sister to the rest of
1398:
1378:
1371:
1351:
1344:
1329:
1322:
1302:
1295:
1104:, ship hulls, and farmed
1048:A gold-mouth sea squirt (
933:Promotion of out-crossing
650:Almost all ascidians are
519:that digest the food. An
287:
206:
132:Scientific classification
120:
111:
4041:Ascidiacea (sea squirts)
3833:Actinistia (coelacanths)
3346:"Sea Squirt Development"
3164:10.3389/fimmu.2017.00674
1202:Shankouclava shankouense
1175:cells, and (or) produce
877:are released in the egg
771:, with budding juveniles
315:, commonly known as the
3591:Leptocardii (lancelets)
3494:Ciona savignyi Database
3151:Frontiers in Immunology
3039:Journal of Paleontology
2878:10.1073/pnas.1431177100
1948:Paleontological Journal
1863:from beginning to end.
1225:from the Nama Group of
724:end touches a surface,
480:Triphyllozoon inornatum
473:sits in a bed of white
3745:Hyperoartia (lampreys)
2822:10.1098/rspb.1968.0054
2198:Developmental Dynamics
1721:, not far from Masan.
1654:
1265:
1065:
772:
663:external fertilization
647:
643:A tunicate group from
484:
4279:Paleobiology Database
3508:on Sealife Collection
2415:Developmental Biology
2326:10.1086/BBLv224n3p227
1844:embryonic development
1642:
1261:Kunstformen der Natur
1254:
1177:secondary metabolites
1047:
915:endoplasmic reticulum
821:embryonic development
764:
642:
580:and accumulate it in
466:
3961:Testudines (turtles)
2651:10.1266/ggs.18-00043
2116:Invertebrate Zoology
1773:, or in salads with
1167:of the tunic due to
975:Asexual reproduction
957:Botryllus schlosseri
901:and fine particles,
844:coat and a layer of
4363:Paraphyletic groups
4055:Reptilia (reptiles)
3763:(jawed vertebrates)
3455:The Variety of Life
3293:Lonely Planet Japan
3094:2002MolPE..25..408S
3051:2012JPal...86..521L
3000:2010Gbio....8..256P
2972:10.1144/jm.15.2.135
2963:1996JMicP..15..135V
2924:1972Geobi...5...83B
2869:2003PNAS..100.8314C
2814:1968RSPSB.171...31C
2779:2007JEMBE.342....3L
2744:1977MarPB...8..229P
2361:Biological Bulletin
2264:10.1002/jez.b.22940
2256:2021JEZB..336..250A
2028:10.1002/jez.b.22940
2020:2021JEZB..336..250A
1960:2012PalJ...46....1F
1675:) is cultivated in
1673:Halocynthia roretzi
1171:in easily ruptured
1135:, fish, birds, and
1061:Nembrotha lineolata
799:Sexual reproduction
4353:Cambrian chordates
3907:Mammalia (mammals)
3819:(lobe-finned fish)
3791:(bony vertebrates)
3425:10.1002/dvdy.21181
2699:10.4137/EBO.S37920
2211:10.1002/dvdy.20374
2162:10.1002/jemt.10042
1885:Ciona intestinalis
1811:Pyura praeputialis
1717:is a specialty of
1655:
1266:
1084:as well as impede
1066:
938:Ciona intestinalis
921:, which marks the
773:
720:stimuli. When its
648:
540:Circulatory system
485:
370:, sea squirts are
123:Ciona intestinalis
4320:
4319:
4266:Open Tree of Life
4079:Taxon identifiers
4070:
4069:
4052:³orders of class
4038:¹orders of class
4030:
4029:
4026:
4025:
4022:
4021:
4018:
4017:
4014:
4013:
4010:
4009:
4006:
4005:
4002:
4001:
3998:
3997:
3994:
3993:
3858:Dipnoi (lungfish)
3753:
3752:
3711:
3710:
3707:
3706:
3703:
3702:
3699:
3698:
3599:
3598:
3297:. Lonely Planet.
2863:(14): 8314–8318.
2603:10.1002/dvg.22802
1824:Aboriginal people
1798:) is used in the
1731:Mediterranean Sea
1729:species from the
1631:
1630:
1622:
1621:
1613:
1612:
1604:
1603:
1595:
1594:
1447:
1446:
1438:
1437:
1429:
1428:
1420:
1419:
1411:
1410:
1209:Maotianshan Shale
681:into a juvenile.
