Bubble memory - Knowledge (XXG)

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propagation elements as they allow the bubbles to move or propagate across it. They define pathways for the bubbles to be stored and retrieved for reading and the rotating magnetic field moves the bubbles along these paths. For bubble memory, a material like Gadolinium Gallium Garnet is used as the substrate in the chips. On top of the substrate is a magnetic film (bubble host or bubble film/layer) such as a Gadolinium-containing garnet or more often, single crystal substituted yttrium iron garnet which holds the magnetic bubbles, that is grown epitaxially with liquid-phase epitaxy with lead oxide flux as the liquid with yttrium oxide and other oxides, and then the film is doped with ion-implantation of one or several elements, to reduce undesirable characteristics. The epitaxy process would be carried out with a platinum crucible and wafer holder. The chevrons and other parts are built on top of the film. The propagation elements, including the chevrons, can be made of a material such as Nickel-Iron permalloy. The materials in bubble memories are chosen mainly for their magnetic properties. Gadolinium Gallium Garnet is used as a substrate because it can support the epitaxial growth of magnetic garnet films, and is nonmagnetic, although some bubble memories used Nickel-Cobalt substrates instead.

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leaving some space for the PCB to pass through the windings and connect to the chips. The windings are wound in directions opposite to each other, for example one winding has wires oriented along the X axis and the other winding has wires along the Z axis. The windings, in turn, are surrounded by two permanent magnets, one below and another above the windings. This forms an assembly that is housed inside the case which acts as a magnetic shield and forms a magnetic return path for the magnetic field from the magnets. The permanent magnets are critical; they create a static (DC, direct current) magnetic field, used as a bias field that enables the contents of the memory to be retained, in other words they allow bubble memories to be non-volatile. If the magnets are removed, all bubbles will disappear and thus all contents will be deleted. The windings create a rotating magnetic field parallel to the orientation of the bubble memory, at around 100 to 200 kHz. This will move or drive the bubbles in the magnetic film in a somewhat circular fashion, guided or restrained by the propagation elements. For example, the rotating magnetic field can force the bubbles to constantly circulate around loops, which may be elongated and are defined by the locations of the guiding elements.

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which lasts 1/4 of a hertz and is shaped as a spike waveform with a long trailing edge, this would split the bubble in two, one of which would continue circulating in the storage loop, keeping the bubble and thus data safe in case of power failure. The other bubble would be moved to an output track to move it to a detector which is a magnetoresistive bridge, made of a column of interconnected permalloy chevrons where the chevrons are one behind the other, and before it there are similar columns of chevrons that are not interconnected. These stretch the bubbles to generate a larger output at the detector. The detector has a constant electric current, and when bubbles pass under it, they change slightly the electrical resistance and thus current in the detector, and the movement of the bubbles creates a voltage in the order of millivolts, and this is read as either a 1 or a 0. Because the bubble must be moved to a specific area to be read, there are latency constraints. After the detector the bubbles are run into a guard rail to destroy them. A 1 is represented by a bubble, and a 0 is represented by the absence of a bubble.

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move the bubbles elsewhere. Bubble memories have extra spare loops to allow for increased yield during manufacturing as they replace defective loops. The list of defective loops is programmed onto the memory, on a special, separate loop called a boot loop, and it is also often printed on the label of the memory. A bubble memory controller will read the boot loop every time a bubble memory system is powered on, during initialization the controller will put the boot loop data in a boot loop register. Writing into a bubble memory is done by a formatter within the memory controller and signals from bits read in the bubble memory are amplified by the sense amplifier of the controller and they will reference the boot loop register to avoid overwriting, or further reading of the data in the boot loop.

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thus the hairpin-shaped piece of wire acts as a small electromagnet. The seed bubble regains its original size quickly after cutting. The seed bubble circulates under a circular permalloy patch which keeps it from moving elsewhere. After generation, the bubbles then circulate into an "input track" and then into a storage loop. Old bubbles could be moved out of the loop into an "output track" for destruction later. The space left behind by the old bubbles would then be available for new ones. If the seed bubble is ever lost, a new one can be nucleated via special signals sent to the bubble memory and a current 2 to 4 times higher than necessary for cutting of bubbles from the seed bubble.

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moving down the surface. Another reversal would pop them off the end of the bar to the next bar in the line, and so on, controlling or guiding the direction of travel of the bubbles. T bars/guides, shaped like the letters, were used in early bubble memory designs, but were later replaced by other shapes such as asymmetrical chevrons. In practice the magnetic field rotates and is provided by a pair of coils, that produce a rotating magnetic field in the X and Z axes, it is this rotating magnetic field that moves the bubbles in the memory.

1757: 1749: 1883:. Better yet, bubble memory devices needed no moving parts: the field that pushed the bubbles along the surface was generated electrically, whereas media like tape and disk drives required mechanical movement. Finally, because of the small size of the bubbles, the density was in theory much higher than existing magnetic storage devices. The only downside was performance; the bubbles had to cycle to the far end of the sheet before they could be read. 1864:

orthoferrite films which were considered less promising by comparison. Garnet materials (as films on top of a substrate) could allow for higher propagation speeds of the bubbles (bubble speed) than orthoferrites. Hard bubbles are slower and more erratic than normal bubbles, a problem that is often overcome by ion-implantation of the garnet magnetic film with neon, and can also be done by coating the garnet magnetic film with permalloy.

