Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628

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to desist, partly because both his and the Persian horses needed stored fodder in winter quarters. Forcing his troops to campaign in the winter would have been risky as Maurice had been overthrown due to his poor treatment of his troops in winter. Edward Luttwak believes that the Göktürks with their "hardy horses (or ponies)" that could survive "in almost any terrain that had almost any vegetation" were essential in Heraclius's winter campaign in hilly northeast Iran in 627. During the campaign, they took their provisions from Persian lands. With the victory at Nineveh and the capture of Persian palaces, they no longer had issues with supplying their troops in foreign territory, even in winter conditions.

1080: 2045:. Shahrbaraz stationed his forces across the river from the Byzantines. A bridge spanned the river, and the Byzantines immediately charged across. Shahrbaraz feigned retreat to lead the Byzantines into an ambush, and the vanguard of Heraclius's army was destroyed within minutes. The Persians, however, had neglected to cover the bridge, and Heraclius charged across with the rearguard, unafraid of the arrows that the Persians fired, turning the tide of battle against the Persians. Shahrbaraz expressed his admiration at Heraclius to a renegade Greek: "See your Emperor! He fears these arrows and spears no more than would an anvil!" The 2006:, and Shahraplakan (according to one source) was killed, though he re-appears later. After this victory, Heraclius crossed the Araxes and camped in the plains on the other side. Shahin, with the remnants of both his and Shahraplakan's armies, joined Shahrbaraz in the pursuit of Heraclius, but marshes slowed them down. At Aliovit, Shahrbaraz split his forces, sending some 6,000 troops to ambush Heraclius while the remainder of the troops stayed at Aliovit. Heraclius instead launched a surprise night attack on the Persian main camp in February 625, destroying it. Shahrbaraz only barely escaped, naked and alone, having lost his 2164:, while the main Avar host attacked the land walls. Patrician Bonus's galleys rammed and destroyed the Slavic boats; the Avar land assault from August 6 to the 7th also failed. With the news that Theodore had decisively triumphed over Shahin (supposedly leading Shahin to die from depression), the Avars retreated to the Balkan hinterland within two days, never to seriously threaten Constantinople again. Even though the army of Shahrbaraz was still encamped at Chalcedon, the threat to Constantinople was over. In thanks for the lifting of the siege and the supposed divine protection of the Virgin Mary, the celebrated 2127: 1336: 1414: 56: 1631:, even permitting Khosrow II to choose the emperor. Things began to look even more grim for the Byzantines when Chalcedon fell in 617 to Shahin, bringing the Persians within sight of Constantinople. Shahin courteously received a peace delegation but claimed that he did not have the authority to engage in peace talks, directing Heraclius to Khosrow, who rejected the peace offer - in retrospect, a major strategic blunder. Still, the Persian forces soon withdrew, probably to focus on their invasion of Egypt. Yet the Persians retained their advantage, capturing 2771: 1167: 1959: 2830:(there is controversy over the authorship). The latter is an Armenian compilation of various sources, arranged in only rough chronological order. This gives it an uneven coverage of the war. Furthermore, it was put together with the purpose of correlating Biblical prophecy and contemporary times, making it most certainly not objective. There are also some surviving Syriac materials from that period, which Dodgeon, Greatrex, and Lieu believe are the "most important" of the contemporary sources. These include the 1601:

and Alexandria? And shall I not also destroy Constantinople? But I will pardon your faults if you submit to me, and come hither with your wife and children; and I will give you lands, vineyards, and olive groves, and look upon you with a kindly aspect. Do not deceive yourself with vain hope in that Christ, who was not able to save himself from the Jews, who killed him by nailing him to a cross. Even if you take refuge in the depths of the sea, I will stretch out my hand and take you, whether you will or no.

1558:. The loss of these relics was thought by many Christian Byzantines to be a clear mark of divine displeasure. Some blamed the Jews for this misfortune and for the loss of Syria in general. There were reports that Jews helped the Persians capture certain cities and that the Jews tried to slaughter Christians in cities that the Persians had already conquered but were found and foiled from doing so. These reports are likely to be greatly exaggerated and the result of general hysteria. 1217: 2721:, a manual of war, the Persians made heavy use of archers that were the most "rapid, although not powerful archery" of all warlike nations, and they avoided weather that hampered their bows. It claims that they deployed so that their formation was equal in strength in the center and the flanks. They also apparently neutralized the charge of Roman lancers by using rough terrain since the latter preferred to avoid hand-to-hand combat. Thus, the 2439:, also known as Siroes, in his stead. Khosrow was shut in a dungeon, where he suffered for five days on bare sustenance—he was shot to death slowly with arrows on the fifth day. Kavad immediately sent peace offers to Heraclius. Heraclius did not impose harsh terms, knowing that his own empire was also near exhaustion. Under the terms of the peace treaty, the Byzantines regained all their lost territories, their captured soldiers, a 2077: 414: 350: 267: 2123:. Upon hearing the news, Heraclius split his army into three parts; although he judged that the capital was relatively safe, he still sent some reinforcements to Constantinople to boost the morale of the defenders. Another part of the army was under the command of his brother Theodore and was sent to deal with Shahin, while the third and smallest part would remain under his own control, intending to raid the Persian heartland. 1072: 1661: 1719:, but some, like Kaegi, disagree with this moniker because religion was just one component in the war. Thousands of volunteers were gathered and equipped with money from the church. Heraclius himself decided to command the army from the front lines. Thus, the Byzantine troops had been replenished, re-equipped, and were now led by a competent general—while maintaining a full treasury. 2112:'s control of the Bosporus strait, however, the Persians could not send troops to the European side to aid their ally. This reduced the effectiveness of the siege, because the Persians were experts in siege warfare. Furthermore, the Persians and Avars had difficulties communicating across the guarded Bosporus—though undoubtedly, there was some communication between the two forces. 1902: 2392: 2745:, primarily used bows and wore only leather armor. Byzantine infantry played a key role in stabilizing battle lines against enemy cavalry and also as an anchor to launch friendly cavalry attacks. According to Richard A. Gabriel, the Byzantine heavy infantry "combined the best capabilities of the Roman legion with the old Greek phalanx". 1898:

marching through Armenia to assault the core Persian lands directly. According to Walter Kaegi, Heraclius led an army of no more than 40,000, and most likely between 20,000 and 24,000. Before journeying to the Caucasus, he recovered Caesarea in Cappadocia, in defiance of the earlier letter that Khosrow had sent him.

2493:" for his six years of unbroken victories and for leading the Roman army where no Roman army had ever gone before. The triumphal raising of the True Cross in the Hagia Sophia was a crowning moment in his achievements. Had Heraclius died then, he would have been recorded in history, in the words of the historian 2486:. There, the True Cross was slowly raised up until it vertically towered over the high altar. To many, this was a sign that a new golden age was about to begin for the Byzantine Empire. Heraclius is said to have returned the True Cross to Jerusalem, on 21 March 630, or alternatively twice, in 629 and 630. 2753:

to prevent easy counterattack and used mantelets or wooden frames covered with animal hides to protect against defending archers. Furthermore, like many nomads, they gathered other warriors such as Gepids and Slavs to assist them. However, since Avars depended on raiding the countryside for supplies,

2621:

were also lost, reducing the empire to a territorial core consisting of Anatolia and a scatter of islands and footholds in the Balkans and Italy. However, unlike Persia, the Byzantine Empire ultimately survived the Arab assault, holding onto its remaining territories and decisively repulsing two Arab

2353:

maneuver on a theater-wide scale" because it habituated the Persians to strategically ineffective raids that caused them to decide not to recall border troops to defend the heartland. His army numbered between 25,000 and 50,000 Byzantine troops and 40,000 Göktürks that quickly deserted him because of

1322:

commanded a sizable force in central Anatolia but was assassinated by the Armenian commander Justin, removing a major threat to Heraclius's reign. Still, transfer of the forces commanded by Comentiolus had been delayed, allowing the Persians to advance further in Anatolia. Trying to increase revenues

2761:

As for any army, logistics were always a problem. In his initial campaigns in Byzantine territories, especially in Anatolia, Heraclius likely supplied his troops by requisitioning from his surroundings. During each of Heraclius's offensive raids into Persia, the harsh conditions of winter forced him

2373:

took place on December 12, in the fog, reducing the Persian advantage in missile troops. Heraclius feigned retreat, leading the Persians to the plains, before reversing his troops to the surprise of the Persians. After eight hours of fighting, the Persians suddenly retreated to nearby foothills, but

2175:

Furthermore, after the emperor showed Shahrbaraz intercepted letters from Khosrow ordering the Persian general's death, the latter switched to Heraclius's side. Shahrbaraz then moved his army to northern Syria, where he could easily decide to support either Khosrow or Heraclius at a moment's notice.

2037:. Heraclius then carried on towards the Euphrates, pursued by Shahrbaraz. According to Arab sources, he was stopped at the Satidama or Batman Su River and defeated; Byzantine sources, however, do not mention this incident. There was then another minor skirmish between Heraclius and Shahrbaraz at the 1580:

orthodoxy and were not eager to aid Byzantine imperial forces. Afterward they were supported by Khosrow, but they did not resist imperial forces between 600 and 638, and many saw the Persian occupation in negative terms. Byzantine resistance in Alexandria was led by Nicetas. After a year-long siege,

2585:

However, the Byzantine Empire was also severely affected, with the Balkans now largely in the hands of the Slavs. Additionally, Anatolia had been devastated by repeated Persian invasions, and the empire's hold on its recently regained territories in the Caucasus, Syria, Mesopotamia, Palestine, and

2573:

The devastating impact of the war of 602–628, along with the cumulative effects of a century of almost continuous Byzantine-Persian conflict, left both empires crippled. The Sasanians were further weakened by economic decline, heavy taxation to finance Khosrow II's campaigns, religious unrest, and

2152:

On 29 June 626, a coordinated assault on the walls began. Inside the walls, some 12,000 well-trained Byzantine cavalry troops (presumably dismounted) defended the city against the forces of some 80,000 Avars and Slavs. Despite continuous bombardment for a month, morale was high inside the walls of

1880:

Heraclius was fortunately warned in time and managed to escape, chased by the Avars all the way to Constantinople. However, many members of his court, as well as an alleged 70,000 Thracian peasants who came to see their Emperor, were captured and killed by the Khagan's men. Despite this treachery,

1600:

Khosrow, greatest of Gods, and master of the earth, to Heraclius, his vile and insensate slave. Why do you still refuse to submit to our rule, and call yourself a king? Have I not destroyed the Greeks? You say that you trust in your God. Why has he not delivered out of my hand Caesarea, Jerusalem,

2757:

According to Kaegi, the Byzantines had "an almost compulsive ... preference to avoid changing the essential elements of the status quo". They tried to secure allies and divide their enemies through diplomacy. Although they failed against Khosrow and the Avar Khagan, their ties with the Slavs, who

1424:

Heraclius joined with his general Priscus's siege of the Persians at Caesarea Mazaca. Priscus pretended to be ill, however, and did not meet the emperor. This was a veiled insult to Heraclius, who hid his dislike of Priscus and returned to Constantinople in 612. Meanwhile, Shahin's troops escaped

2103:

slipped through Heraclius's flanks and bee-lined for Chalcedon, the Persian base across the Bosporus from Constantinople. Khosrow also coordinated with the Khagan of the Avars so as to launch a coordinated attack on Constantinople from both European and Asiatic sides. The Persian army stationed