549:, in the form of
547:Nitrogenous waste
310:
309:
304:
295:
246:
230:
222:
214:
197:
106:
16:(Redirected from
4370:
4338:Chordate classes
4313:
4312:
4300:
4299:
4287:
4286:
4274:
4273:
4261:
4260:
4251:
4250:
4238:
4237:
4225:
4224:
4212:
4211:
4199:
4198:
4186:
4185:
4173:
4172:
4160:
4159:
4147:
4146:
4134:
4133:
4121:
4120:
4119:
4106:
4105:
4104:
4074:
3968:
3924:
3920:
3900:
3896:
3876:
3872:
3851:
3847:
3826:
3822:
3820:
3798:
3794:
3792:
3770:
3766:
3764:
3740:Myxini (hagfish)
3728:
3724:
3720:
3677:
3649:
3629:
3624:
3616:
3612:
3608:
3579:
3536:
3529:
3522:
3513:
3468:
3438:
3437:
3427:
3403:
3397:
3396:
3360:
3354:
3353:
3341:
3335:
3334:
3332:
3330:
3315:
3309:
3308:
3296:
3286:
3280:
3279:
3253:
3244:
3238:
3237:
3227:
3217:
3193:
3187:
3186:
3176:
3166:
3142:
3136:
3135:
3133:
3131:
3120:
3114:
3113:
3077:
3071:
3070:
3059:10.1666/11-112.1
3034:
3028:
3027:
2983:
2977:
2976:
2974:
2942:
2936:
2935:
2907:
2901:
2900:
2890:
2880:
2848:
2842:
2841:
2797:
2791:
2790:
2762:
2756:
2755:
2727:
2721:
2720:
2710:
2678:
2672:
2671:
2653:
2629:
2623:
2622:
2585:
2576:
2575:
2531:
2522:
2521:
2487:
2478:
2477:
2448:
2439:
2438:
2410:
2404:
2399:
2393:
2392:
2352:
2346:
2345:
2309:
2303:
2298:
2292:
2291:
2235:
2224:
2223:
2213:
2189:
2183:
2182:
2164:
2136:
2130:
2129:
2111:
2074:
2073:
2065:
2056:
2055:
1999:
1993:
1986:
1980:
1979:
1943:
1800:cuisine of Chile
1647:) served raw as
1553:
1530:
1503:
1480:
1470:
1374:
1347:
1325:
1298:
1288:
1051:Polycarpa aurata
905:containing yolk
779:Colonial species
488:Digestive system
470:Polycarpa aurata
302:
293:
240:
228:
220:
212:
202:Groups included
192:
140:
139:
116:
105:
42:
38:Temporal range:
37:
32:
21:
4378:
4377:
4373:
4372:
4371:
4369:
4368:
4367:
4323:
4322:
4321:
4316:
4308:
4303:
4295:
4290:
4282:
4277:
4269:
4264:
4256:
4254:
4246:
4241:
4233:
4228:
4220:
4215:
4207:
4202:
4194:
4189:
4181:
4176:
4168:
4163:
4155:
4150:
4142:
4137:
4129:
4124:
4115:
4114:
4109:
4100:
4099:
4094:
4081:
4071:
4066:
4046:²subclasses of
3990:
3966:
3947:
3916:
3911:
3892:
3887:
3868:
3863:
3843:
3838:
3818:
3817:
3814:
3809:
3790:
3789:
3786:
3781:
3762:
3761:
3758:
3749:
3716:
3695:
3690:Aplousobranchia
3666:
3656:Stolidobranchia
3640:
3622:
3621:
3604:
3595:
3583:Cephalochordata
3573:
3547:
3540:
3475:
3465:
3449:
3446:
3441:
3405:
3404:
3400:
3377:10.1038/nrg1042
3362:
3361:
3357:
3343:
3342:
3338:
3328:
3326:
3317:
3316:
3312:
3305:
3288:
3287:
3283:
3251:
3246:
3245:
3241:
3195:
3194:
3190:
3144:
3143:
3139:
3129:
3127:
3122:
3121:
3117:
3079:
3078:
3074:
3036:
3035:
3031:
2985:
2984:
2980:
2944:
2943:
2939:
2909:
2908:
2904:
2850:
2849:
2845:
2808:(1022): 31–42.
2799:
2798:
2794:
2764:
2763:
2759:
2738:(10): 229–231.