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researchers. The bubble logic would use nanotechnology and has been demonstrated to have access times of 7 ms, which is faster than the 10 ms access times that contemporary hard drives had, though it is slower than the access time of traditional RAM and of traditional logic circuits, making

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The solution was to imprint a pattern of tiny magnetic bars onto the surface of the garnet, called propagation elements. When a small magnetic field was applied, they would become magnetized, and the bubbles would "stick" to one end. By then reversing the field they would be attracted to the far end,

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The bubbles in a storage loop (and empty spaces for bubbles) constantly circulate around it. To read a bubble, it would be "replicated" by moving it to a larger propagation element to stretch the bubble, then it would be passed under a hairpin-shaped conductor to cut it into two with a current pulse

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The bubbles are created (the memory is written) with a seed bubble that is constantly split or cut by a hairpin-shaped piece of electrically conductive wire (such as aluminum-copper alloy) using a current strong enough to locally overcome and reverse the magnetic bias field generated by the magnets,

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at one end with detectors at the other end. Bubbles written in would be slowly pushed to the other, forming a sheet of twistors lined up beside each other. Attaching the output from the detector back to the electromagnets turns the sheet into a series of loops, which can hold the information as long

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had the correct properties. Bubbles would easily form in the material and could be pushed along it fairly easily. The next problem was to make them move to the proper location where they could be read back out: twistor was a wire and there was only one place to go, but in a 2D sheet things would not

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To allow the bubbles to move around the bubble chips and to guide them through the chip, the chips have some sort of pattern made of ferromagnetic metal that can include for example asymmetrical chevrons. For example, the bubbles can move around the edges of the chevrons. The patterns can be called

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One interesting side effect of the twistor concept was noticed in production: under certain conditions, passing a current through one of the electrical wires running inside the tape would cause the magnetic fields on the tape to move in the direction of the current. If used properly, it allowed the

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To store the bubbles, the propagation elements are in pairs and side to side, and are arranged in rows called loops to store the bubbles, thus they are storage loops since the bubbles that are stored in a loop will constantly circulate around it, forced by the rotating magnetic field that can also

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systems offering higher storage densities, higher access speeds, and lower costs. In 1981 major companies working on the technology closed their bubble memory operations, notably Rockwell, National Semiconductor, Texas Instruments and Plessey, leaving a "big five" group of companies still pursuing

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The technology was included in experimental devices from Bell Labs in 1974. By the mid-1970s, practically every large electronics company had teams working on bubble memory. Texas Instruments introduced the first commercial product that incorporated bubble memory in 1977, and introduced the first

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The bubble system cannot be described by any single invention, but in terms of the above discoveries. Andy Bobeck was the sole discoverer of (4) and (5) and co-discoverer of (2) and (3); (1) was performed by P. Michaelis in P. Bonyhard's group. At one point, over 60 scientists were working on the

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directions within the film. This seminal work led to a patent application. The memory device and method of propagation were described in a paper presented at the 13th Annual Conference on Magnetism and Magnetic Materials, Boston, Massachusetts, 15 September 1967. The device used anisotropic thin

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A bubble memory device consists of a case, that houses a PCB with connections to one or more bubble memory chips which may be translucent. The area around the chips on the PCB is surrounded by two windings made of copper wire or other electrically conductive material, that mostly wrap the area,

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Amorphous magnetic films were also considered as they had greater potential for improvement of bubble memories vs garnet magnetic films, however the existing experience with garnet films meant that they did not gain a foothold. Garnet films have the same or better magnetic properties than

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Bubble memory driver coils/windings/field coils and guides (T bar guides in this case); the guides or propagation elements, are on top of a magnetic film, which is on top of a substrate chip. This is mounted to a PCB (not shown) and then surrounded by two windings shown in yellow and

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Bubble memory found uses in niche markets through the 1980s in systems needing to avoid the higher rates of mechanical failures of disk drives, and in systems operating in high vibration or harsh environments. This application became obsolete too with the development of

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chips in the early 1970s pushed bubble into the slow end of the scale and it began to be considered mostly as a replacement for disks. The equally dramatic improvements in hard-drive capacity through the early 1980s made it uncompetitive in price terms for mass storage.

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magnetic films that required different magnetic pulse combinations for orthogonal propagation directions. The propagation velocity was also dependent on the hard and easy magnetic axes. This difference suggested that an isotropic magnetic medium would be desirable.

2013:-based board. The Bubble System required a "warm-up" time of about 85 seconds (prompted by a timer on the screen when switched on) before the game was loaded, as bubble memory needs to be heated to around 30 to 40 °C (86 to 104 °F) to operate properly. 1740:, but one where the propagation of the fields was under computer control, as opposed to automatically advancing at a set rate defined by the materials used. However, such a system had few advantages over twistor, especially as it did not allow random access. 1638:

of data. The material is arranged to form a series of parallel tracks that the bubbles can move along under the action of an external magnetic field. The bubbles are read by moving them to the edge of the material, where they can be read by a conventional

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used it in their early laptops. TIE communication used it in the early development of digital phone systems in order to lower their MTBF rates and produce a non-volatile telephone system's central processor. Bubble memory was also used on the

1697:. Bobeck had worked on many kinds of magnetics-related projects through the 1960s, and two of his projects put him in a particularly good position for the development of bubble memory. The first was the development of the first 1805:. Attempts to magnetize smaller areas would fail. With orthoferrite, if the patch was written and then a magnetic field was applied to the entire material, the patch would shrink down into a tiny circle, which he called a 1796:

This led to the possibility of making a memory system similar to the moving-domain twistor concept, but using a single block of magnetic material instead of many twistor wires. Starting work extending this concept using

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The gadolinium gallium garnet wafers used as substrates for the bubble chips, were 3 inches in diameter and cost $ 100 each in 1982 as their production required the use of iridium crucibles.

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of twistor was a function of the size of the wires; the length of any one wire determined how many bits it held, and many such wires were laid side-by-side to produce a larger memory system.

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Among manufacturers of magnetic bubble units, besides Bell Labs and I.B.M., are Texas Instruments, the Honeywell Inc. process control division in Phoenix, and Rockwell International...

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Bubble memory was used for some time in the 1970s and 1980s in applications where its non-moving nature was desirable for maintenance or shock-proofing reasons. The introduction of

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be so easy. Unlike the original experiments, the garnet did not constrain the bubbles to move only in one direction, but its bubble properties were too advantageous to ignore.