1897:

Heraclius offered peace to Khosrow, presumably in 624, threatening otherwise to invade Iran, but Khosrow rejected the offer. On March 25, 624, Heraclius left Constantinople to attack the Persian heartland. He willingly abandoned any attempt to secure his rear or his communications with the sea,

1706:

Heraclius now halved the pay of officials, enforced increased taxation, forced loans, and levied extreme fines on corrupt officials in order to finance his counter-offensive. Despite disagreements over the incestuous marriage of Heraclius to his niece Martina, the clergy of the Byzantine Empire

2796:

has surviving letters along with a history that gives the political outlook of the Byzantines, but that history only really covers from 582 to 602. Theodore the Synkellos has a surviving speech, which was made during the Siege of Constantinople in 626, that contains useful information for some

2315:

to breach the walls, one of the first known uses by the Byzantines. Khosrow sent 1,000 cavalry under Shahraplakan to reinforce the city, but it nevertheless fell, probably in late 628. Ziebel died by the end of that year, however, saving Epiphania from marriage to a barbarian. Whilst the siege

2929:

and the early Muslims siding with the Monotheistic Greeks while the non-Muslim Meccans sided with the non-Monotheist Persians, each side regarding the victories of their favorites as proof of their own religious stance. The Quran also predicts the Romans being victorious in regaining the lost

1202:, the eunuch appointed by Phocas to deal with him, but when Narses attempted to return to Constantinople to discuss peace terms, Phocas ordered him seized and burned alive. The death of Narses along with the failure to stop the Persians damaged the prestige of Phocas's military regime. 1698:

also dropped in weight from 11 grams to somewhere between 8 and 9 grams. Heraclius faced severely decreased revenues due to the loss of provinces; furthermore, a plague broke out in 619, which further damaged the tax base and also increased fears of divine retribution. The

1707:

strongly backed his efforts against the Persians by proclaiming the duty of all Christian men to fight and by offering to give him a war loan consisting of all the gold and silver-plated objects in Constantinople. Precious metals and bronze were stripped from monuments and even the

2586:

Egypt was loosened by years of Persian occupation. With their financial reserves exhausted, the Byzantines found difficulties paying veterans of the war with the Persians and recruiting new troops. Clive Foss called this war the "first stage in the process which marked the end of

1190:

to besiege Edessa, prompting Narses to request help from the Persian king Khosrow II. Khosrow, who was only too willing to help avenge Maurice, his "friend and father-", used Maurice's death as an excuse to attack the Byzantine Empire, trying to reconquer Armenia and Mesopotamia.

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cavalry, which became a symbol of Byzantium. They wore chain mail, had heavily armored horses, and used lances as their primary weapon. They had small shields mounted on their arms, could also use bows, and carried a broadsword and an axe. Heavy Byzantine infantry, or

1997:

Two soldiers who feigned desertion were sent to Shahrbaraz, claiming that the Byzantines were fleeing before Shahin. Due to jealousy between the Persian commanders, Shahrbaraz hurried with his army to take part in the glory of the victory. Heraclius met them at

1764:. He spent the summer training to improve the skills of his men and his own generalship. In the autumn, Heraclius threatened Persian communications from the Euphrates valley to Anatolia by marching to Cappadocia. This forced the Persian forces in Anatolia under 2477:

After some months of travel, Heraclius entered Constantinople in triumph and was met by the people of the city, his son Heraclius Constantine, and Patriarch Sergius, prostrating themselves in joy. His alliance with Shahrbaraz resulted in the recovery of the

1297:, who was to be the new emperor. Organized resistance against Heraclius soon collapsed, and Phocas was handed to him by the patrician Probos (Photius). Phocas was executed, though not before a celebrated exchange of comments between him and his successor: 1585:, who was a major supporter of Nicetas in Egypt. The fate of Nicetas is unclear, since he disappears from records after this, but Heraclius was presumably deprived of a trusted commander. The loss of Egypt was a severe blow to the Byzantine empire, as 809: 2748:

The Avars had mounted archers with composite bows that could double as heavy cavalry with lances. They were skilled in siegecraft and could construct trebuchets and siege towers. In their siege of Constantinople, they constructed walls of

1730:, where the volunteers were given inalienable grants of land on the condition of hereditary military service. However, modern scholars generally discredit this theory, placing the creation of the themes later, under Heraclius's successor 1677:

Khosrow's letter did not cow Heraclius but prompted him to try a desperate strike against the Persians. He now reorganized the remainder of his empire to allow his forces to fight on. Already, in 615, a new, lighter (6.82 grams)

5094:"The definitive annexation of Tokharistan and Gandhara to the Western Türk Empire was to take place some years later, in c. 625, when Sasanian Iran became involved in the war against Byzantium that ultimately led to its eclipse." in 1390:

from Constantinople. The Persian conquest was a gradual process; by the time of Heraclius's accession the Persians had conquered all Roman cities east of the Euphrates and in Armenia before moving on to Cappadocia, where Shahin took

2382:

suggests that Rhahzadh challenged Heraclius to personal combat, and that Heraclius accepted and killed Rhahzadh in a single thrust; two other challengers fought against him and also lost. However, he received an injury to his lip.

1876:

in Thrace, where the Avar army was located; Heraclius agreed to this meeting, coming with his royal court. The Khagan, however, put horsemen en route to Heraclea to ambush and capture Heraclius, so they could hold him for ransom.

1531:. He managed to win a small victory near Emesa, however, where both sides suffered heavy casualties—the total death count was 20,000. More seriously, the weakness of the resistance enabled the Persians and their Jewish allies to 1429:, an old general of Maurice's, was appointed as commander-in-chief, but he proved himself incompetent against the Persians, avoiding engagements in battle. Heraclius then appointed himself commander along with his brother 2904:

in the 10th century and has material from unidentified sources on the 620s. Howard-Johnston considered the histories of Movses and Sebeos as "the most important of extant non-Muslim sources". The history of the Patriarch

989:

While the Persians proved largely successful during the first stage of the war from 602 to 622, conquering much of the Levant, Egypt, several islands in the Aegean Sea and parts of Anatolia, the ascendancy of the emperor

1779:

What followed next is not entirely clear, but Heraclius certainly won a crushing victory over Shahrbaraz in the fall of 622. The key factor was Heraclius's discovery of Persian forces hidden in ambush and responding by

3022: Some authors, including Dodgeon, Greatrex, and Lieu, have expressed the belief that the raid on Chalcedon is fictitious. Either way, by 610, the Persians captured all the Byzantine cities east of the Euphrates. 2739:, carried large oval shields and wore lamellar or mail armor. They carried many weapons against enemy cavalry such as spears to ward off cavalry and axes to cut the legs off of horses. Light Byzantine infantry, or 1266:, died. Many sources claim that the Jews were involved in the fighting, though it is unclear where they were members of factions and where they were opponents of Christians. Phocas responded by appointing Bonus as 802: 4075: 1788:

assaulted the pursuing Persians, causing them to flee. Thus he saved Anatolia from the Persians. Heraclius had to return to Constantinople, however, to deal with the threat posed to his Balkan domains by the

1908:, a major Persian fire temple belonging to the Warrior class, destroyed during the Roman campaign. Major Christian holy sites were destroyed after the Persian-Jewish capture of Jerusalem earlier in the war. 2578:. According to Howard-Johnston: " victories in the field over the following years and their political repercussions ... saved the main bastion of Christianity in the Near East and gravely weakened its old 1138:. In order to generate a reserve in the treasury, Maurice instituted strict fiscal measures and cut army pay; which led to four mutinies. The final mutiny in 602 resulted from Maurice ordering his troops 1122:

to the Byzantines, though the exact details are not clear. More importantly for the Byzantine economy, they no longer had to pay tribute to the Persians. Emperor Maurice then began new campaigns in the

795: 2176:

Still, with the neutralization of Khosrow's most skilled general, Heraclius deprived his enemy of some of his best and most experienced troops, while securing his flanks prior to his invasion of Iran.

954:. Khosrow declared war, ostensibly to avenge the death of the deposed emperor Maurice. This became a decades-long conflict, the longest war in the series, and was fought throughout the Middle East: in 2160:

On 7 August, a fleet of Persian rafts ferrying troops across the Bosporus were surrounded and destroyed by Byzantine ships. The Slavs under the Avars attempted to attack the sea walls from across the

1283:. Bonus went to Egypt to try to stop Nicetas, but was defeated by the latter outside Alexandria. In 610, Nicetas succeeded in capturing the province, establishing a power base there with the help of 496: 2778:, made after the conclusion of the war in 629–630. The plate, using the costumes of the early Byzantine court, suggests that, like Saul and David, the Byzantine emperor was a ruler chosen by God. 1398:

Heraclius's accession as Emperor did little to reduce the Persian threat. Heraclius began his reign by attempting to make peace with the Persians, since Phocas, whose actions were the original

2195: 2725:

advised fighting on level terrain with rapid charges to avoid the Persian arrows. They were seen as skilled in laying siege and liked to "achieve their results by planning and generalship".

530: 1023:

By the end of the conflict, both sides had exhausted their human and material resources and achieved very little. Consequently, they were vulnerable to the sudden emergence of the Islamic

2949:

gives an idea of the panic at the time of the Siege of Jerusalem. However, there are some doubts as to whether hagiographic texts may be corrupted from 8th or 9th century interpolations.

2418:

I pursue and run after peace. I do not willingly burn Persia, but compelled by you. Let us now throw down our arms and embrace peace. Let us quench the fire before it burns up everything.

2758:

would become the Serbs and Croats, and their decades-long negotiations with the Göktürks resulted in Slavs actively opposing the Avars in addition to a key alliance with the Göktürks.

1841:, the most important Byzantine city in the Balkans after Constantinople, ended in failure, allowing the Empire to hold onto a vital stronghold in the region. Other minor cities on the 2582:

rival. They may be shadowed by the even more extraordinary military achievements of the Arabs in the following two decades, but hindsight should not be allowed to dim their lustre."

2601:, the "unnecessarily prolonged Byzantine–Persian conflict opened the way for Islam". The Sasanian Empire rapidly succumbed to these attacks and was completely destroyed. During the 1889:, his nephew Stephen, and the illegitimate son of the patrician Bonus as hostages in return for peace. This left him more able to focus his war effort completely on the Persians. 1581:

resistance in Alexandria collapsed, supposedly after a traitor told the Persians of an unused canal, allowing them to storm the city. Nicetas fled to Cyprus along with Patriarch

1535:

following a three weeks siege in 614. Ancient sources claim 57,000 or 66,500 people were slain there; another 35,000 were deported to Persia, including the Patriarch Zacharias.

1347:

The Persians took advantage of this civil war in the Byzantine empire by conquering frontier towns in Armenia and Upper Mesopotamia. Along the Euphrates, in 609, they conquered

7079: 1868:

Because of the need to defend against these incursions, the Byzantines could not afford to use all their forces against the Persians. Heraclius sent an envoy to the Avar

489: 1872:, saying that the Byzantines would pay a tribute in return for the Avars withdrawing north of the Danube. The Khagan replied by asking for a meeting on 5 June 623, at 6859: 1970:, gathering forces for the next year. Khosrow was not content to let Heraclius quietly rest in Albania. He sent three armies, commanded by Shahrbaraz, Shahin, and 2465: 4076:"Destruction of the ādur gušnasp temple in ādurbādagān as a revenge for abduction of the Holy Cross from Jerusalem in the context of the letters of Heraclius" 2406:, which was a palace of Khosrow's, and gained tremendous riches while recovering 300 captured Byzantine flags. Khosrow had already fled to the mountains of 482: 1425:

Priscus's blockade and burned Caesarea, much to Heraclius's displeasure. Priscus was soon removed from command, along with others who served under Phocas.