2729:
2728:
2724:
2680:
2679:
2675:
2631:
2630:
2626:
2587:
2586:
2579:
2548:10.2307/3593128
2533:
2532:
2525:
2510:
2489:
2488:
2481:
2450:
2449:
2442:
2412:
2411:
2407:
2400:
2396:
2373:10.2307/1542063
2354:
2353:
2349:
2311:
2310:
2306:
2299:
2295:
2237:
2236:
2227:
2191:
2190:
2186:
2138:
2137:
2133:
2126:
2113:
2112:
2077:
2067:
2066:
2059:
2001:
2000:
1996:
1987:
1983:
1945:
1944:
1937:
1933:
1928:
1916:gene expression
1836:
1795:Pyura chilensis
1660:
1643:Sea pineapple (
1637:
1632:
1623:
1614:
1605:
1596:
1580:Aplousobranchia
1510:Stolidobranchia
1448:
1439:
1430:
1421:
1412:
1354:Stolidobranchia
1305:Aplousobranchia
1249:
1204:from the Lower
1198:
1193:
1185:pharmaceuticals
1042:
1030:C. intestinalis
1025:C. intestinalis
1020:AP endonuclease
1012:DNA replication
1001:
977:
943:C. intestinalis
935:
863:plasma membrane
838:
830:histocompatible
801:
781:
759:
750:Sexual maturity
637:
611:
542:
490:
413:
226:Stolidobranchia
210:Aplousobranchia
191:
134:
107:
104:
103:
98:
93:
88:
83:
78:
73:
68:
63:
58:
53:
48:
40:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4376:
4374:
4366:
4365:
4360:
4355:
4350:
4345:
4340:
4335:
4325:
4324:
4318:
4317:
4315:
4314:
4301:
4288:
4275:
4262:
4252:
4239:
4226:
4213:
4200:
4187:
4174:
4161:
4148:
4135:
4122:
4107:
4091:
4089:
4083:
4082:
4077:
4068:
4067:
4065:
4064:
4058:
4050:
4044:
4035:
4032:
4031:
4028:
4027:
4024:
4023:
4020:
4019:
4016:
4015:
4012:
4011:
4008:
4007:
4004:
4003:
4000:
3999:
3996:
3995:
3992:
3991:
3989:
3988:
3983:
3976:
3974:
3965:
3964:
3957:
3955:
3949:
3948:
3946:
3945:
3939:
3932:
3930:
3921:
3913:
3912:
3910:
3909:
3903:
3897:
3889:
3888:
3886:
3885:
3879:
3873:
3865:
3864:
3862:
3861:
3854:
3848:
3840:
3839:
3837:
3836:
3829:
3823:
3811:
3810:
3808:
3807:
3801:
3795:
3783:
3782:
3780:
3779:
3773:
3767:
3755:
3754:
3751:
3750:
3748:
3747:
3742:
3736:
3734:
3721:
3713:
3712:
3709:
3708:
3705:
3704:
3701:
3700:
3697:
3696:
3694:
3693:
3687:
3684:Phlebobranchia
3680:
3674:
3668:
3667:
3665:
3664:
3659:
3652:
3646:
3642:
3641:
3639:
3638:
3632:
3626:
3609:
3601:
3600:
3597:
3596:
3594:
3593:
3587:
3585:
3575:
3574:
3572:
3571:
3565:
3559:
3552:
3549:
3548:
3541:
3539:
3538:
3531:
3524:
3516:
3510:
3509:
3502:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3481:
3474:
3473:External links
3471:
3470:
3469:
3463:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3439:
3418:(7): 1820–31.
3398:
3371:(4): 285–295.
3355:
3336:
3310:
3303:
3281:
3268:10.5134/175655
3239:
3188:
3137:
3115:
3088:(3): 408–428.
3072:
3045:(3): 521–526.
3029:
2994:(4): 256–277.
2978:
2957:(2): 135–149.
2937:
2902:
2843:
2792:
2757:
2722:
2673:
2624:
2577:
2523:
2508:
2479:
2440:
2405:
2394:
2347:
2304:
2293:
2250:(3): 250–266.
2225:
2184:
2131:
2124:
2075:
2057:
2014:(3): 250–266.
1994:
1981:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
1891:Ciona savignyi
1835:
1832:
1826:living around
1751:limone di mare
1659:
1656:
1636:
1633:
1629:
1628:
1625:
1624:
1620:
1619:
1616:
1615:
1611:
1610:
1607:
1606:
1602:
1601:
1598:
1597:
1593:
1592:
1589:
1588:
1576:
1573:
1572:
1569:
1568:
1560:Phlebobranchia
1556:
1551:
1549:
1545:
1544:
1541:
1540:
1533:
1528:
1526:
1523:
1522:
1519:
1518:
1506:
1501:
1499:
1495:
1494:
1491:
1490:
1487:Appendicularia
1483:
1478:
1476:
1468:
1452:Appendicularia
1445:
1444:
1441:
1440:
1436:
1435:
1432:
1431:
1427:
1426:
1423:
1422:
1418:
1417:
1414:
1413:
1409:
1408:
1405:
1404:
1397:
1394:
1393:
1390:
1389:
1381:Phlebobranchia
1377:
1372:
1370:
1367:
1366:
1363:
1362:
1350:
1345:
1343:
1340:
1339:
1336:
1335:
1332:Appendicularia
1328:
1323:
1321:
1318:
1317:
1314:
1313:
1301:
1296:
1294:
1286:
1274:Appendicularia
1248:
1245:
1197:
1194:
1192:
1189:
1181:toxic to cells
1041:
1038:
1000:
997:
976:
973:
950:Ciona savignyi
934:
931:
837:
834:
800:
797:
780:
777:
768:Didemnum molle
758:
755:
652:hermaphrodites
636:
633:
629:chemoreception
622:exocrine gland
610:
609:Nervous system
607:
582:renal vesicles
541:
538:
489:
486:
412:
409:
364:Appendicularia
349:polysaccharide
345:filter feeders
308:
307:
306:
305:
299:Appendicularia
296:
285:
284:
277:
276:
275:
274:
273:
272:
263:
247:
236:Cheungkongella
231:
223:
218:Phlebobranchia
215:
204:
203:
199:
198:
186:
182:
181:
176:
172:
171:
166:
162:
161:
156:
152:
151:
146:
142:
141:
128:
127:
118:
117:
109:
108:
99:
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
69:
64:
59:
54:
49:
44:
43:
36:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4375:
4364:
4361:
4359:
4356:
4354:
4351:
4349:
4346:
4344:
4341:
4339:
4336:
4334:
4331:
4330:
4328:
4311:
4306:
4302:
4298:
4293:
4289:
4285:
4280:
4276:
4272:
4267:
4263:
4259:
4253:
4249:
4244:
4240:
4236:
4231:
4227:
4223:
4218:
4214:
4210:
4205:
4201:
4197:
4192:
4188:
4184:
4179:
4175:
4171:
4166:
4162:
4158:
4153:
4149:
4145:
4140:
4136:
4132:
4127:
4123:
4118:
4112:
4108:
4103:
4097:
4093:
4092:
4090:
4088:
4084:
4080:
4075:
4062:
4059:
4057:
4056:
4051:
4049:
4048:Sarcopterygii
4045:
4043:
4042:
4037:
4036:
4033:
3987:
3984:
3981:
3978:
3977:
3975:
3973:
3969:
3962:
3959:
3958:
3956:
3954:
3953:Archelosauria
3950:
3943:
3940:
3937:
3934:
3933:
3931:
3929:
3925:
3922:
3919:
3914:
3908:
3905:
3904:
3901:
3898:
3895:
3890:
3884:
3881:
3880:
3877:
3874:
3871:
3866:
3859:
3856:
3855:
3852:
3849:
3846:
3841:
3834:
3831:
3830:
3827:
3824:
3821:
3816:Sarcopterygii
3812:
3806:
3803:
3802:
3799:
3796:
3793:
3784:
3778:
3775:
3774:
3771:
3768:
3765:
3760:Gnathostomata
3756:
3746:
3743:
3741:
3738:
3737:
3735:
3733:
3729:
3725:
3722:
3719:
3714:
3691:
3688:
3685:
3682:
3681:
3678:
3675:
3673:
3669:
3663:
3660:
3657:
3654:
3653:
3650:
3647:
3643:
3637:
3634:
3633:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3623:(Urochordata)
3617:
3613:
3610:
3607:
3602:
3592:
3589:
3588:
3586:
3584:
3580:
3576:
3570:
3569:Deuterostomia
3566:
3564:
3560:
3558:
3554:
3553:
3550:
3545:
3537:
3532:
3530:
3525:
3523:
3518:
3517:
3514:
3507:
3503:
3500:
3497:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3477:
3476:
3472:
3466:
3464:0-19-860426-2
3460:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3447:
3443:
3435:
3431:
3426:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3402:
3399:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3365:Nat Rev Genet
3359:
3356:
3351:
3347:
3340:
3337:
3325:
3321:
3314:
3311:
3306:
3304:1-74059-162-3
3300:
3295:
3294:
3285:
3282:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3250:
3243:
3240:
3235:
3231:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3192:
3189:
3184:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3141:
3138:
3125:
3119:
3116:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3076:
3073:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3033:
3030:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2982:
2979:
2973:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2941:
2938:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2906:
2903:
2898:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2847:
2844:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2796:
2793:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2761:
2758:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2726:
2723:
2718:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2677:
2674:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2628:
2625:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2597:(1): 105–20.
2596:
2592:
2584:
2582:
2578:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2542:(2): 107–12.
2541:
2537:
2530:
2528:
2524:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2509:9780120176243
2505:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2486:
2484:
2480:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2460:(3): 1142–8.
2459:
2455:
2447:
2445:
2441:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2421:(1): 98–107.
2420:
2416:
2409:
2406:
2403:
2398:
2395:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2351:
2348:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2320:(3): 227–36.
2319:
2315:
2308:
2305:
2302:
2297:
2294:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2234:
2232:
2230:
2226:
2221:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2204:(2): 382–89.