2149: 2319: 1662:, and no moving parts. This led many to consider it a contender for a "universal memory" that could be used for all storage needs. The introduction of dramatically faster 2837: 1801:, Bobeck noticed an additional interesting effect. With the magnetic tape materials used in twistor, the data had to be stored on relatively large patches known as 1780:

Conventional magnetic materials, like the magnetic tape used in twistor, allowed the magnetic signal to be placed at any location and to move in any direction.

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The use of propagation elements formed by ion implantation instead of permalloy, was proposed to increase the capacity of bubble memory to 16 Mbit/cm.

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released their own 1-megabit version, the 7110, in 1979. By the early 1980s, however, bubble memory technology became a dead end with the introduction of

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had great hopes for twistor, believing that it would greatly reduce the cost of computer memory and put them in an industry leading position. Instead,

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series, a laptop-like portable computer from 1983. Nicolet used bubble memory modules for saving waveforms in their Model 3091 oscilloscope, as did

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For the concept and development of single-walled magnetic domains (magnetic bubbles), and for recognition of their importance to memory technology.

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Bubble memory by MemTech (purchaser of Intel Magnetics). The long sequence of letters encodes a map of the defective storage loops in the memory.

1842: 1603: 2930: 2115: 2074: 1144: 1720:. The main advantage of twistor is its ability to be assembled by automated machines, as opposed to core, which was almost entirely manual. 2830: 1949: 1809:. These bubbles were much smaller than the domains of normal media like tape, which suggested that very high area densities were possible. 1973:

commercially available bubble memory, the TIB 0103 with 92 kilobit capacity. By the late 1970s several products were on the market, and

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The discovery of growth-induced uniaxial anisotropy in the garnet system and the realization that garnets would be a practical material

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is essentially a 1-dimensional version of bubble, bearing an even closer relationship to the original serial twistor concept.

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Bobeck's team soon had 1 cm (0.39 in) square memories that stored 4,096 bits, the same as a then-standard plane of

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and similar technologies rendered even this niche uncompetitive, and bubble disappeared entirely by the late 1980s.

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who offered a $ 1595 bubble memory option that extended the memory on their model 3561A digital signal analyzer.

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FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC ACCOMPLISHMENTS IN MAGNETIC BUBBLE DEVICE TECHNOLOGY. National Bureau of Standards. 1977.

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project at Bell Labs, many of whom have earned recognition in this field. For instance, in September 1974,

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arcade video game system, introduced in 1984. It featured interchangeable bubble memory cartridges on a

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systems. Twistor ended up being used only in a few applications, many of them AT&T's own computers.

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Rose, DONALD K.; Silverman, PETER J.; Washburn, HUDSON A. (1982-01-01), Einspruch, Norman G. (ed.),

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Bubble memory started out as a promising technology in the 1970s, offering performance similar to

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An exploded view and photo of a dissasembled bubble memory, showing PCBs with memory bubble chips

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that uses a thin film of a magnetic material to hold small magnetized areas, known as

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New Bubble-Memory Packaging Cuts Board Space And Manufacturing Costs. Intel AR-271.

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memories came onto the market in the early 1970s and rapidly replaced all previous

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Chapter 4 - Technology and Manufacturing of High-Density Magnetic-Bubble Memories

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It took some time to find the perfect material, but it was discovered that some

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magnetic thin films discovered that it was possible to move magnetic signals in

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The controlled two-dimensional motion of single wall domains in permalloy films

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stored bits to be pushed down the tape and pop off the end, forming a type of

1702: 1169: 995: 749: 515: 510: 385: 250: 176: 2389: 2331: 2300: 2731: 2662: 2369:. Scientific American, Incorporated. March 3, 1977 – via Google Books. 1978: 1958: 1785: 1766: 1556: 1521: 1358: 1287: 1185: 1056: 1047: 744: 687: 455: 375: 2781: 2739: 2688: 2604:. Dempa Publications, Incorporated. March 3, 1985 – via Google Books. 2256:

https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/SP/nbsspecialpublication500-1.pdf

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Great Microprocessors of the Past and Present. Appendix F: Memory Types

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Parkin (11 April 2008). "Magnetic Domain-Wall Racetrack Memory".

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Intel magnetics. 1 mega bit Bubble Memory Design Handbook. 1979.

2018: 1926: 1725: 1308: 595: 245: 2819: 1998:, which also brought performance, density, and cost benefits. 1982:"second-generation bubble" by 1984: Intel, Motorola, Hitachi, 1635: 1348: 1235: 1005: 18: 1693:

Bubble memory is largely the brainchild of a single person,

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10 Technologies that were Supposed to Blow Up but Never Did

2355:. Maclean-Hunter. March 3, 1978 – via Google Books. 1705:-based controller, and the second was the development of 2808:

A file operating system ported to a modern bubble board

2457:. InfoWorld Media Group, Inc. – via Google Books. 2422:. InfoWorld Media Group, Inc. – via Google Books. 1812:

Five significant discoveries took place at Bell Labs:

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The invention of the field access mode of operation