2095:

Khosrow, seeing that a decisive counterattack was needed to defeat the Byzantines, recruited two new armies from all the able men, including foreigners.

1095: 1000:. Heraclius's campaigns in Iranian lands from 622 to 626 forced the Persians onto the defensive, allowing his forces to regain momentum. Allied with the 939: 771: 1643:

fell in 622/3, threatening a naval assault on Constantinople. Such was the despair in Constantinople that Heraclius considered moving the government to

7084: 1589:

relied on grain shipments from fertile Egypt to feed the multitudes in the capital. The free grain ration in Constantinople, which echoed the earlier

1323:

and reduce costs, Heraclius limited the number of state-sponsored personnel of the Church in Constantinople by not paying new staff from the imperial

1614: 1395:. There, Phocas's son-in-law Priscus, who had encouraged Heraclius and his father to rebel, started a year-long siege to trap them inside the city. 1187: 858: 535: 7129: 2639: 1456:

at the hands of Shahin. Details of the battle are not known. After this victory the Persians looted the city, slew the Patriarch of Antioch and

746: 572: 1410:

by destroying the Byzantine empire, though because of the loss of the royal Persian archives, no document survives to conclusively prove this.

1175: 606: 408: 6375:

Byzantine Rome and the Greek Popes: Eastern Influences on Rome and the Papacy from Gregory the Great to Zacharias, A.d. 590-752, Parts 590-752

2627: 2623: 1994:, and Iberian allies and soldiers, saying: "Do not let the number of our enemies disturb us. For, God willing, one will pursue ten thousand." 7159: 7154: 7149: 7058: 7034: 7003: 6983: 6963: 6930: 6907: 6887: 6869: 6849: 6812: 6789: 6769: 6746: 6728: 6708: 6688: 6668: 6648: 6625: 6602: 6579: 6557: 6537: 6519: 6499: 6479: 6439: 6419: 6401: 6383: 6363: 6320: 6300: 6280: 6260: 6240: 5107: 4989: 1272:(Count of the East) to stop the violence. Bonus punished the Greens, a horse racing party, in Antioch for their role in the violence in 609. 2551:, a grandson of Khosrow II, succeeded to the throne in 632 was there stability, but by then it was too late to rescue the Sasanian kingdom. 1468:

and the Cilician plain. This defeat cut the Byzantine empire in half, severing Constantinople and Anatolia's land link to Syria, Palestine,

7174: 7169: 7164: 7099: 2708:) was probably its preferred weapon, having the power to skewer two men simultaneously. Its horses along with their riders were covered in 2354:

the unfamiliar winter conditions and harassment from the Persians. He advanced quickly but was tailed by a Persian army under the Armenian

1079: 601: 562: 2349:

describes the seasonal retreat of Heraclius for the winters of 624–626 followed by a change in 627 to threaten Ctesiphon as a "high-risk,

2230:, but also proposed an alliance against Sasanian Iran. Justin II agreed and sent an embassy to the Turkic Khaganate, ensuring the direct 1837:, threatening commerce and agriculture, even near the gates of Constantinople. However, numerous attempts by the Avars and Slavs to take 1402:, had been overthrown. The Persians rejected these overtures, however, since their armies were widely victorious. According to historian 2593:

Neither empire was given much chance to recover, as within a few years they were struck by the onslaught of the Arabs, newly united by

7194: 2635: 658: 2518: 1378:, the eldest son and co-emperor of Maurice, who had supposedly fled to the protection of Khosrow. In 608, the Persians under general 1017: 751: 6821: 6330: 2806: 7048: 1511:

was not strong; although the locals constructed fortifications, they generally tried to negotiate with the Persians. The cities of

2099:

was entrusted with 50,000 men and stayed in Mesopotamia and Armenia to prevent Heraclius from invading Iran; a smaller army under

1499: 2618: 2358:, who faced difficulties in provisioning his army due to the Byzantines taking most of the provisions as they moved south toward 1590: 848: 2489:

The conclusion of the war cemented Heraclius's position as one of history's most successful generals. He was hailed as "the new

678: 7089: 2965:

the "most complete Byzantine field manual"; it provides valuable insight into the military thinking and practices of the time.

1932:, he captured and killed some of Khosrow's guards, leading to the disintegration of the Persian army. Heraclius then destroyed 1490: 1430: 1426: 1319: 843: 557: 309: 294: 277: 272: 221: 2308: 905: 7124: 2375: 1532: 1494: 1052: 853: 700: 2482:, which was fastened to the True Cross in an elaborate ceremony on 14 September 629. The ceremonial parade went toward the 7109: 2528: 2071: 1743: 1276: 1139: 1124: 1040: 1009: 895: 868: 567: 304: 2303:, responded to the alliance by sending 40,000 of their men to ravage the Iranian Empire in 626, marking the start of the 1327:. He used ceremonies to legitimize his dynasty, and he secured a reputation for justice to strengthen his grip on power. 7119: 7114: 1179: 1155: 1111: 540: 2153:

Constantinople because of Patriarch Sergius's religious fervor and his processions along the wall with the icon of the

927: 739: 39: 7179: 7104: 5030:"Early Turks: Male Costume in the Chinese Art Second half of the 6th – first half of the 8th cc. (Images of 'Others')" 2986: All dates, especially between 602–620 are only approximate. This is primarily because many popular sources like 2222:

had turned to Byzantium when their relations with Iran soured over commerce issues. Istämi sent an embassy led by the

2116: 1757: 1375: 1315: 878: 648: 377: 1572:

In 618, Shahrbaraz's forces invaded Egypt, a province that had been mostly untouched by war for three centuries. The

1199: 289: 2104:

themselves at Chalcedon, while the Avars placed themselves on the European side of Constantinople and destroyed the

5966: 2610: 2564: 1727: 1567: 1240: 1044: 863: 299: 6998:, Travaux et Mémoires, vol. 17, Paris: Association des Amis du Centre d'Histoire et Civilisation de Byzance, 2770: 2754:

it was difficult for them to maintain long sieges, especially when considering their less mobile gathered allies.

2885:

all likely drew their information from a common source, probably the 8th-century historian Theophilos of Edessa.

2810:

uses now lost sources and contains a history of the Sasanian dynasty. Non-Greek contemporary sources include the

1036: 715: 663: 582: 577: 1627:, that Heraclius had agreed to stand down and was about ready to allow the Byzantine Empire to become a Persian 7094: 7020: 6099: 3033: 2987: 2869:

is useful in creating a framework of the war. It is usually supplemented by even later Syriac sources like the

2858: 2691: 2614: 2606: 2470: 2276: 2267:

During the 626 siege of Constantinople, Heraclius formed an alliance with people Byzantine sources called the "

1449: 1335: 1263: 1166: 550: 366: 330: 192: 6272:

Women Writing Latin: Women writing in Latin in Roman antiquity, late antiquity, and early modern Christian era

2602: 2568: 1056: 594: 519: 43: 833: 7144: 7139: 7134: 2906: 2782:

The sources for this war are mostly of Byzantine origin. Foremost among the contemporary Greek texts is the

2370: 2335: 2325: 1692:'may God help the Romans'; Kaegi believes this shows the desperation of the empire at this time. The copper 1453: 1284: 1244: 1131: 910: 838: 725: 683: 668: 587: 64: 2957:, the study of seals, is also used for dating. Art and other archaeological findings are also of some use. 2527:

died only months after coming to the throne, Persia was plunged into several years of dynastic turmoil and

1748:

By 622, Heraclius was ready to mount a counter-offensive. He left Constantinople the day after celebrating

1413: 1158:– but they proved ineffective. Maurice fled but was soon intercepted and killed by the soldiers of Phocas. 506: 6700:

Liturgical Illuminations: Discovering Received Tradition in the Eastern Orthros of Feasts of the Theotokos

5029: 3052: 2942: 2717: 2560: 2502: 2330: 2304: 2262: 2250: 2085: 1508: 1307:

The elder Heraclius disappears soon afterward from sources, supposedly dying, though the date is unknown.

1251:—thereby implicitly claiming the imperial title—and minted coins with the two wearing the consular robes. 1048: 1032: 1013: 996: 900: 693: 673: 643: 633: 611: 163: 5072:, ed. Michael Adas, American Historical Association, Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001, p. 168. 2432:

was blocked due to the collapse of a bridge leading over it, and he did not attempt to bypass the canal.

7044: 6861:

Decline and fall of the Sasanian empire: the Sasanian-Parthian confederacy and the Arab conquest of Iran

6678: 6588: 2897: 2882: 2793: 2226:

diplomat Maniah directly to Constantinople, which arrived in 568 and offered not only silk as a gift to

2211: 1753: 1683: 1473: 710: 638: 545: 76: 2341:

In mid-September 627, Heraclius invaded the Iranian heartland in a surprising winter campaign, leaving

2030: 1359:, which some Christians are said to have believed would be defended by Jesus himself on behalf of King 1194:

Germanus died in battle against the Persians. An army sent by Phocas against Khosrow was defeated near

2994:. Thus, there are few independent witnesses of the following events, making reliable dating difficult. 1784:

during the battle. The Persians left their cover to chase the Byzantines, whereupon Heraclius's elite

2991: 2835: 2643: 2096: 2017:. In 625, his forces attempted to push back towards the Euphrates. In a mere seven days, he bypassed 1379: 688: 459: 361: 1198:

in Upper Mesopotamia, leading to the capture of that important fortress in 605. Narses escaped from

6798: 5465: 2847: 2587: 2506: 1991: 1944: 1917: 1873: 1711:. This military campaign has been seen as the first "crusade", or at least as an antecedent to the 1679: 1460:

many citizens. Roman forces lost again while attempting to defend the area north of Antioch at the

1228: 1183: 705: 382: 4979: 2800:

The Persian archives were lost so there are no contemporary Persian sources of this war. However,

2598: 1978:, aiming to capture the mountain passes. Shahrbaraz was sent to block Heraclius's retreat through 6835: 2938: 2874: 2784: 2105: 2080:

Siege of Constantinople in 626 by the combined Sasanian, Avar, and Slavic forces depicted on the

1999: 1830: 1723: 1703:

of the coinage allowed the Byzantines to maintain expenditure in the face of declining revenues.

1406:, it is conceivable that the Persians' goal was to restore or even surpass the boundaries of the 1195: 1024: 975: 47: 17: 2505:, losing battle after battle against their onslaught and tarnishing his reputation for victory. 2930:

territories. Such prediction would have been considered ridiculous at the time of the chapter.

2374:

the battle did not become a rout. During the battle, approximately 6,000 Persians were killed.