2203:
2199:
2195:
2188:
2185:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2135:
2132:
2127:
2125:0-03-056747-5
2121:
2117:
2110:
2108:
2106:
2104:
2102:
2100:
2098:
2096:
2094:
2092:
2090:
2088:
2086:
2084:
2082:
2080:
2076:
2071:
2070:Invertebrates
2064:
2062:
2058:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
1998:
1995:
1991:
1985:
1982:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1942:
1940:
1936:
1930:
1925:
1923:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1892:
1887:
1886:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1872:deuterostomes
1869:
1864:
1862:
1861:embryogenesis
1858:
1854:
1850:
1845:
1841:
1833:
1831:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1812:
1807:
1805:
1804:bouillabaisse
1801:
1797:
1796:
1791:
1786:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1733:are eaten in
1732:
1728:
1727:
1722:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1703:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1669:Sea pineapple
1666:
1665:
1657:
1652:
1651:
1646:
1641:
1634:
1627:
1626:
1618:
1617:
1609:
1608:
1600:
1599:
1591:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1581:
1575:
1574:
1571:
1570:
1567:
1565:
1561:
1555:
1554:
1547:
1546:
1543:
1542:
1539:
1538:
1532:
1531:
1525:
1524:
1521:
1520:
1517:
1515:
1511:
1505:
1504:
1497:
1496:
1493:
1492:
1489:
1488:
1482:
1481:
1475:
1472:
1471:
1467:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1443:
1442:
1434:
1433:
1425:
1424:
1416:
1415:
1407:
1406:
1403:
1402:
1396:
1395:
1392:
1391:
1388:
1386:
1382:
1376:
1375:
1369:
1368:
1365:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1355:
1349:
1348:
1342:
1341:
1338:
1337:
1334:
1333:
1327:
1326:
1320:
1319:
1316:
1315:
1312:
1310:
1306:
1300:
1299:
1293:
1290:
1289:
1285:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1263:
1262:
1257:
1256:Ernst Haeckel
1253:
1246:
1244:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1233:
1228:
1224:
1223:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1207:
1203:
1196:Fossil record
1195:
1190:
1188:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1113:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1094:
1089:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1063:
1062:
1057:
1053:
1052:
1046:
1039:
1037:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1026:
1021:
1017:
1016:transcription
1013:
1010:that inhibit
1009:
1005:
998:
996:
994:
989:
985:
983:
974:
972:
970:
969:B. schlosseri
966:
962:
961:B. schlosseri
958:
954:
951:
947:
944:
939:
932:
930:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
900:
896:
892:
886:
884:
883:physiological
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
859:
855:
851:
850:fertilization
847:
843:
836:Fertilization
835:
833:
831:
825:
822:
818:
813:
810:
806:
798:
796:
794:
790:
786:
778:
776:
770:
769:
763:
756:
754:
751:
747:
743:
739:
738:metamorphosis
735:
731:
727:
723:
719:
714:
711:
707:
703:
699:
696:
691:
687:
682:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
659:
657:
653:
646:
641:
634:
632:
630:
625:
623:
618:
616:
608:
606:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
583:
579:
575:
571:
568:amoebocytes,
567:
563:
558:
554:
552:
548:
539:
537:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
509:
507:
503:
499:
495:
487:
482:
481:
476:
472:
471:
467:The colorful
465:
461:
459:
453:
451:
447:
443:
438:
433:
431:
427:
421:
419:
410:
408:
406:
401:
399:
396:
392:
387:
385:
379:
377:
373:
369:
365:
361:
357:
352:
350:
346:
343:
340:
336:
333:
329:
326:
322:
318:
314:
303:Lahille, 1890
300:
297:
294:Nielsen, 1995
292:
289:
288:
286:
282:
281:Cladistically
278:
270:
269:
264:
261:
260:
255:
254:
252:
248:
244:
238:
237:
232:
229:Lahille, 1886
227:
224:
221:Lahille, 1887
219:
216:
213:Lahille, 1887
211:
208:
207:
205:
200:
195:
190:
187:
184:
183:
180:
177:
174:
173:
170:
167:
164:
163:
160:
157:
154:
153:
150:
147:
144:
143:
138:
133:
129:
125:
124:
119:
115:
110:
102:
97:
92:
87:
82:
77:
72:
67:
62:
57:
52:
47:
33:
30:
19:
4086:
4060:
4053:
4040:
4039:
3986:Aves (birds)
3928:Lepidosauria
3788:Euteleostomi
3732:Cyclostomata
3567:Superphylum
3454:
3451:Tudge, Colin
3415:
3411:
3401:
3368:
3364:
3358:
3349:
3339:
3327:. Retrieved
3323:
3313:
3292:
3284:
3259:
3255:
3242:
3205:
3201:
3191:
3154:
3150:
3140:
3128:. Retrieved
3118:
3085:
3081:
3075:
3042:
3038:
3032:
2991:
2987:
2981:
2954:
2950:
2940:
2918:(1): 83–90.
2915:
2911:
2905:
2860:
2856:
2846:
2805:
2801:
2795:
2770:
2766:
2760:
2735:
2731:
2725:
2690:
2686:
2676:
2644:(2): 81–93.