49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2320:"Technology: A Test for Magnetic Bubble Memories" 1752:Bubble domain visualization by using CMOS-MagView 2641:(9 February 2007). "Microfluidic Bubble Logic". 2551:. Computer Design Publishing Corporation. 1983. 1822:The discovery of the stable cylindrical domain 2831: 2097:, used in many bubble memories as a substrate 1597: 16:Obsolete type of non-volatile computer memory 8: 2418:Inc, InfoWorld Media Group (July 12, 1982). 1867:A memory device is formed by lining up tiny 2838: 2824: 2816: 2453:Inc, InfoWorld Media Group (May 9, 1979). 2407:. IDG Enterprise – via Google Books. 2078:the proposal not commercially practical. 1716:that replaces the "cores" with a piece of 1604: 1590: 128: 2670: 1845:by the IEEE with the following citation: 109:Learn how and when to remove this message 2602:"Journal of Electronic Engineering: JEE" 2203: 2201: 2199: 2197: 2195: 2193: 2191: 2189: 2183:Intel Memory Components Handbook. 1984. 2179: 125:Intel 7110 magnetic-bubble memory module 2567:. McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. 1983. 2177: 2175: 2173: 2171: 2169: 2167: 2165: 2163: 2161: 2159: 2107: 870: 665: 131: 2470: 2460: 2435: 2425: 2250: 2248: 2246: 2244: 1843:IEEE Morris N. Liebmann Memorial Award 2073:(rather than memory) was proposed by 1145:Vision Electronic Recording Apparatus 7: 2488:Banks, Howard (September 20, 1981). 2403:Enterprise, I. D. G. (May 7, 1979). 1712:Twistor is essentially a version of 47:adding citations to reliable sources 2782:Whatever Happened to Bubble Memory? 2318:Victor K. McElheny (Feb 16, 1977). 2521:"Bubble memory in data processing" 2353:"Canadian Electronics Engineering" 2220:10.1016/b978-0-12-234104-5.50010-x 306:Data validation and reconciliation 14: 1765:In 1967, Bobeck joined a team at 356:Distributed file system for cloud 2793:Novel Non-magnetic Bubble Memory 2500:from the original on 24 May 2015 2490:"The Computer Bubble That Burst" 1819:The application of orthoferrites 204:Areal density (computer storage) 23: 2519:Reece, Charles (October 1984). 2126:from the original on 2012-10-08 1023:Programmable metallization cell 34:needs additional citations for 2789:- Web site by George S. Almasi 2588:"Electronic Products Magazine" 2287:Stacy V. Jones (Feb 2, 1974). 1769:and started work on improving 586:Persistence (computer science) 1: 2326:. New York, N.Y. p. 77. 2295:. New York, N.Y. p. 37. 2289:"Computer-Memory Aid Devised" 1454:Electronic quantum holography 2798:Structure of a bubble memory 2773:: Konami Bubble System Flyer 2017:used bubble memory on their 1841:and Bobeck were awarded the 805:Video RAM (dual-ported DRAM) 601:Non-RAID drive architectures 2065:In 2007, the idea of using 2985: 2777:Bubbles: the better memory 2615:GRiD Compass 1101 computer 1953:1 MBit expansion card for 1925:Bubble memory made in the 1686: 1394:Holographic Versatile Disc 1293:Compact Disc Digital Audio 1165:Magnetic-tape data storage 784:Content-addressable memory 2854: 2095:Gadolinium gallium garnet 591:Persistent data structure 486:Digital rights management 2787:Magnetic Bubble Memories 2771:The Arcade Flyer Archive 2767:: Web site by John Bayko 2035:GRiD Systems Corporation 1466:DNA digital data storage 1449:Holographic data storage 938:Solid-state hybrid drive 224:Network-attached storage 2732:10.1126/science.1145799 2663:10.1126/science.1136907 2147:, issued 1969-07-08 2145:US patent 3,454,939 2122:. Complex. 2012-09-25. 1461:5D optical data storage 1278:3D optical data storage 1001:Universal Flash Storage 406:Replication (computing) 351:Distributed file system 241:Single-instance storage 219:Direct-attached storage 199:Continuous availability 2042:DVM8000/1 VFX system. 1962: 1946: 1930: 1918: 1910: 1782:Paul Charles Michaelis 1762: 1753: 1334:Nintendo optical discs 551:Storage virtualization 421:Information repository 361:Distributed data store 126: 2964:Magnetic data storage 2367:"Scientific American" 1952: 1936: 1924: 1916: 1905: 1759: 1751: 837:Mellon optical memory 825:Williams–Kilburn tube 541:Locality of reference 346:Clustered file system 172:Memory access pattern 137:computer data storage 124: 2061:Further applications 2001:One application was 1945:with four Intel 7110 1730:random-access memory 1699:magnetic-core memory 1664:semiconductor memory 1533:Magnetic-core memory 1180:Digital Data Storage 1140:Quadruplex videotape 581:In-memory processing 471:Information transfer 366:Distributed database 229:Storage area network 209:Block (data storage) 43:improve this article 2969:Non-volatile memory 2724:2008Sci...320..190P 2655:2007Sci...315..832P 2382:Wall Street Journal 2081:IBM's 2008 work on 1961:with one Intel 7110 1877:non-volatile memory 1875:Bubble memory is a 1701:system driven by a 1634:, each storing one 1130:Phonograph cylinder 1068:Electrochemical RAM 920:Solid-state storage 536:Memory segmentation 234:Block-level storage 2624:, oldcomputers.net 2620:2008-09-16 at the 2473:has generic name ( 2438:has generic name ( 1963: 1947: 1931: 1919: 1911: 1763: 1754: 1539:Plated-wire memory 1504:Paper data storage 1150:Magnetic recording 576:In-memory database 561:Memory-mapped file 506:Volume boot record 501:Master boot record 491:Volume (computing) 466:Data communication 391:Data deduplication 127: 2946: 2945: 2639:Gershenfeld, Neil 2025:used it in their 1908:Texas Instruments 1906:Bubble Memory by 1898:Commercialization 1738:delay-line memory 1645:delay-line memory 1614: 1613: 1211:8 mm video format 1135:Phonograph record 954:Flash Core Module 932:Solid-state drive 831:Delay-line memory 790:Computational RAM 693:Scratchpad memory 531:Disk partitioning 256:Unstructured data 182:Secondary storage 119: 118: 111: 93: 2976: 2847:Magnetic storage 2840: 2833: 2826: 2817: 2752: 2751: 2707: 2701: 2700: 2674: 2631: 2625: 2612: 2606: 2605: 2598: 2592: 2591: 2584: 2578: 2575: 2569: 2568: 2559: 2553: 2552: 2543: 2537: 2536: 2534: 2532: 2527:. pp. 26–28 2516: 2510: 2509: 2507: 2505: 2485: 2479: 2478: 2472: 2468: 2466: 2458: 2450: 2444: 2443: 2437: 2433: 2431: 2423: 2415: 2409: 2408: 2400: 2394: 2393: 2377: 2371: 2370: 2363: 2357: 2356: 2349: 2343: 2342: 2334:. 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Archived from 2284: 2278: 2273: 2267: 2264: 2258: 2252: 2239: 2238: 2237: 2236: 2205: 2184: 2181: 2154: 2153: 2152: 2148: 2141: 2135: 2134: 2132: 2131: 2112: 2083:racetrack memory 1606: 1599: 1592: 1551:Thin-film memory 1545:Core rope memory 1471:Universal memory 1434:Millipede memory 1424:Racetrack memory 1389:Ultra HD Blu-ray 1201:Linear Tape-Open 1155:Magnetic storage 1123:Analog recording 566:Software entropy 526:Disk aggregation 286:Data degradation 271:Data compression 167:Memory hierarchy 157:Memory coherence 129: 114: 107: 103: 100: 94: 92: 51: 27: 19: 2984: 2983: 2979: 2978: 2977: 2975: 2974: 2973: 2959:Computer memory 2949: 2948: 2947: 2942: 2850: 2844: 2813: 2761: 2756: 2755: 2718:(5873): 190–4. 2709: 2708: 2704: 2649:(5813): 832–5. 2633: 2632: 2628: 2622:Wayback Machine 2613: 2609: 2600: 2599: 2595: 2586: 2585: 2581: 2576: 2572: 2561: 2560: 2556: 2548:Computer Design 2545: 2544: 2540: 2530: 2528: 2525:Data Processing 2518: 2517: 2513: 2503: 2501: 2487: 2486: 2482: 2469: 2459: 2452: 2451: 2447: 2434: 2424: 2417: 2416: 2412: 2405:"Computerworld" 2402: 2401: 2397: 2379: 2378: 2374: 2365: 2364: 2360: 2351: 2350: 2346: 2338:on 2018-01-11. 2317: 2316: 2312: 2286: 2285: 2281: 2274: 2270: 2265: 2261: 2253: 2242: 2234: 2232: 2230: 2207: 2206: 2187: 2182: 2157: 2150: 2143: 2142: 2138: 2129: 2127: 2116:"Bubble Memory" 2114: 2113: 2109: 2104: 2091: 2063: 1900: 1746: 1691: 1685: 1680: 1641:magnetic pickup 1624:computer memory 1610: 1581: 1580: 1499: 1491: 1490: 1444:Patterned media 1414: 1406: 1405: 1273: 1263: 1262: 1258:Hard disk drive 1125: 1115: 1114: 1095: 1084: 1083: 1038: 1028: 1027: 949:IBM FlashSystem 944:USB flash drive 883: 866: 865: 820: 812: 811: 800:Dual-ported RAM 678: 661: 660: 621:Cloud computing 481:Copy protection 401:Data redundancy 331:Shared resource 301:Data validation 276:Data corruption 251:Structured data 162:Cache coherence 147: 133:Computer memory 115: 104: 98: 95: 58:"Bubble memory" 52: 50: 40: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 2982: 2980: 2972: 2971: 2966: 2961: 2951: 2950: 2944: 2943: 2941: 2940: 2934: 2928: 2922: 2916: 2910: 2904: 2898: 2892: 2886: 2880: 2874: 2868: 2862: 2855: 2852: 2851: 2845: 2843: 2842: 2835: 2828: 2820: 2811: 2810: 2805: 2800: 2795: 2790: 2784: 2779: 2774: 2768: 2760: 2759:External links 2757: 2754: 2753: 2702: 2626: 2607: 2593: 2579: 2570: 2554: 2538: 2511: 2494:New York Times 2480: 2445: 2410: 2395: 2372: 2358: 2344: 2324:New York Times 2310: 2307:on 2018-01-12. 