1948: 427: 7054: 7030: 6999: 6979: 6959: 6926: 6903: 6883: 6865: 6845: 6808: 6785: 6765: 6742: 6724: 6704: 6684: 6664: 6644: 6621: 6598: 6575: 6553: 6533: 6515: 6495: 6475: 6435: 6415: 6397: 6379: 6359: 6316: 6296: 6276: 6256: 6236: 6201: 6011: 5927: 5912: 5861: 5846: 5831: 5816: 5789: 5562: 5505: 5450: 5435: 5393: 5389: 5374: 5103: 5097: 5057: 5006: 4985: 4942: 4927: 4912: 4852: 4774: 4702: 4619: 4601: 4544: 4469: 4454: 4424: 4409: 4394: 4379: 4360: 4330: 4315: 4277: 4196: 4142: 4083: 4040: 3980: 3953: 3938: 3717: 3540: 3525: 3477: 3344: 3284: 3269: 3254: 3222: 3207: 3192: 3165: 3150: 3135: 3120: 2789: 2651: 2293: 2169: 2126: 2120: 1967: 1921: 1886: 1761: 1582: 1407: 1392: 1360: 1287: 1091: 1088: 943: 883: 732: 720: 626: 621: 525: 422: 314: 6594:

East Rome, Sasanian Persia And the End of Antiquity: Historiographical And Historical Studies

5774: 5759: 5669: 5582: 5558: 5554: 5550: 5083:

Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies: the Role of Cross Border Trade and Travel

4514: 4499: 4375: 4262: 4157: 4025: 3995: 3908: 3893: 3875: 3855: 3840: 3825: 3807: 3792: 3762: 3732: 3683: 3661: 3639: 3624: 3573: 3555: 3510: 3495: 3403: 3314: 3299: 3105: 1962:

Campaign map of Heraclius in 624, 625, and 627–628 through Armenia, Anatolia, and Mesopotamia

1154:

by arming the Blues and the Greens – supporters of the two major chariot racing teams of the

6457: 6044: 5744: 4345: 2667: 2631: 2490: 2003: 1979: 1862: 1524: 1293:

The main rebel force was employed in a naval invasion of Constantinople, led by the younger

1259: 1236: 1232: 1211: 1119: 1103: 931: 888: 653: 431: 399: 386: 281: 181: 4062: 1833:

even claims that the Slavs took "Greece" from the Byzantines. The Avars also began to raid

55: 6916: 5099:

History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, A.D. 250 to 750

2893: 2819: 2750: 2705: 2369:, Heraclius engaged Rhahzadh before reinforcements could reach the Persian commander. The 2137: 2076: 2046: 1794: 1790: 1781: 1716: 1469: 1436:

Khosrow took advantage of the incompetence of Heraclius's generals to launch an attack on

1371: 1115: 1107: 1001: 935: 873: 451: 440: 227: 211: 206: 200: 6341: 6232:

Empires of the Silk Road: a history of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the present

5962: 1974:, to try to trap and destroy Heraclius's forces. Shahraplakan retook lands up as far as 1958: 1726:

believed that volunteers were gathered through the reorganization of Anatolia into four

6755: 6717:

Liska, George (1998), "Projection contra Prediction: Alternative Futures and Options",

6568: 3050:

to describe the trebuchet, though earlier uses may be attested to in Emperor Maurice's

2709: 2687: 2605:, the exhausted Byzantine Empire's recently regained eastern and southern provinces of 2429: 2346: 2289: 2280: 2190: 2109: 1937: 1882: 1670: 1665: 1586: 1539: 1465: 1461: 1340: 1268: 1151: 983: 756: 445: 413: 349: 266: 2002:

and routed the forces of Shahraplakan and Shahin one after the other. Shahin lost his

1020:

broke out in Persia, during which the Persians killed their king, and sued for peace.

7073: 5068:

Liu, Xinru, "The Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Interactions in Eurasia", in

3067: 2954: 2815: 2695: 2498: 2494: 2440: 2199: 2165: 2026: 1933: 1905: 1516: 1352: 1318:, the 35-year-old Heraclius set out to perform his work as emperor. Phocas's brother 1311: 1028: 616: 60: 1986:. Heraclius, planning to engage the Persian armies separately, spoke to his worried 1523:

fell quickly in 613, giving the Sasanian army a chance to strike further south into

7189: 7184: 6940: 6634: 6611: 2548: 2532: 2483: 2038: 2018: 1971: 1913: 1838: 1708: 1628: 1577: 1573: 1403: 1248: 1071: 787: 372: 3012:. The successful conclusion to that war meant that the tribute was no longer paid. 2148:). This is only an allegory, since Khosrow never submitted in person to Heraclius. 2134: 7026:

The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text

7024: 6973: 6953: 6920: 6897: 6839: 6825: 6802: 6779: 6759: 6718: 6698: 6658: 6638: 6615: 6592: 6547: 6509: 6489: 6469: 6461: 6429: 6373: 6353: 6310: 6290: 6270: 6250: 6230: 2237:

In the East, in 625, the Turks took advantage of the Sasanian weakness to occupy

6511:

Mary and the fathers of the church: the Blessed Virgin Mary in patristic thought

3009: 2950: 2934: 2579: 2544: 2479: 2469:

Heraclius returns the True Cross to Jerusalem, anachronistically accompanied by

2435:

Regardless, the Persian army rebelled and overthrew Khosrow II, raising his son

2391: 2284: 2242: 2161: 2154: 2050: 2022: 1952: 1940: 1731: 1660: 1551: 1457: 1437: 1399: 1255: 963: 761: 319: 138: 2523:

For their part, the Sasanians struggled to establish a stable government. When

2402:

With no Persian army left to oppose him, Heraclius's victorious army plundered

1596:

After conquering Egypt, Khosrow allegedly sent Heraclius the following letter:

1247:

and son-in-law of Phocas. Heraclius proclaimed himself and his namesake son as

1216: 2958: 2729: 2540: 2536: 2444: 2100: 1901: 1814: 1810: 1765: 1700: 1640: 1547: 1543: 1503:

Campaign map from 611 to 624 through Syria, Anatolia, Armenia, and Mesopotamia

1441: 1418: 1099: 979: 947: 355: 343: 324: 187: 134: 72: 4087: 6992:

Zuckerman, Constantin (2013), "Heraclius and the Return of the Holy Cross",

3047: 3008:

had refused to give the Sasanians the usual tribute dating from the time of

3005: 2990:' Chronicles are all drawn from a common source, thought to be a history by 2896:

probably have similar sources to the ones that the compiler of Sebeos used.

2801: 2655: 2524: 2411: 2403: 2395: 2312: 2231: 2227: 2207: 2203: 1850: 1785: 1620: 1555: 1383: 1294: 1147: 1135: 1060: 991: 766: 255: 237: 68: 6448:

Foss, Clive (1975), "The Persians in Asia Minor and the End of Antiquity",

2219: 2133:

and Heraclius receiving the submission of Khosrow II; plaque from a cross (

1928:, Heraclius met Khosrow's army, some 40,000 strong. With the help of loyal 1605:

However, the genuineness of the letter has been denied by modern scholars.

1303:"Will you," replied Phocas, with unexpected spirit, "govern it any better?" 1262:

in the wake of Heraclius's revolt. In 609 or 610 the Patriarch of Antioch,

2053:

magnified. In the aftermath of the battle, the Byzantine army wintered at

2926: 2918: 2671: 2663: 2574:

the increasing power of the provincial landholders at the expense of the

2436: 2355: 2300: 2157:, inspiring the belief that the Byzantines were under divine protection. 2014: 1842: 1769: 1712: 1644: 1512: 1387: 971: 967: 464: 395: 232: 216: 118: 114: 1673:

mint. Struck 610–613. Helmeted and cuirassed facing bust, holding cross.

1055:. In the following centuries, the Byzantine and Arab forces would fight 1027:, whose forces invaded both empires only a few years after the war. The 4092:

Genuineness of the letter had been convincingly denied by R. W. Thomson

2701: 2659: 2407: 2366: 2359: 2268: 2238: 2089: 2054: 1822: 1818: 1809:

poured into the Balkans, capturing several Byzantine cities, including

1773: 1538:

Many churches in the city (including the Church of the Resurrection or

1445: 1367: 130: 950:

regain his throne. In 602 Maurice was murdered by his political rival

6899:

The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part II, 363-630 AD)

6355:

The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part II, 363-630 AD)

2961:

sources or inscriptions are of limited use. Luttwak called Maurice's

2914: 2827: 2797:

events. There are some surviving papyri from Egypt from that period.

2740: 2734: 2675: 2647: 2342: 2272: 2223: 2141: 2130: 2081: 2034: 1987: 1983: 1975: 1925: 1869: 1858: 1834: 1826: 1749: 1694: 1636: 1632: 1624: 1356: 1348: 1221: 1143: 959: 951: 474: 261: 126: 6993: 6781:

The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire - Volume III, AD 527–641

6352:

Dodgeon, Michael H.; Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2002),

6269:

Brown, Phyllis Rugg; Churchill, Laurie J.; Jeffrey, Jane E. (2002),

5070:

Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History

2316:

proceeded, Heraclius worked to secure his base in the upper Tigris.

2287:, plying him with wondrous gifts and the promise of marriage to the 1805:

While the Byzantines were occupied with the Persians, the Avars and

6289:

Chrysostomides, J.; Dendrinos, Charalambos; Herrin, Judith (2003),

2945:

have proven to be helpful in understanding the era of the war. The

2597:, which Howard-Johnston likened to "a human tsunami". According to 2547:

all succeeded to the throne within months of each other. Only when

1301:"Is it thus", asked Heraclius, "that you have governed the Empire?" 2922: 2775: 2769: 2594: 2464: 2390: 2329: 2246: 2194: 2145: 2125: 2075: 2042: 2007: 1957: 1929: 1900: 1854: 1846: 1806: 1659: 1528: 1498: 1412: 1334: 1280: 1215: 1186:, a major city of the province. Emperor Phocas instructed general 1165: 1078: 1070: 1005: 955: 122: 6549:

Byzantium in the Seventh Century: the Transformation of a Culture

2115:

The defense of Constantinople was under the command of Patriarch

1635:, an important military base in central Anatolia, in 620 or 622. 1134:

had eliminated the surplus in the treasury left from the time of

6340:, vol. 39, Duke University, pp. 99–115, archived from 5415: 5413: 2575: 2168:

was written by an unknown author, possibly Patriarch Sergius or

1520: 1366:

In Armenia, the strategically important city of Theodosiopolis (

1324: 1527:. Nicetas continued to resist the Persians but was defeated at 791: 478: 2307:. Joint Byzantine and Göktürk operations were then focused on 6720:

Expanding Realism: The Historical Dimension of World Politics

4326: 2428:

However, Heraclius could not attack Ctesiphon itself, as the

1083:

The Sasanian Empire on the eve of the Final Roman-Persian War

1881:

Heraclius was forced to give the Avars a subsidy of 200,000

1142:

to live off the land during the winter. The army proclaimed

6778:

Martindale, John R.; Jones, A. H. M.; Morris, John (1992),

2646:. However, some losses were permanent, such as the loss of 2509:

succinctly described Heraclius as having "lived too long".

1464:, despite some initial success. The Persians then captured 6530:

The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 363-628

3036:' Chronicles, is usually identified with Takht-i-Suleiman. 1776:

to eastern Anatolia in order to block his access to Iran.

1098:

by helping the exiled Sasanian prince Khosrow, the future

6660:

Encyclopaedic Ethnography of Middle-East and Central Asia

6394:

The Age of Justinian: The Circumstances of Imperial Power

3070:

may have lessened local resistance to the Arab expansion.

2792:

wrote many poems and other works that were contemporary.

6252:

History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene

3066: Ambivalence toward Byzantine rule on the part of 2912:

The Quran also provides some detail on the matter. The

1682:

appeared with the usual image of Heraclius and his son

1374:, because of the persuasion of a man who claimed to be 3246: 3244: 3242: 3713: 3536: 2728:

The most important arm of the Byzantine army was its

2447:

and other relics that were lost in Jerusalem in 614.