2641:
2637:
2627:
2594:
2590:
2539:
2535:
2491:
2457:
2453:
2418:
2414:
2408:
2397:
2367:(1): 16–22.
2364:
2360:
2350:
2317:
2313:
2307:
2296:
2247:
2243:
2201:
2197:
2187:
2148:
2144:
2134:
2115:
2069:
2011:
2007:
1997:
1990:"Ascidiacea"
1984:
1951:
1947:
1889:
1883:
1868:evolutionary
1865:
1849:transparency
1837:
1815:
1814:is known as
1809:
1808:
1793:
1789:
1787:
1766:
1762:
1755:uova di mare
1754:
1750:
1742:
1739:figue de mer
1738:
1724:
1723:
1719:Geoje Island
1706:
1702:Styela clava
1700:
1692:
1684:
1680:
1672:
1667:
1661:
1648:
1644:
1583:
1578:
1563:
1558:
1535:
1513:
1508:
1485:
1473:
1463:
1449:
1399:
1384:
1379:
1357:
1352:
1330:
1308:
1303:
1291:
1278:polyphyletic
1267:
1259:
1239:of northern
1230:
1220:
1201:
1199:
1114:
1090:
1072:that may be
1067:
1064:) egg spiral
1059:
1049:
1029:
1024:
1002:
990:
986:
978:
968:
960:
956:
955:
949:
948:
942:
937:
936:
919:vegetal pole
911:mitochondria
887:
875:calcium ions
858:mitochondria
839:
826:
816:
814:
802:
792:
782:
774:
766:
765:A colony of
715:
683:
679:metamorphose
660:
649:
635:Life history
626:
619:
612:
602:
581:
574:morula cells
573:
569:
559:
555:
543:
510:
491:
478:
468:
454:
434:
422:
414:
405:monophyletic
402:
388:
380:
353:
342:invertebrate
337:of sac-like
325:paraphyletic
320:
316:
312:
311:
266:
257:
242:
234:
188:
121:
29:
4204:iNaturalist
4111:Wikispecies
3972:Archosauria
3845:Rhipidistia
3561:(unranked)
3202:BMC Biology
2693:: 133–148.
2155:: 421–434.
1954:(1): 1–11.
1876:vertebrates
1853:fluorescent
1726:Microcosmus
1713:. Tunicate
1664:delicacies.
1548:Enterogona
1213:South China
1117:nudibranchs
1036:in humans.
897:containing
867:glycosidase
805:philopatric
693:become the
615:neural tube
603:vanadocytes
599:hemovanadin
570:nephrocytes
562:lymphocytes
506:oesophageal
321:sea squirts
175:Subphylum:
4333:Ascidiacea
4327:Categories
4131:Ascidiacea
4117:Ascidiacea
4087:Ascidiacea
3718:Vertebrata
3672:Enterogona
3606:Olfactores
3506:Ascidiacea
3504:Photos of
3350:Embryology
2988:Geobiology
2773:(1): 3–4.
2536:Biol. Bull
2153:Wiley-Liss
1926:References
1920:Morpholino
1904:pufferfish
1851:ideal for
1828:Botany Bay
1157:sea violet
1137:sea otters
1070:pollutants
1056:nudibranch
1008:DNA damage
999:DNA repair
993:Didemnidae
965:sequential
871:polyspermy
854:glycosides
645:East Timor
591:hemoglobin
566:phagocytic
502:planktonic
458:epithelium
446:homologous
395:pharyngeal
376:substratum
356:salinities
313:Ascidiacea
194:Blainville
189:Ascidiacea
35:Ascidiacea
4358:Ediacaran
3870:Tetrapoda
3563:Bilateria
3324:LA Weekly
3262:(1): 47.
3208:(1): 49.
2619:205772576
2314:Biol Bull
2288:213181394
2272:1552-5015
2052:213181394
2036:1552-5015
1976:128415270
1931:Citations
1900:nematodes
1840:chordates
1820:Australia
1775:olive oil
1697:cynthiaol
1584:ascidians
1564:ascidians
1537:Thaliacea
1514:ascidians
1460:Thaliacea
1401:Thaliacea
1385:ascidians
1358:ascidians
1309:ascidians
1282:cladogram
1270:Thaliacea
1247:Phylogeny
1237:White Sea
1217:Ediacaran
1191:Evolution
1133:sea stars
1121:flatworms
1110:ecosystem
1106:shellfish
1098:predators
907:platelets
895:ectoplasm
891:cytoplasm
879:cytoplasm
842:vitelline
785:asexually
706:statocyst
702:embryonic
686:notochord
578:uric acid
531:, into a
521:intestine
475:bryozoans
448:with the
442:endostyle
418:cellulose
360:Thaliacea
332:subphylum
317:ascidians
291:Thaliacea
155:Kingdom:
149:Eukaryota
4170:46582350
4096:Wikidata
3620:Tunicata
3557:Animalia
3555:Kingdom
3544:chordate
3453:(2000).