2293:New York Times 2279: 2268: 2259: 2240: 2228: 2185: 2155: 2136: 2106: 2105: 2103: 2100: 2099: 2098: 2090: 2087: 2062: 2059: 2040:Quantel Mirage 1939:expansion card 1899: 1896: 1869:electromagnets 1839:P.C. Michaelis 1830: 1829: 1826: 1823: 1820: 1817: 1775:memory density 1745: 1742: 1707:twistor memory 1689:Twistor memory 1687:Main article: 1684: 1681: 1679: 1676: 1656:memory density 1612: 1611: 1609: 1608: 1601: 1594: 1586: 1583: 1582: 1579: 1578: 1572: 1566: 1563:Twistor memory 1560: 1554: 1548: 1542: 1536: 1530: 1524: 1519: 1513: 1507: 1500: 1497: 1496: 1493: 1492: 1489: 1488: 1483: 1481:Quantum memory 1478: 1473: 1468: 1463: 1458: 1457: 1456: 1446: 1441: 1436: 1431: 1426: 1421: 1415: 1413:In development 1412: 1411: 1408: 1407: 1404: 1403: 1398: 1397: 1396: 1391: 1386: 1381: 1376: 1371: 1366: 1361: 1356: 1351: 1346: 1341: 1336: 1331: 1326: 1324:Super Video CD 1321: 1316: 1311: 1306: 1301: 1296: 1290: 1285: 1274: 1269: 1268: 1265: 1264: 1261: 1260: 1255: 1254: 1253: 1248: 1243: 1238: 1233: 1228: 1223: 1218: 1213: 1208: 1203: 1198: 1193: 1188: 1183: 1177: 1172: 1167: 1162: 1157: 1147: 1142: 1137: 1132: 1126: 1121: 1120: 1117: 1116: 1113: 1112: 1107: 1102: 1096: 1090: 1089: 1086: 1085: 1082: 1081: 1076: 1071: 1065: 1060: 1050: 1045: 1039: 1034: 1033: 1030: 1029: 1026: 1025: 1020: 1019: 1018: 1013: 1008: 1003: 998: 993: 988: 983: 981:MultiMediaCard 978: 973: 968: 958: 957: 956: 951: 946: 941: 935: 929: 917: 912: 911: 910: 905: 895: 890: 884: 879: 878: 875: 874: 868: 867: 864: 863: 857: 851: 846: 843:Selectron tube 840: 834: 828: 821: 818: 817: 814: 813: 810: 809: 808: 807: 797: 792: 787: 781: 776: 771: 770: 769: 759: 758: 757: 752: 747: 742: 737: 732: 727: 722: 717: 712: 707: 697: 696: 695: 690: 683:Hardware cache 679: 674: 673: 670: 669: 663: 662: 659: 658: 653: 648: 643: 638: 636:Edge computing 633: 628: 623: 618: 616:Grid computing 613: 611:Bank switching 608: 603: 598: 593: 588: 583: 578: 573: 568: 563: 558: 556:Virtual memory 553: 548: 543: 538: 533: 528: 523: 521:Disk mirroring 518: 513: 508: 503: 498: 493: 488: 483: 478: 476:Temporary file 473: 468: 463: 458: 453: 448: 443: 438: 433: 428: 426:Knowledge base 423: 418: 416:Storage record 413: 411:Memory refresh 408: 403: 398: 396:Data structure 393: 388: 383: 378: 373: 368: 363: 358: 353: 348: 343: 338: 333: 328: 323: 318: 313: 308: 303: 298: 293: 291:Data integrity 288: 283: 281:Data cleansing 278: 273: 268: 263: 258: 253: 248: 243: 238: 237: 236: 231: 221: 216: 214:Object storage 211: 206: 201: 196: 195: 194: 184: 179: 174: 169: 164: 159: 154: 148: 145: 144: 141: 140: 117: 116: 31: 29: 22: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 2981: 2970: 2967: 2965: 2962: 2960: 2957: 2956: 2954: 2938: 2935: 2932: 2929: 2926: 2923: 2920: 2917: 2914: 2911: 2908: 2905: 2902: 2899: 2896: 2893: 2890: 2887: 2884: 2881: 2878: 2875: 2872: 2869: 2866: 2863: 2860: 2857: 2856: 2853: 2848: 2841: 2836: 2834: 2829: 2827: 2822: 2821: 2818: 2814: 2809: 2806: 2804: 2801: 2799: 2796: 2794: 2791: 2788: 2785: 2783: 2780: 2778: 2775: 2772: 2769: 2766: 2763: 2762: 2758: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2706: 2703: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2673: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2635:Prakash, Manu 2630: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2616: 2611: 2608: 2603: 2597: 2594: 2589: 2583: 2580: 2574: 2571: 2566: 2565: 2558: 2555: 2550: 2549: 2542: 2539: 2526: 2522: 2515: 2512: 2499: 2495: 2491: 2484: 2481: 2476: 2464: 2456: 2449: 2446: 2441: 2429: 2421: 2414: 2411: 2406: 2399: 2396: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2376: 2373: 2368: 2362: 2359: 2354: 2348: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2314: 2311: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2283: 2280: 2277: 2276:User's manual 2272: 2269: 2263: 2260: 2257: 2251: 2249: 2247: 2245: 2241: 2231: 2229:9780122341045 2225: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2212: 2204: 2202: 2200: 2198: 2196: 2194: 2192: 2190: 2186: 2180: 2178: 2176: 2174: 2172: 2170: 2168: 2166: 2164: 2162: 2160: 2156: 2146: 2140: 2137: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2111: 2108: 2101: 2096: 2093: 2092: 2088: 2086: 2084: 2079: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2060: 2058: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2041: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2007:Bubble System 2004: 1999: 1997: 1996:flash storage 1991: 1989: 1985: 1980: 1976: 1970: 1968: 1960: 1956: 1951: 1944: 1940: 1935: 1928: 1923: 1915: 1909: 1904: 1897: 1895: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1882: 1878: 1873: 1870: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1854: 1849: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1835:H.E.D. Scovil 1827: 1824: 1821: 1818: 1815: 1814: 1813: 