5096:

Dani, Ahmad Hasan; Litvinsky, B. A. (January 1996).

2822:

but only survives in Ethiopian translation, and the

2630:. The Byzantine Empire also lost its territories in 6197: 6122: 6074: 6025: 6007: 5227: 5197: 5158: 4815: 4681: 3776: 3746: 3742: 3740: 3701: 3521: 3446: 3370: 3325: 3146: 3131: 2953:, the study of coins, has proven useful to dating. 2013:Heraclius spent the rest of winter to the north of 27:

Last war between the Byzantine and Sasanian empires

6567: 2423:Heraclius's ultimatum to Khosrow II, 6 January 628 1542:) were burned, and numerous relics, including the 1343:, including the 591 border between the two empires 6471:The New Cambridge Medieval History: c. 500-c. 700 3046: That was the first known usage of the term 2414:. Heraclius then issued an ultimatum to Khosrow: 2049:was a successful retreat for the Byzantines that 6021: 6019: 5007:"Maracanda/Samarkand, une métropole pré-mongole" 2700:The elite cavalry corps of the Persians was the 1756:, was left behind as regent under the charge of 6528:Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2005), 6086: 6003: 6001: 5999: 5997: 5995: 5993: 5991: 5641: 5574: 5572: 5570: 5531: 5516: 5223: 5221: 5193: 5191: 4811: 4809: 4231: 2416: 2365:Towards the end of the year, near the ruins of 1598: 1452:, Byzantine forces under Heraclius and Nicetas 1299: 32: 6896:Reinink, Bernard H.; Stolte, Geoffrey (2002), 3772: 3770: 3697: 3695: 3693: 3691: 3442: 3440: 3438: 3366: 3364: 2909:contains many errors, but is a useful source. 1444:. Heraclius attempted to stop the invasion at 1440:, under the leadership of the Persian general 942:between the two powers had ended in 591 after 6680:The Persian Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia 5351: 5349: 5347: 4868: 4866: 4864: 4862: 4860: 4754: 4752: 4750: 4748: 4746: 4744: 4742: 4740: 3976: 1075:The Byzantine Empire in the early 7th century 1016:, Heraclius invaded the heartland of Persia. 803: 490: 8: 6955:A History of the Byzantine State and Society 6431:Shadows in the desert: ancient Persia at war 5542: 5540: 5310: 5308: 5208: 5206: 4796: 4794: 4727: 4725: 4712: 4710: 4662: 4660: 4658: 4656: 4643: 4641: 4639: 4611: 4609: 4295: 4293: 4291: 4289: 4287: 4285: 4219: 4115: 4103: 4054: 4052: 4050: 4048: 3565: 3563: 3086: 2678:were captured by Arabs in the 10th century. 1290:, who was elected with the help of Nicetas. 7029:. Merchantville, NJ: Evolution Publishing. 6947:. Vol. XII, Fasc. 5. pp. 466–467. 6185: 6133: 6131: 5366: 5364: 5049: 5047: 4844: 4842: 4840: 4838: 4836: 4694: 4692: 4690: 4593: 4591: 4578: 4576: 4510: 4495: 4434: 4432: 4371: 4327:Chrysostomides, Dendrinos & Herrin 2003 3904: 3295: 3097: 3095: 2788:by an unidentified author from around 630. 2410:to try to rally support for the defense of 1687: 1623:in 615, it was at this point, according to 1382:launched a raid into Anatolia that reached 1254:At about the same time rebellions began in 1127:to stop incursions by the Slavs and Avars. 1010:final attempt to take Constantinople in 626 994:in 610 led, despite initial setbacks, to a 6761:The grand strategy of the Byzantine Empire 6331:"Byzantine Heavy Artillery: the Helepolis" 6058: 6056: 6054: 6052: 6036: 6034: 5978: 5976: 5974: 4981:History of Central Asia, The: 4-volume set 4677: 4675: 4536: 4534: 4479: 4477: 4254: 4252: 4134: 4132: 4130: 4128: 4126: 4124: 4017: 4015: 3930: 3928: 3885: 3883: 3867: 3865: 3863: 3817: 3815: 3675: 3673: 3671: 3669: 3653: 3651: 3649: 3647: 3487: 3485: 3469: 3467: 3413: 3411: 3395: 3393: 3391: 3336: 3334: 2921:tells how news of the ongoing war reached 2650:, the remaining Byzantine holdings in the 1686:, but uniquely carried the inscription of 1554:, were carried off to the Persian capital 1150:, as emperor. Maurice attempted to defend 926:was the final and most devastating of the 810: 796: 788: 497: 483: 475: 29: 6617:Byzantium and the early Islamic conquests 5461: 5419: 4770: 4390: 3250: 3218: 3203: 1639:and several other islands in the eastern 1433:to finally solidify command of the army. 1339:Map of the Roman-Persian frontier during 5501: 5085:, McFarland & Company, 2012, p. 133. 4923: 4341: 3949: 3004: The war had originally begun when 2877:. However, these sources, excepting the 2865:of Patriarch Nikephoros I. Theophanes's 1178:, governor of the Byzantine province of 1130:The generosity and campaigns of emperor 1102:, to regain his throne from the usurper 1087:After decades of inconclusive fighting, 7053:. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 6739:The Routledge Companion to the Crusades 6570:The Oxford Illustrated History of Italy 6161: 5950: 5938: 5923: 5908: 5896: 5872: 5857: 5842: 5827: 5812: 5800: 5785: 5770: 5755: 5740: 5692: 5680: 5527: 5525: 5477: 5355: 5299: 5170: 4938: 4908: 4872: 4758: 4299: 4192: 3569: 3382: 3310: 3233: 3176: 3101: 3079: 2497:, as "the greatest Roman general since 1947:. Heraclius's raids went as far as the 1752:on Sunday, 4 April 622. His young son, 452: 6212: 5716: 5665: 5578: 5546: 5134: 5053: 4984:. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 243. 4405: 4058: 2881:by Nikephoros, and the Christian Arab 2682:Composition of the armies and strategy 2202:officers during an audience with king 282: 6173: 6137: 6062: 6040: 5982: 5884: 5704: 5653: 5605: 5593: 5489: 5431: 5404: 5385: 5338: 5326: 5314: 5287: 5275: 5263: 5251: 5239: 5212: 5182: 5146: 5122: 4965: 4953: 4896: 4884: 4827: 4800: 4785: 4731: 4716: 4666: 4647: 4630: 4615: 4597: 4582: 4567: 4555: 4525: 4483: 4465: 4450: 4438: 4420: 4356: 4311: 4273: 4258: 4168: 4153: 4021: 4006: 3991: 3964: 3919: 3889: 3871: 3851: 3836: 3821: 3803: 3788: 3758: 3728: 3679: 3657: 3635: 3620: 3608: 3596: 3584: 3551: 3506: 3491: 3458: 3429: 3417: 3399: 2443:, and most importantly for them, the 2398:in 629-632 (aged 54–57), with his son 1865:(Lezhë) also survived the invasions. 1715:, by many historians, beginning with 1615:Shahin's invasion of Asia Minor (615) 1182:, rebelled against Phocas and seized 1170:Byzantine and Sasanian empires in 600 7: 6149: 6100:"Fulfilled Prophecy of Surat Ar-Rum" 5728: 5629: 5617: 5446: 5370: 5011:Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales 4848: 4698: 4540: 4243: 4180: 4138: 4036: 3934: 3473: 3355: 3340: 3280: 3265: 3188: 3161: 3116: 2712:to protect them from enemy archers. 2033:, important fortresses on the upper 1275:Heraclius the Elder sent his nephew 6456:, Oxford University Press: 721–47, 4978:Baumer, Christoph (18 April 2018). 4207: 4074:Iwona, Maksymiuk Katarzyna (2017). 3714:Brown, Churchill & Jeffrey 2002 3537:Martindale, Jones & Morris 1992 2774:Silver plate showing the arming of 2642:, though these too were ultimately 2180:Byzantine-Turkic alliance (626–628) 1982:, and Shahin was sent to block the 1793:, so he left his army to winter in 1768:to retreat from the front-lines of 1669:of Emperor Heraclius (aged 35–38). 1012:, but were defeated there. In 627, 6412:Sassanian elite cavalry AD 224-642 6338:Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 2275:, now generally identified as the 1576:living in Egypt were unhappy with 1363:against all enemies, fell in 610. 25: 7080:Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 6198:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002 6123:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002 6075:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002 6026:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002 6008:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002 5228:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002 5198:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002 5159:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002 4816:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002 4682:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002 3777:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002 3747:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002 3702:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002 3522:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002 3447:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002 3371:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002 3326:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002 3147:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002 3132:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002 2890:History of the House of Artsrunik 2853:Later Greek accounts include the 2807:History of the Prophets and Kings 2501:". Instead, he lived through the 2345:to continue the siege of Tiflis. 