3434:17557306
3412:Dev. Dyn
3393:27548417
3385:12671659
3329:29 March
3276:55491438
3234:29703197
3183:28649250
3110:12450747
3067:85670041
3024:35969031
3016:20550583
2897:12835415
2838:12974097
2717:27279728
2668:89619858
2660:30930342
2611:25044771
2572:23558774
2564:16260770
2474:24878524
2389:29281303
2342:25037395
2334:23995746
2280:32190983
2220:15844201
2179:15127292
2171:11921344
2044:32190983
1922:oligos.
1857:lineages
1816:cunjevoi
1715:bibimbap
1707:mideoduk
1658:Culinary
1474:Tunicata
1456:Tunicata
1292:Tunicata
1232:Burykhia
1206:Cambrian
1161:vanadium
1125:molluscs
903:endoderm
899:vesicles
846:follicle
789:sexually
746:ampullae
734:adhesive
726:papillae
722:anterior
698:ganglion
695:cerebral
690:chordate
595:vanadium
498:flagella
437:ciliated
398:stigmata
368:plankton
335:Tunicata
268:Burykhia
251:Ausiidae
179:Tunicata
169:Chordata
165:Phylum:
159:Animalia
145:Domain:
18:Ascidiae
4102:Q190090
4061:italics
3894:Amniota
3546:classes
3542:Extant
3499:ANISEED
3225:5924484
3174:5465252
3157:: 674.
3130:3 April
3090:Bibcode
3047:Bibcode
2996:Bibcode
2959:Bibcode
2920:Bibcode
2912:Geobios
2865:Bibcode
2830:4385858
2810:Bibcode
2775:Bibcode
2740:Bibcode
2708:4898443
2591:Genesis
2556:3593128
2518:3324702
2435:3141234
2381:1542063
2252:Bibcode
2016:Bibcode
1956:Bibcode
1908:mammals
1880:genomes
1783:parsley
1711:agujjim
1693:meongge
1650:sashimi
1227:Namibia
1173:bladder
1127:, rock
1093:harbors
1078:embryos
1040:Ecology
982:stolons
809:zygotes
742:pharynx
730:secrete
718:tactile
710:pharynx
671:tadpole
656:sessile
551:ammonia
517:enzymes
513:stomach
450:thyroid
426:pharynx
411:Anatomy
391:pharynx
372:sessile
330:in the
323:, is a
185:Class:
4271:125647
4255:NZOR:
4235:158854
4183:1ASCIC
3918:Sauria
3461:
3432:
3391:
3383:
3301:
3274:
3232:
3222:
3181:
3171:
3108:
3065:
3022:
3014:
2895:
2888:166226
2885:
2836:
2828:
2715:
2705:
2666:
2658:
2617:
2609:
2570:
2562:
2554:
2516:
2506:
2472:
2433:
2387:
2379:
2340:
2332:
2286:
2278:
2270:
2218:
2177:
2169:
2122:
2050:
2042:
2034:
1974:
1767:φούσκα
1763:fouska
1759:Greece
1757:) and
1743:violet
1735:France
1687:) and
1685:maboya
1498:Acopa
1458:, and
1264:, 1904
1241:Russia
1153:Europe
1151:, and
1086:enzyme
1082:larvae
927:zygote
923:dorsal
913:, and
817:within
793:zooids
673:-like
533:cloaca
525:rectum
430:gonads
339:marine
245:, 2001
243:et al.
196:, 1824
4305:WoRMS
4292:Plazi
4284:91601
4217:IRMNG
4209:47811
4157:BMH46
3645:Acopa
3389:S2CID
3272:S2CID
3252:(PDF)
3063:S2CID
3020:S2CID
2834:S2CID
2664:S2CID
2615:S2CID
2568:S2CID
2552:JSTOR
2377:JSTOR
2338:S2CID
2284:S2CID
2175:S2CID
2151:(6).