1810: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1794: 1791: 1787: 1784:working with 1783: 1778: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1758: 1750: 1743: 1741: 1739: 1733: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1718:magnetic tape 1715: 1710: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1695:Andrew Bobeck 1690: 1682: 1677: 1675: 1673: 1672:flash storage 1668: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1648: 1646: 1642: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1622: 1619:is a type of 1618: 1617:Bubble memory 1607: 1602: 1600: 1595: 1593: 1588: 1587: 1585: 1584: 1576: 1573: 1570: 1569:Bubble memory 1567: 1564: 1561: 1558: 1555: 1552: 1549: 1546: 1543: 1540: 1537: 1534: 1531: 1528: 1525: 1523: 1520: 1517: 1514: 1511: 1508: 1505: 1502: 1501: 1495: 1494: 1487: 1484: 1482: 1479: 1477: 1474: 1472: 1469: 1467: 1464: 1462: 1459: 1455: 1452: 1451: 1450: 1447: 1445: 1442: 1440: 1437: 1435: 1432: 1430: 1427: 1425: 1422: 1420: 1417: 1416: 1410: 1409: 1402: 1399: 1395: 1392: 1390: 1387: 1385: 1382: 1380: 1377: 1375: 1372: 1370: 1367: 1365: 1362: 1360: 1357: 1355: 1352: 1350: 1347: 1345: 1342: 1340: 1337: 1335: 1332: 1330: 1327: 1325: 1322: 1320: 1317: 1315: 1312: 1310: 1307: 1305: 1302: 1300: 1297: 1294: 1291: 1289: 1286: 1284: 1281: 1280: 1279: 1276: 1275: 1272: 1267: 1266: 1259: 1256: 1252: 1249: 1247: 1244: 1242: 1239: 1237: 1234: 1232: 1229: 1227: 1224: 1222: 1219: 1217: 1214: 1212: 1209: 1207: 1204: 1202: 1199: 1197: 1196:Cassette tape 1194: 1192: 1191:Videocassette 1189: 1187: 1184: 1181: 1178: 1176: 1173: 1171: 1168: 1166: 1163: 1161: 1160:Magnetic tape 1158: 1156: 1153: 1152: 1151: 1148: 1146: 1143: 1141: 1138: 1136: 1133: 1131: 1128: 1127: 1124: 1119: 1118: 1111: 1108: 1106: 1103: 1101: 1098: 1097: 1094: 1088: 1087: 1080: 1077: 1075: 1072: 1069: 1066: 1064: 1061: 1058: 1054: 1051: 1049: 1046: 1044: 1041: 1040: 1037: 1032: 1031: 1024: 1021: 1017: 1014: 1012: 1009: 1007: 1004: 1002: 999: 997: 994: 992: 989: 987: 984: 982: 979: 977: 974: 972: 969: 967: 964: 963: 962: 959: 955: 952: 950: 947: 945: 942: 939: 936: 933: 930: 927: 924: 923: 921: 918: 916: 915:ROM cartridge 913: 909: 906: 904: 901: 900: 899: 896: 894: 891: 889: 886: 885: 882: 877: 876: 873: 869: 861: 858: 855: 852: 850: 847: 844: 841: 838: 835: 832: 829: 826: 823: 822: 816: 815: 806: 803: 802: 801: 798: 796: 793: 791: 788: 785: 782: 780: 777: 775: 772: 768: 765: 764: 763: 760: 756: 753: 751: 748: 746: 743: 741: 738: 736: 733: 731: 728: 726: 723: 721: 718: 716: 713: 711: 708: 706: 703: 702: 701: 698: 694: 691: 689: 686: 685: 684: 681: 680: 677: 672: 671: 668: 664: 657: 654: 652: 649: 647: 644: 642: 641:Dew computing 639: 637: 634: 632: 631:Fog computing 629: 627: 626:Cloud storage 624: 622: 619: 617: 614: 612: 609: 607: 606:Memory paging 604: 602: 599: 597: 594: 592: 589: 587: 584: 582: 579: 577: 574: 572: 569: 567: 564: 562: 559: 557: 554: 552: 549: 547: 544: 542: 539: 537: 534: 532: 529: 527: 524: 522: 519: 517: 514: 512: 509: 507: 504: 502: 499: 497: 494: 492: 489: 487: 484: 482: 479: 477: 474: 472: 469: 467: 464: 462: 459: 457: 454: 452: 449: 447: 444: 442: 441:File deletion 439: 437: 434: 432: 431:Computer file 429: 427: 424: 422: 419: 417: 414: 412: 409: 407: 404: 402: 399: 397: 394: 392: 389: 387: 384: 382: 379: 377: 374: 372: 369: 367: 364: 362: 359: 357: 354: 352: 349: 347: 344: 342: 339: 337: 334: 332: 329: 327: 324: 322: 319: 317: 314: 312: 311:Data recovery 309: 307: 304: 302: 299: 297: 296:Data security 294: 292: 289: 287: 284: 282: 279: 277: 274: 272: 269: 267: 264: 262: 259: 257: 254: 252: 249: 247: 244: 242: 239: 235: 232: 230: 227: 226: 225: 222: 220: 217: 215: 212: 210: 207: 205: 202: 200: 197: 193: 192:floating-gate 190: 189: 188: 185: 183: 180: 178: 175: 173: 170: 168: 165: 163: 160: 158: 155: 153: 150: 149: 143: 142: 138: 134: 130: 123: 113: 110: 102: 99:February 2010 91: 88: 84: 81: 77: 74: 70: 67: 63: 60: – 59: 55: 54:Find sources: 48: 44: 38: 37: 32:This article 30: 26: 21: 20: 2924: 2877:Ferrite core 2812: 2715: 2711: 2705: 2672:1721.1/46593 2646: 2642: 2629: 2610: 2596: 2582: 2573: 2563: 2557: 2547: 2541: 2529:. Retrieved 2524: 2514: 2502:. Retrieved 2493: 2483: 2448: 2413: 2398: 2381: 2375: 2361: 2347: 2339: 2336:the original 2323: 2313: 2305:the original 2292: 2282: 2271: 2262: 2233:, retrieved 2210: 2139: 2128:. Retrieved 2119: 2110: 2080: 2067:microfluidic 2064: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2021:in 1981 and 2000: 1992: 1971: 