2218:Earlier, in 568, the Turks under 1096:Byzantine–Sasanian War of 572–591 924:Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 33:Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 18:Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602–628 7085:7th century in Georgia (country) 6995:Constructing the Seventh Century 6975:Byzantium and Its Army, 284-1081 1885:along with his illegitimate son 412: 348: 265: 54: 7050:The Last Great War of Antiquity 6878:Pourshariati, Parvaneh (2010), 6858:Pourshariati, Parvaneh (2008), 6640:Heraclius: Emperor of Byzantium 2334:Maneuvers before and after the 2234:trade desired by the Sogdians. 1491:Jewish revolt against Heraclius 1370:) surrendered in 609 or 610 to 71:'s army and the Persians under 7130:7th century in Byzantine Egypt 6925:, Cambridge University Press, 6841:History of the Byzantine State 6784:, Cambridge University Press, 6643:, Cambridge University Press, 6620:, Cambridge University Press, 6552:, Cambridge University Press, 6474:, Cambridge University Press, 6235:, Princeton University Press, 6229:Beckwith, Christopher (2009), 3032: Thebarmes, described in 1920:, the capital of Armenia, and 1507:Resistance to the Persians in 1495:Sasanian conquest of Jerusalem 1448:, but despite the blessing of 1: 6978:, Stanford University Press, 6972:Treadgold, Warren T. (1998), 6958:, Stanford University Press, 6952:Treadgold, Warren T. (1997), 6697:Kimball, Virginia M. (2010), 6491:The great armies of antiquity 6450:The English Historical Review 2850:living in Persian territory. 2654:, which was conquered by the 2519:Sasanian civil war of 628–632 2140:over gilt copper, 1160–1170, 2072:Siege of Constantinople (626) 2066:Siege of Constantinople (626) 1912:Heraclius advanced along the 1310:After marrying his betrothed 607:Campaign of Severus Alexander 96: 79: 7160:620s in the Byzantine Empire 7155:610s in the Byzantine Empire 7150:600s in the Byzantine Empire 6939:Shahbazi, A. Shapur (2004). 6844:, Rutgers University Press, 6804:A Short History of Byzantium 6764:, Harvard University Press, 6723:, Rowman & Littlefield, 6663:, New Delhi: Global Vision, 6372:Ekonomou, Andrew J. (2008), 5102:. UNESCO. pp. 370–375. 5028:Yatsenko, Sergey A. (2009). 2937:(lives of saints) of Saints 2741: 2735: 2311:, where the Byzantines used 2021:and the 200 miles along the 1951:, a residence of Khosrow in 1174:Upon the murder of Maurice, 1110:ceded parts of northeastern 150: 7175:620s in the Sasanian Empire 7170:610s in the Sasanian Empire 7165:600s in the Sasanian Empire 7100:Military history of Armenia 6574:, Oxford University Press, 2846:gives the perspective of a 2461:Byzantine Empire, Heraclius 1893:Byzantine assault on Persia 1738:Byzantine counter-offensive 701:Julian's Persian expedition 679:Perso-Roman wars of 337–361 222:Jewish and Samaritan rebels 7211: 6462:10.1093/ehr/XC.CCCLVII.721 6329:Dennis, George T. (1998), 5967:Metropolitan Museum of Art 2888:The 10th-century Armenian 2685: 2565:Islamic conquest of Persia 2558: 2539:, and Khosrow's daughters 2516: 2323: 2260: 2188: 2069: 1916:, destroying Persian-held 1825:(Sofia), while destroying 1744:Heraclius' campaign of 622 1741: 1619:When the Persians reached 1612: 1568:Sasanian conquest of Egypt 1565: 1488: 1209: 568:Trajan's Parthian campaign 536:Pompeian–Parthian invasion 7195:History of the Aegean Sea 7045:Howard-Johnston, James H. 6827:Europe, 476-918, Volume 1 6488:Gabriel, Richard (2002), 3977:Reinink & Stolte 2002 2947:Life of George of Khozeba 2622:sieges of its capital in 2257:Heraclius-Ziebel alliance 1454:suffered a serious defeat 1314:and being crowned by the 1205: 1162:Beginning of the conflict 1041:territories in the Levant 1039:as well as the Byzantine 946:helped the Sasanian king 829: 583:Parthian war of Caracalla 531:Caesar's planned invasion 516: 245: 174: 88: 53: 37: 6392:Evans, J. A. S. (2002), 6275:, Taylor & Francis, 4220:Greatrex & Lieu 2005 2859:Theophanes the Confessor 2692:Byzantine battle tactics 2666:in the 8th century. The 2299:The Turks, based in the 2277:Western Turkic Khaganate 1593:, was abolished in 618. 1450:Saint Theodore of Sykeon 982:and before the walls of 450:Vahram-Arshusha V ( 193:Western Turkic Khaganate 6566:Holmes, George (2001), 6508:Gambero, Luigi (1999), 6468:Fouracre, Paul (2006), 6428:Farrokh, Kaveh (2007), 6410:Farrokh, Kaveh (2005), 6309:Davies, Norman (1998), 6255:, vol. 2, Cosimo, 5005:Grenet, Frantz (2004). 2907:Eutychius of Alexandria 2838:, composed in 640. The 2818:, which was written in 2715:According to Maurice's 2456:Short-term consequences 2326:Battle of Nineveh (627) 2320:Battle of Nineveh (627) 1245:Count of the Excubitors 1220:A gold coin of Emperor 740:Byzantine–Sasanian wars 573:Lucius Verus' campaigns 65:Battle of Nineveh (627) 40:Byzantine–Sasanian wars 7090:7th century in Armenia 6589:Howard-Johnston, James 6546:Haldon, John (1997) , 2943:Anastasios the Persian 2779: 2561:Early Muslim conquests 2555:Long-term consequences 2474: 2426: 2399: 2338: 2305:Third Perso-Turkic War 2263:Third Perso-Turkic War 2251:Yabghus of Tokharistan 2215: 2149: 2092: 1966:Heraclius wintered in 1963: 1909: 1688: 1674: 1603: 1504: 1421: 1344: 1305: 1224: 1171: 1084: 1076: 1037:entire Sasanian Empire 1008:, the Persians made a 997:status quo ante bellum 901:Third Perso-Turkic War 558:Mark Antony's campaign 246:Commanders and leaders 164:Status quo ante bellum 7125:7th century in Europe 6945:Encyclopaedia Iranica 6741:, London: Routledge, 6677:Kia, Mehrdad (2016), 2898:Movses Kaghankatvatsi 2883:Agapius of Hierapolis 2873:and the Chronicle by 2794:Theophylact Simocatta 2773: 2559:Further information: 2517:Further information: 2473:. 15th century, Spain 2468: 2394: 2333: 2198: 2189:Further information: 2129: 2079: 1961: 1904: 1754:Heraclius Constantine 1684:Heraclius Constantine 1663: 1502: 1474:Exarchate of Carthage 1416: 1338: 1219: 1206:Heraclius's rebellion 1169: 1082: 1074: 563:Armenian War of 58–63 77:Piero della Francesca 7110:7th century in Egypt 6799:Norwich, John Julius 6737:Lock, Peter (2013), 6087:Howard-Johnston 2006 5642:Howard-Johnston 2006 5532:Howard-Johnston 2006 5517:Howard-Johnston 2006 5081:Howard, Michael C., 4232:Howard-Johnston 2006 2992:Theophilus of Edessa 2836:Thomas the Presbyter 2387:End of the war (628) 2376:Patriarch Nikephoros 2249:, and establish the 2185:Background (568–625) 2010:, baggage, and men. 1680:silver imperial coin 1651:Byzantine resurgence 1485:Capture of Jerusalem 896:Constantinople (626) 460:Benjamin of Tiberias 7120:7th century in Asia 7115:7th century in Iran 6836:Ostrogorsky, George 6657:Khanam, R. (2005), 6378:, Lexington Books, 6249:Bury, J.B. (2008), 5422:, pp. 197–218. 4080:Метаморфозы истории 2848:Nestorian Christian 2844:Khuzistan Chronicle 2658:by 629. Similarly, 2603:Byzantine–Arab Wars 2569:Byzantine–Arab Wars 2535:, Heraclius's ally 2313:traction trebuchets 2086:Moldovița Monastery 1689:Deus adiuta Romanis 1229:Heraclius the Elder 1059:for control of the 930:fought between the 595:Roman–Sasanian wars 520:Roman–Parthian Wars 44:Avar–Byzantine wars 7180:Wars of Khosrow II 7105:Byzantine Anatolia 7021:Charles, Robert H. 6635:Kaegi, Walter Emil 6612:Kaegi, Walter Emil 5953:, pp. 405–406 5185:, pp. 158–159 2939:Theodore of Sykeon 2875:Michael the Syrian 2840:Chronicle of Guidi 2785:Chronicon Paschale 2780: 2475: 2400: 2339: 2216: 2150: 2119:and the patrician 2106:Aqueduct of Valens 2093: 1964: 1910: 1831:Isidore of Seville 1760:and the patrician 1724:George Ostrogorsky 1675: 1591:grain dole in Rome 1583:John the Almsgiver 1505: 1422: 1345: 1331:Persian ascendancy 1288:John the Almsgiver 1225: 1172: 1085: 1077: 1025:Rashidun Caliphate 820:Byzantine–Sasanian 508:Roman–Persian Wars 48:Turco-Persian wars 7060:978-0-19-883019-1 7036:978-1-889758-87-9 7005:978-2-916-71645-9 6985:978-0-804-73163-8 6965:978-0-804-72630-6 6932:978-0-521-61148-0 6922:The First Crusade 6909:978-9-042-91228-1 6889:978-0-857-71199-1 6871:978-1-845-11645-3 6851:978-0-813-51198-6 6814:978-0-679-77269-9 6791:978-0-521-20160-5 6771:978-0-674-03519-5 6748:978-1-135-13137-1 6730:978-0-847-68680-3 6710:978-1-449-07212-4 6690:978-1-610-69391-2 6670:978-8-182-20063-0 6650:978-0-521-81459-1 6627:978-0-521-48455-8 6604:978-0-860-78992-5 6581:978-0-192-85444-5 6559:978-0-521-31917-1 6539:978-1-134-75646-9 6521:978-0-89870-686-4 6501:978-0-275-97809-9 6481:978-0-521-36291-7 6441:978-1-846-03108-3 6421:978-1-841-76713-0 6403:978-1-134-55976-3 6385:978-0-739-11978-5 