2048:S2CID
1972:S2CID
1912:cDNAs
1896:flies
1847:them
1790:piure
1779:lemon
1771:lemon
1747:Italy
1689:Korea
1677:Japan
1464:et al
1222:Ausia
1149:Chile
1145:Korea
1141:Japan
1129:crabs
1102:docks
1074:toxic
963:is a
675:larva
667:sperm
494:mucus
384:zooid
328:class
259:Ausia
4310:1839
4248:7713
4243:NCBI
4230:ITIS
4222:1057
4191:GBIF
4178:EPPO
4139:BOLD
3459:ISBN
3430:PMID
3381:PMID
3331:2017
3299:ISBN
3230:PMID
3179:PMID
3132:2017
3106:PMID
3012:PMID
2893:PMID
2826:PMID
2713:PMID
2656:PMID
2607:PMID
2560:PMID
2514:PMID
2504:ISBN
2470:PMID
2431:PMID
2385:PMID
2330:PMID
2276:PMID
2268:ISSN
2216:PMID
2167:PMID
2120:ISBN
2040:PMID
2032:ISSN
1906:and
1888:and
1788:The
1781:and
1681:hoya
1645:hoya
1635:Uses
1272:and
1229:and
1169:acid
1080:and
1058:'s (
1014:and
787:and
587:iron
572:and
529:anus
527:and
241:Shu
46:PreꞒ
4196:356
4165:EoL
4152:CoL
4126:AFD
3420:doi
3416:236
3373:doi
3264:doi
3220:PMC
3210:doi
3169:PMC
3159:doi
3098:doi
3055:doi
3004:doi
2967:doi
2928:doi
2883:PMC
2873:doi
2861:100
2818:doi
2806:171
2783:doi
2771:342
2748:doi
2703:PMC
2695:doi
2646:doi
2599:doi
2544:doi
2540:209
2496:doi
2462:doi
2458:450
2423:doi
2419:130
2369:doi
2365:188
2322:doi
2318:224
2260:doi
2248:336
2206:doi
2202:233
2157:doi
2024:doi
2012:336
1964:doi
1818:in
1745:),
1076:to
732:an
319:or
4329::
4307::
4294::
4281::
4268::
4245::
4232::
4219::
4206::
4193::
4180::
4167::
4154::
4144:61
4141::
4128::
4113::
4098::
3428:.
3414:.
3410:.
3387:.
3379:.
3367:.
3348:.
3322:.
3270:.
3260:19
3258:.
3254:.
3228:.
3218:.
3206:16
3204:.
3200:.
3177:.
3167:.
3153:.
3149:.
3104:.
3096:.
3086:25
3084:.
3061:.
3053:.
3043:86
3041:.
3018:.
3010:.
3002:.
2990:.
2965:.
2955:15
2953:.
2949:.
2926:.
2914:.
2891:.
2881:.
2871:.
2859:.
2855:.
2832:.
2824:.
2816:.
2804:.
2781:.
2769:.
2746:.
2734:.
2711:.
2701:.
2691:12
2689:.
2685:.
2662:.
2654:.
2642:94
2640:.
2636:.
2613:.
2605:.
2595:53
2593:.
2580:^
2566:.
2558:.
2550:.
2538:.
2526:^
2512:.
2502:.
2482:^
2468:.
2456:.
2443:^
2429:.
2417:.
2383:.
2375:.
2363:.
2359:.
2336:.
2328:.
2316:.
2282:.
2274:.
2266:.
2258:.
2246:.
2242:.
2228:^
2214:.
2200:.
2196:.
2173:.
2165:.
2149:56
2147:.
2143:.
2078:^
2060:^
2046:.
2038:.
2030:.
2022:.
2010:.
2006:.
1970:.
1962:.
1952:46
1950:.
1938:^
1902:,
1898:,
1806:.
1785:.
1777:,
1765:,
1753:,
1741:,
1699:.
1683:,
1586:)
1566:)
1516:)
1387:)
1360:)
1311:)
1284:.
1187:.
1165:pH
1147:,
1143:,
1131:,
1123:,
1119:,
1018:.
893::
605:.
564:,
483:).
407:.
351:.
301:?
253:?
239:?
96:Pg
3982:³
3963:³
3944:³
3938:³
3860:²
3835:²
3692:¹
3686:¹
3658:¹
3535:e
3528:t
3521:v
3467:.
3436:.
3422::
3395:.
3375::
3369:4
3333:.
3307:.
3278:.
3266::
3236:.
3212::
3185:.
3161::
3155:8
3134:.
3112:.
3100::
3092::
3069:.
3057::
3049::
3026:.
3006::
2998::
2992:8
2975:.
2969::
2961::
2934:.
2930::
2922::
2916:5
2899:.
2875::
2867::
2840:.
2820::
2812::
2789:.
2785::
2777::
2754:.
2750::
2742::
2736:8
2719:.
2697::
2670:.
2648::
2621:.
2601::
2574:.
2546::
2520:.
2498::
2476:.
2464::
2437:.
2425::
2391:.
2371::
2344:.
2324::
2290:.
2262::
2254::
2222:.
2208::
2181:.
2159::
2128:.
2054:.
2026::
2018::
1978:.
1966::
1958::
1792:(
1761:(
1749:(
1737:(
1691:(
1679:(
1671:(
1653:.
1582:(
1562:(
1512:(
1383:(
1356:(
1307:(
1211:(
597:(
589:(
477:(
271:?
265:†
262:?
256:†
249:†
233:†
101:N
91:K
86:J
81:T
76:P
71:C
66:D
61:S
56:O
51:Ꞓ
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