1964: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1874: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1850: 1846: 1831: 1811: 1806: 1802: 1799:orthoferrite 1795: 1779: 1764: 1734: 1711: 1692: 1669: 1649: 1631: 1627: 1621:non-volatile 1616: 1615: 1568: 1516:Punched tape 1510:Punched card 1476:Time crystal 1344:Hyper CD-ROM 1283:Optical disc 1175:Tape library 1110:FeFET memory 1091:Early-stage 971:CompactFlash 966:Memory Stick 926:Flash memory 888:Diode matrix 872:Non-volatile 656:Kryder's law 646:Amdahl's law 571:Software rot 546:Logical disk 446:File copying 381:Data storage 336:File sharing 321:Data cluster 105: 96: 86: 79: 72: 65: 53: 41:Please help 36:verification 33: 2919:Floppy disk 2889:Stripe card 2564:Electronics 2471:|last= 2455:"InfoWorld" 2436:|last= 2420:"InfoWorld" 2069:bubbles as 1967:core memory 1872:as needed. 1744:Development 1714:core memory 1660:hard drives 1658:similar to 1652:core memory 1575:Floppy disk 1527:Drum memory 961:Memory card 928:is used in: 862:(2002–2010) 827:(1946–1947) 651:Moore's law 496:Boot sector 436:Object file 341:File system 152:Memory cell 2953:Categories 2504:17 October 2235:2023-09-07 2130:2012-10-03 2102:References 1881:disk drive 1790:orthogonal 1703:transistor 1683:Precursors 1498:Historical 1170:Tape drive 996:SmartMedia 819:Historical 516:Disk image 511:Disk array 386:Data store 187:MOS memory 177:Memory map 69:newspapers 2937:Racetrack 2901:Thin film 2883:Hard disk 2390:0099-9660 2332:0362-4331 2301:0362-4331 1979:hard disk 1786:permalloy 1767:Bell Labs 1647:systems. 1557:Disk pack 1522:Plugboard 1359:DVD-Video 1288:LaserDisc 1186:Videotape 1057:3D XPoint 1048:Memristor 688:CPU cache 456:Core dump 376:Data bank 326:Directory 2748:19285283 2740:18403702 2689:17289994 2681:20038959 2618:Archived 2498:Archived 2463:cite web 2428:cite web 2124:Archived 2089:See also 1955:Apple II 1722:AT&T 1486:UltraRAM 1364:DVD card 1319:Video CD 1304:CD Video 1074:Nano-RAM 1043:Memistor 1016:XQD card 991:SIM card 849:Dekatron 735:XDR DRAM 730:EDO DRAM 667:Volatile 461:Hex dump 371:Database 266:Metadata 261:Big data 2927:(~1970) 2915:(~1968) 2913:Twistor 2720:Bibcode 2712:Science 2697:5882836 2651:Bibcode 2643:Science 2531:2 March 2027:PC 5000 2015:Fujitsu 1988:Fujitsu 1937:4 MBit 1853:garnets 1803:domains 1771:twistor 1678:History 1632:domains 1628:bubbles 1571:(~1970) 1565:(~1968) 1547:(1960s) 1384:Blu-ray 1374:MiniDVD 1369:DVD-RAM 1329:Mini CD 1271:Optical 1231:U-matic 1226:MicroMV 1206:Betamax 1070:(ECRAM) 1011:MicroP2 986:SD card 976:PC Card 767:1T-SRAM 725:QDRSRAM 316:Storage 146:General 83:scholar 2939:(2008) 2933:(1995) 2925:Bubble 2921:(1969) 2909:(1962) 2903:(1962) 2897:(1956) 2891:(1956) 2885:(1956) 2879:(1949) 2873:(1932) 2867:(1928) 2861:(1898) 2746: 2738: 2695: 2687: 2679: 2388: 2330: 2299: 2226: 2151: 2003:Konami 1943:IBM XT 1807:bubble 1773:. The 1577:(1971) 1559:(1962) 1553:(1962) 1541:(1957) 1535:(1949) 1529:(1932) 1518:(1725) 1512:(1725) 1506:(1725) 1379:HD DVD 1339:CD-ROM 1295:(CDDA) 1221:MiniDV 940:(SSHD) 922:(SSS) 908:EEPROM 856:(2009) 845:(1952) 839:(1951) 833:(1947) 451:Backup 85: 78: 71: 64: 56: 2849:media 2744:S2CID 2693:S2CID 2677:JSTOR 2071:logic 2023:Sharp 2011:68000 1984:SAGEM 1975:Intel 1761:blue. 1439:ECRAM 1419:CBRAM 1354:DVD+R 1314:CD-RW 1251:D-VHS 1246:VHS-C 1241:S-VHS 1182:(DDS) 1105:ReRAM 1100:FeRAM 1093:NVRAM 1079:CBRAM 1036:NVRAM 934:(SSD) 903:EPROM 860:Z-RAM 854:T-RAM 786:(CAM) 774:ReRAM 740:RDRAM 720:LPDDR 715:SGRAM 710:SDRAM 705:eDRAM 139:types 90:JSTOR 76:books 2931:MRAM 2907:CRAM 2895:MICR 2871:Drum 2865:Tape 2859:Wire 2736:PMID 2685:PMID 2533:2023 2506:2013 2475:help 2440:help 2386:ISSN 2328:ISSN 2297:ISSN 2224:ISBN 2019:FM-8 1986:and 1957:and 1941:for 1927:USSR 1726:DRAM 1429:NRAM 1401:WORM 1309:CD-R 1063:MRAM 898:PROM 893:MROM 795:VRAM 779:QRAM 762:SRAM 750:GDDR 700:DRAM 596:RAID 246:Data 135:and 62:news 2728:doi 2716:320 2667:hdl 2659:doi 2647:315 2216:doi 2075:MIT 2005:'s 1959:IIe 1636:bit 1630:or 1349:DVD 1236:VHS 1053:PCM 1006:SxS 881:ROM 755:HBM 745:DDR 676:RAM 45:by 2955:: 2742:. 2734:. 2726:. 2714:. 2691:. 2683:. 2675:. 2665:. 2657:. 2645:. 2637:; 2523:. 2496:. 2492:. 2467:: 2465:}} 2461:{{ 2432:: 2430:}} 2426:{{ 2322:. 2291:. 2243:^ 2222:, 2188:^ 2158:^ 2118:. 2031:HP 1837:, 1709:. 1654:, 1299:CD 1216:DV 2839:e 2832:t 2825:v 2750:. 2730:: 2722:: 2699:. 2669:: 2661:: 2653:: 2535:. 2508:. 2477:) 2442:) 2392:. 2218:: 2133:. 1929:. 1605:e 1598:t 1591:v 1059:) 1055:( 112:) 106:( 101:) 97:( 87:· 80:· 73:· 66:· 39:.

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