6365:978-0-415-00342-1 6322:978-0-060-97468-8 6315:, HarperCollins, 6312:Europe: a history 6302:978-0-754-63696-0 6282:978-0-415-94183-9 6262:978-1-605-20405-5 6242:978-0-691-13589-2 6215:, pp. 99–104 6164:, pp. 268–71 6152:, pp. 729–30 5941:, pp. 403–04 5632:, pp. 746–47 5407:, pp. 185–86 5109:978-92-3-103211-0 4991:978-1-83860-868-2 4818:, pp. 179–81 4116:Pourshariati 2010 4104:Pourshariati 2008 3328:, pp. 183–84 3087:Pourshariati 2008 2902:History of Aluank 2871:Chronicle of 1234 2790:George of Pisidia 2662:was taken by the 2652:Iberian Peninsula 2371:Battle of Nineveh 2336:Battle of Nineveh 2309:besieging Tbilisi 2294:Eudoxia Epiphania 2170:George of Pisidia 2108:. Because of the 2061:Climax of the war 1968:Caucasian Albania 1887:John Athalarichos 1758:Patriarch Sergius 1533:capture Jerusalem 1480:Persian dominance 1408:Achaemenid Empire 1361:Abgar V of Edessa 1106:. In return, the 1014:allied with Turks 919: 918: 906:Tbilisi (627-628) 849:Caesarea Maritima 785: 784: 473: 472: 170: 169: 16:(Redirected from 7202: 7064: 7040: 7008: 6988: 6968: 6948: 6935: 6917:Runciman, Steven 6912: 6892: 6882:, I. B. Tauris, 6880:The Sasanian Era 6874: 6864:, I. B. Tauris, 6854: 6831: 6817: 6794: 6774: 6751: 6733: 6713: 6693: 6673: 6653: 6630: 6607: 6584: 6573: 6562: 6542: 6524: 6504: 6484: 6464: 6444: 6424: 6406: 6388: 6368: 6348: 6346: 6335: 6325: 6305: 6285: 6265: 6245: 6216: 6210: 6204: 6195: 6189: 6188:, pp. 79–80 6186:Ostrogorsky 1969 6183: 6177: 6171: 6165: 6159: 6153: 6147: 6141: 6135: 6126: 6120: 6114: 6113: 6111: 6110: 6104:islammessage.org 6096: 6090: 6089:, pp. 42–43 6084: 6078: 6072: 6066: 6060: 6047: 6038: 6029: 6023: 6014: 6005: 5986: 5980: 5969: 5960: 5954: 5948: 5942: 5936: 5930: 5921: 5915: 5906: 5900: 5894: 5888: 5882: 5876: 5870: 5864: 5855: 5849: 5840: 5834: 5825: 5819: 5810: 5804: 5798: 5792: 5783: 5777: 5768: 5762: 5753: 5747: 5738: 5732: 5726: 5720: 5714: 5708: 5702: 5696: 5690: 5684: 5678: 5672: 5663: 5657: 5651: 5645: 5639: 5633: 5627: 5621: 5615: 5609: 5608:, pp. 43–44 5603: 5597: 5591: 5585: 5576: 5565: 5544: 5535: 5529: 5520: 5514: 5508: 5499: 5493: 5487: 5481: 5475: 5469: 5462:Treadgold (1997) 5459: 5453: 5444: 5438: 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4297: 4280: 4271: 4265: 4256: 4247: 4241: 4235: 4229: 4223: 4217: 4211: 4205: 4199: 4190: 4184: 4178: 4172: 4166: 4160: 4151: 4145: 4136: 4119: 4113: 4107: 4101: 4095: 4094: 4071: 4065: 4056: 4043: 4034: 4028: 4019: 4010: 4004: 3998: 3989: 3983: 3974: 3968: 3962: 3956: 3947: 3941: 3932: 3923: 3917: 3911: 3905:Ostrogorsky 1969 3902: 3896: 3887: 3878: 3869: 3858: 3849: 3843: 3834: 3828: 3819: 3810: 3801: 3795: 3786: 3780: 3774: 3765: 3756: 3750: 3744: 3735: 3726: 3720: 3711: 3705: 3699: 3686: 3677: 3664: 3655: 3642: 3633: 3627: 3618: 3612: 3606: 3600: 3594: 3588: 3582: 3576: 3567: 3558: 3549: 3543: 3534: 3528: 3519: 3513: 3504: 3498: 3489: 3480: 3471: 3462: 3456: 3450: 3444: 3433: 3427: 3421: 3415: 3406: 3397: 3386: 3380: 3374: 3368: 3359: 3353: 3347: 3338: 3329: 3323: 3317: 3308: 3302: 3296:Ostrogorsky 1969 3293: 3287: 3278: 3272: 3263: 3257: 3248: 3237: 3231: 3225: 3216: 3210: 3201: 3195: 3186: 3180: 3174: 3168: 3159: 3153: 3144: 3138: 3129: 3123: 3114: 3108: 3099: 3090: 3084: 3061: 3041: 3027: 3017: 2999: 2981: 2832:Chronicle of 724 2744: 2738: 2668:Balearic Islands 2638:to the Arabs in 2590:in Asia Minor". 2513:Sasanian kingdom 2424: 2212:Afrasiyab murals 1980:Caucasian Iberia 1945:Takht-i-Suleiman 1782:feigning retreat 1691: 1525:Palaestina Prima 1260:Palaestina Prima 1233:Exarch of Africa 1227:In 608, general 1212:Heraclian revolt 1120:Caucasian Iberia 1057:a series of wars 934:and the Persian 932:Byzantine Empire 869:Cappadocia (622) 859:Asia Minor (615) 824: 812: 805: 798: 789: 511: 509: 499: 492: 485: 476: 454: 436: 416: 404: 391: 352: 284: 269: 182:Byzantine Empire 105: 101: 98: 90: 89: 84: 81: 63:painting of the 58: 30: 21: 7210: 7209: 7205: 7204: 7203: 7201: 7200: 7199: 7095:Byzantine Syria 7070: 7069: 7061: 7043: 7037: 7019: 7016: 7014:Further reading 7011: 7006: 6991: 6986: 6971: 6966: 6951: 6938: 6933: 6915: 6910: 6895: 6890: 6877: 6872: 6857: 6852: 6834: 6820: 6815: 6797: 6792: 6777: 6772: 6756:Luttwak, Edward 6754: 6749: 6736: 6731: 6716: 6711: 6703:, AuthorHouse, 6696: 6691: 6676: 6671: 6656: 6651: 6633: 6628: 6610: 6605: 6587: 6582: 6565: 6560: 6545: 6540: 6527: 6522: 6507: 6502: 6487: 6482: 6467: 6447: 6442: 6427: 6422: 6409: 6404: 6391: 6386: 6371: 6366: 6351: 6344: 6333: 6328: 6323: 6308: 6303: 6288: 6283: 6268: 6263: 6248: 6243: 6228: 6224: 6219: 6211: 6207: 6196: 6192: 6184: 6180: 6172: 6168: 6160: 6156: 6148: 6144: 6136: 6129: 6121: 6117: 6108: 6106: 6098: 6097: 6093: 6085: 6081: 6073: 6069: 6061: 6050: 6039: 6032: 6024: 6017: 6006: 5989: 5981: 5972: 5961: 5957: 5949: 5945: 5937: 5933: 5922: 5918: 5907: 5903: 5895: 5891: 5883: 5879: 5871: 5867: 5856: 5852: 5841: 5837: 5826: 5822: 5811: 5807: 5799: 5795: 5784: 5780: 5769: 5765: 5754: 5750: 5739: 5735: 5727: 5723: 5715: 5711: 5703: 5699: 5691: 5687: 5679: 5675: 5664: 5660: 5652: 5648: 5640: 5636: 5628: 5624: 5616: 5612: 5604: 5600: 5592: 5588: 5577: 5568: 5545: 5538: 5530: 5523: 5515: 5511: 5500: 5496: 5488: 5484: 5476: 5472: 5460: 5456: 5445: 5441: 5430: 5426: 5418: 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4187: 4179: 4175: 4167: 4163: 4152: 4148: 4137: 4122: 4114: 4110: 4102: 4098: 4073: 4072: 4068: 4057: 4046: 4035: 4031: 4020: 4013: 4005: 4001: 3990: 3986: 3975: 3971: 3963: 3959: 3948: 3944: 3933: 3926: 3918: 3914: 3903: 3899: 3888: 3881: 3870: 3861: 3850: 3846: 3835: 3831: 3820: 3813: 3802: 3798: 3787: 3783: 3775: 3768: 3757: 3753: 3745: 3738: 3727: 3723: 3712: 3708: 3700: 3689: 3678: 3667: 3656: 3645: 3634: 3630: 3619: 3615: 3607: 3603: 3595: 3591: 3583: 3579: 3568: 3561: 3550: 3546: 3535: 3531: 3520: 3516: 3505: 3501: 3490: 3483: 3472: 3465: 3457: 3453: 3445: 3436: 3428: 3424: 3416: 3409: 3398: 3389: 3381: 3377: 3369: 3362: 3354: 3350: 3339: 3332: 3324: 3320: 3309: 3305: 3294: 3290: 3279: 3275: 3264: 3260: 3249: 3240: 3232: 3228: 3217: 3213: 3202: 3198: 3187: 3183: 3175: 3171: 3160: 3156: 3145: 3141: 3130: 3126: 3115: 3111: 3100: 3093: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3071: 3058: 3057: 3038: 3037: 3024: 3023: 3014: 3013: 2996: 2995: 2978: 2976: 2971: 2894:Thomas Artsruni 2768: 2751:circumvallation 2698: 2686:Main articles: 2684: 2640:later conflicts 2571: 2557: 2521: 2515: 2463: 2458: 2453: 2425: 2422: 2389: 2328: 2322: 2265: 2259: 2193: 2187: 2182: 2074: 2068: 2063: 2047:Battle of Sarus 1895: 1861:(Shkodër), and 1803: 1746: 1740: 1717:William of Tyre 1658: 1653: 1617: 1611: 1570: 1564: 1497: 1489:Main articles: 1487: 1482: 1438:Byzantine Syria 1417:A gold coin of 1393:Caesarea Mazaca 1372:Ashtat Yeztayar 1333: 1302: 1214: 1208: 1164: 1116:Persian Armenia 1069: 944:Emperor Maurice 936:Sasanian Empire 920: 915: 864:Egypt (618–621) 825: 821: 818: 816: 786: 781: 512: 507: 505: 503: 469: 441:Ashtat Yeztayar 432: 400: 387: 336: 212:Sasanian Iberia 201:Sasanian Empire 158: 141: 103: 99: 82: 59: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7208: 7206: 7198: 7197: 7192: 7187: 7182: 7177: 7172: 7167: 7162: 7157: 7152: 7147: 7145:620s conflicts 7142: 7140:610s conflicts 7137: 7135:600s conflicts 7132: 7127: 7122: 7117: 7112: 7107: 7102: 7097: 7092: 7087: 7082: 7072: 7071: 7066: 7065: 7059: 7041: 7035: 7015: 7012: 7010: 7009: 7004: 6989: 6984: 6969: 6964: 6949: 6936: 6931: 6913: 6908: 6893: 6888: 6875: 6870: 6855: 6850: 6832: 6818: 6813: 6795: 6790: 6775: 6770: 6752: 6747: 6734: 6729: 6714: 6709: 6694: 6689: 6674: 6669: 6654: 6649: 6631: 6626: 6608: 6603: 6585: 6580: 6563: 6558: 6543: 6538: 6525: 6520: 6505: 6500: 6485: 6480: 6465: 6445: 6440: 6425: 6420: 6407: 6402: 6389: 6384: 6369: 6364: 6349: 6326: 6321: 6306: 6301: 6292:Porphyrogenita 6286: 6281: 6266: 6261: 6246: 6241: 6225: 6223: 6220: 6218: 6217: 6205: 6190: 6178: 6166: 6154: 6142: 6127: 6115: 6091: 6079: 6067: 6048: 6030: 6028:, p. xxvi 6015: 5987: 5970: 5955: 5943: 5931: 5916: 5901: 5889: 5877: 5875:, pp. 403 5865: 5850: 5835: 5820: 5805: 5793: 5778: 5763: 5748: 5733: 5721: 5709: 5697: 5685: 5673: 5658: 5646: 5634: 5622: 5610: 5598: 5586: 5566: 5536: 5521: 5509: 5494: 5482: 5470: 5454: 5439: 5424: 5409: 5397: 5378: 5360: 5343: 5331: 5319: 5304: 5292: 5280: 5268: 5256: 5244: 5232: 5217: 5202: 5187: 5175: 5173:, pp. 408 5163: 5151: 5139: 5127: 5115: 5108: 5087: 5074: 5061: 5043: 5020: 4997: 4990: 4970: 4958: 4946: 4931: 4916: 4901: 4889: 4877: 4856: 4832: 4820: 4805: 4790: 4778: 4771:Treadgold 1997 4763: 4736: 4721: 4706: 4686: 4671: 4652: 4635: 4623: 4605: 4587: 4572: 4560: 4548: 4530: 4518: 4503: 4488: 4473: 4458: 4443: 4428: 4413: 4398: 4391:Treadgold 1997 4383: 4364: 4349: 4334: 4319: 4304: 4281: 4266: 4248: 4236: 4224: 4222:, p. 197. 4212: 4210:, p. 223. 4200: 4185: 4173: 4161: 4146: 4120: 4108: 4106:, p. 141. 4096: 4082:(9): 109–125. 4066: 4044: 4029: 4011: 3999: 3984: 3969: 3957: 3942: 3924: 3912: 3897: 3879: 3859: 3844: 3829: 3811: 3796: 3781: 3766: 3751: 3736: 3721: 3706: 3687: 3665: 3643: 3628: 3613: 3601: 3589: 3577: 3559: 3544: 3529: 3514: 3499: 3481: 3463: 3451: 3434: 3422: 3407: 3387: 3375: 3360: 3348: 3330: 3318: 3303: 3288: 3273: 3258: 3251:Treadgold 1997 3238: 3226: 3219:Treadgold 1998 3211: 3204:Treadgold 1998 3196: 3181: 3169: 3154: 3139: 3124: 3109: 3091: 3089:, p. 142. 3078: 3076: 3073: 2975: 2972: 2970: 2967: 2933:The Byzantine 2826:attributed to 2767: 2766:Historiography 2764: 2710:lamellar armor 2688:Byzantine army 2683: 2680: 2636:southern Italy 2556: 2553: 2514: 2511: 2503:Arab invasions 2462: 2459: 2457: 2454: 2452: 2449: 2430:Nahrawan Canal 2420: 2388: 2385: 2347:Edward Luttwak 2324:Main article: 2321: 2318: 2290:porphyrogenita 2261:Main article: 2258: 2255: 2245:as far as the 2191:Byzantine silk 2186: 2183: 2181: 2178: 2110:Byzantine navy 2070:Main article: 2067: 2064: 2062: 2059: 2023:Arsanias River 1894: 1891: 1802: 1799: 1742:Main article: 1739: 1736: 1671:Constantinople 1657: 1656:Reorganization 1654: 1652: 1649: 1613:Main article: 1610: 1607: 1587:Constantinople 1566:Main article: 1563: 1560: 1540:Holy Sepulchre 1486: 1483: 1481: 1478: 1462:Cilician Gates 1341:Late Antiquity 1332: 1329: 1269:comes Orientis 1239:, urged on by 1210:Main article: 1207: 1204: 1163: 1160: 1152:Constantinople 1140:in the Balkans 1068: 1065: 984:Constantinople 928:series of wars 917: 916: 914: 913: 908: 903: 898: 893: 892: 891: 886: 876: 871: 866: 861: 856: 851: 846: 841: 836: 830: 827: 826: 822:War of 602–628 817: 815: 814: 807: 800: 792: 783: 782: 780: 779: 777:War of 602–628 774: 772:War of 572–591 769: 764: 759: 757:Anastasian War 754: 749: 747:War of 421–422 736: 735: 730: 729: 728: 723: 718: 713: 708: 698: 697: 696: 691: 686: 676: 671: 666: 661: 659:Caesarea (260) 656: 651: 646: 641: 636: 631: 630: 629: 624: 619: 614: 609: 591: 590: 585: 580: 575: 570: 565: 560: 555: 554: 553: 548: 543: 541:Cilician Gates 533: 528: 517: 514: 513: 504: 502: 501: 494: 487: 479: 471: 470: 468: 467: 462: 457: 448: 446:Senitam Khusro 443: 438: 425: 420: 417: 406: 393: 380: 375: 370: 364: 359: 353: 339: 337: 335: 334: 328: 322: 317: 312: 307: 302: 297: 292: 287: 275: 270: 259: 251: 248: 247: 243: 242: 241: 240: 235: 230: 225: 219: 214: 209: 197: 196: 195: 190: 177: 176: 172: 171: 168: 167: 160: 154: 153: 151:§ Results 147: 143: 142: 113: 111: 107: 106: 94: 86: 85: 51: 50: 35: 34: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7207: 7196: 7193: 7191: 7188: 7186: 7183: 7181: 7178: 7176: 7173: 7171: 7168: 7166: 7163: 7161: 7158: 7156: 7153: 7151: 7148: 7146: 7143: 7141: 7138: 7136: 7133: 7131: 7128: 7126: 7123: 7121: 7118: 7116: 7113: 7111: 7108: 7106: 7103: 7101: 7098: 7096: 7093: 7091: 7088: 7086: 7083: 7081: 7078: 7077: 7075: 7068: 7062: 7056: 7052: 7051: 7046: 7042: 7038: 7032: 7028: 7027: 7022: 7018: 7017: 7013: 7007: 7001: 6997: 6996: 6990: 6987: 6981: 6977: 6976: 6970: 6967: 6961: 6957: 6956: 6950: 6946: 6942: 6937: 6934: 6928: 6924: 6923: 6918: 6914: 6911: 6905: 6901: 6900: 6894: 6891: 6885: 6881: 6876: 6873: 6867: 6863: 6862: 6856: 6853: 6847: 6843: 6842: 6837: 6833: 6829: 6828: 6823: 6822:Oman, Charles 6819: 6816: 6810: 6806: 6805: 6800: 6796: 6793: 6787: 6783: 6782: 6776: 6773: 6767: 6763: 6762: 6757: 6753: 6750: 6744: 6740: 6735: 6732: 6726: 6722: 6721: 6715: 6712: 6706: 6702: 6701: 6695: 6692: 6686: 6682: 6681: 6675: 6672: 6666: 6662: 6661: 6655: 6652: 6646: 6642: 6641: 6636: 6632: 6629: 6623: 6619: 6618: 6613: 6609: 6606: 6600: 6596: 6595: 6590: 6586: 6583: 6577: 6572: 6571: 6564: 6561: 6555: 6551: 6550: 6544: 6541: 6535: 6532:, Routledge, 6531: 6526: 6523: 6517: 6513: 6512: 6506: 6503: 6497: 6494:, Greenwood, 6493: 6492: 6486: 6483: 6477: 6473: 6472: 6466: 6463: 6459: 6455: 6451: 6446: 6443: 6437: 6433: 6432: 6426: 6423: 6417: 6413: 6408: 6405: 6399: 6396:, Routledge, 6395: 6390: 6387: 6381: 6377: 6376: 6370: 6367: 6361: 6358:, Routledge, 6357: 6356: 6350: 6347:on 2011-08-05 6343: 6339: 6332: 6327: 6324: 6318: 6314: 6313: 6307: 6304: 6298: 6294: 6293: 6287: 6284: 6278: 6274: 6273: 6267: 6264: 6258: 6254: 6253: 6247: 6244: 6238: 6234: 6233: 6227: 6226: 6221: 6214: 6209: 6206: 6203: 6199: 6194: 6191: 6187: 6182: 6179: 6175: 6170: 6167: 6163: 6158: 6155: 6151: 6146: 6143: 6139: 6134: 6132: 6128: 6125:, p. 192 6124: 6119: 6116: 6105: 6101: 6095: 6092: 6088: 6083: 6080: 6077:, p. xxv 6076: 6071: 6068: 6064: 6059: 6057: 6055: 6053: 6049: 6046: 6042: 6037: 6035: 6031: 6027: 6022: 6020: 6016: 6013: 6009: 6004: 6002: 6000: 5998: 5996: 5994: 5992: 5988: 5984: 5979: 5977: 5975: 5971: 5968: 5964: 5963:Online notice 5959: 5956: 5952: 5947: 5944: 5940: 5935: 5932: 5929: 5925: 5920: 5917: 5914: 5910: 5905: 5902: 5899:, p. 404 5898: 5893: 5890: 5886: 5881: 5878: 5874: 5869: 5866: 5863: 5859: 5854: 5851: 5848: 5844: 5839: 5836: 5833: 5829: 5824: 5821: 5818: 5814: 5809: 5806: 5803:, p. 282 5802: 5797: 5794: 5791: 5787: 5782: 5779: 5776: 5772: 5767: 5764: 5761: 5757: 5752: 5749: 5746: 5742: 5737: 5734: 5730: 5725: 5722: 5718: 5713: 5710: 5707:, p. 180 5706: 5701: 5698: 5695:, p. 155 5694: 5689: 5686: 5683:, p. 134 5682: 5677: 5674: 5671: 5667: 5662: 5659: 5656:, p. 170 5655: 5650: 5647: 5643: 5638: 5635: 5631: 5626: 5623: 5620:, p. 747 5619: 5614: 5611: 5607: 5602: 5599: 5595: 5590: 5587: 5584: 5580: 5575: 5573: 5571: 5567: 5564: 5560: 5556: 5552: 5548: 5543: 5541: 5537: 5533: 5528: 5526: 5522: 5519:, p. 291 5518: 5513: 5510: 5507: 5503: 5502:Beckwith 2009 5498: 5495: 5492:, p. 227 5491: 5486: 5483: 5479: 5474: 5471: 5467: 5463: 5458: 5455: 5452: 5448: 5443: 5440: 5437: 5433: 5428: 5425: 5421: 5416: 5414: 5410: 5406: 5401: 5398: 5395: 5391: 5387: 5382: 5379: 5376: 5372: 5367: 5365: 5361: 5357: 5352: 5350: 5348: 5344: 5341:, p. 174 5340: 5335: 5332: 5329:, p. 172 5328: 5323: 5320: 5317:, p. 173 5316: 5311: 5309: 5305: 5302:, p. 259 5301: 5296: 5293: 5290:, p. 167 5289: 5284: 5281: 5278:, p. 169 5277: 5272: 5269: 5266:, p. 163 5265: 5260: 5257: 5254:, p. 161 5253: 5248: 5245: 5242:, p. 160 5241: 5236: 5233: 5230:, p. 215 5229: 5224: 5222: 5218: 5215:, p. 159 5214: 5209: 5207: 5203: 5200:, p. 213 5199: 5194: 5192: 5188: 5184: 5179: 5176: 5172: 5167: 5164: 5161:, p. 212 5160: 5155: 5152: 5149:, p. 144 5148: 5143: 5140: 5137:, p. 104 5136: 5131: 5128: 5125:, p. 143 5124: 5119: 5116: 5111: 5105: 5101: 5100: 5091: 5088: 5084: 5078: 5075: 5071: 5065: 5062: 5059: 5055: 5050: 5048: 5044: 5039: 5035: 5031: 5024: 5021: 5016: 5012: 5008: 5001: 4998: 4993: 4987: 4983: 4982: 4974: 4971: 4968:, p. 151 4967: 4962: 4959: 4956:, p. 148 4955: 4950: 4947: 4944: 4940: 4935: 4932: 4929: 4925: 4924:Ekonomou 2008 4920: 4917: 4914: 4910: 4905: 4902: 4899:, p. 137 4898: 4893: 4890: 4887:, p. 136 4886: 4881: 4878: 4874: 4869: 4867: 4865: 4863: 4861: 4857: 4854: 4850: 4845: 4843: 4841: 4839: 4837: 4833: 4830:, p. 134 4829: 4824: 4821: 4817: 4812: 4810: 4806: 4803:, p. 140 4802: 4797: 4795: 4791: 4788:, p. 133 4787: 4782: 4779: 4776: 4772: 4767: 4764: 4760: 4755: 4753: 4751: 4749: 4747: 4745: 4743: 4741: 4737: 4734:, p. 132 4733: 4728: 4726: 4722: 4719:, p. 131 4718: 4713: 4711: 4707: 4704: 4700: 4695: 4693: 4691: 4687: 4684:, p. 204 4683: 4678: 4676: 4672: 4669:, p. 130 4668: 4663: 4661: 4659: 4657: 4653: 4650:, p. 129 4649: 4644: 4642: 4640: 4636: 4633:, p. 128 4632: 4627: 4624: 4621: 4617: 4612: 4610: 4606: 4603: 4599: 4594: 4592: 4588: 4585:, p. 122 4584: 4579: 4577: 4573: 4570:, p. 120 4569: 4564: 4561: 4558:, p. 119 4557: 4552: 4549: 4546: 4542: 4537: 4535: 4531: 4528:, p. 118 4527: 4522: 4519: 4516: 4512: 4507: 4504: 4501: 4497: 4492: 4489: 4485: 4480: 4478: 4474: 4471: 4467: 4462: 4459: 4456: 4452: 4447: 4444: 4441:, p. 115 4440: 4435: 4433: 4429: 4426: 4422: 4417: 4414: 4411: 4407: 4402: 4399: 4396: 4392: 4387: 4384: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4368: 4365: 4362: 4358: 4353: 4350: 4347: 4343: 4342:Runciman 2005 4338: 4335: 4332: 4328: 4323: 4320: 4317: 4313: 4308: 4305: 4301: 4296: 4294: 4292: 4290: 4288: 4286: 4282: 4279: 4275: 4270: 4267: 4264: 4260: 4255: 4253: 4249: 4246:, p. 725 4245: 4240: 4237: 4234:, p. 33. 4233: 4228: 4225: 4221: 4216: 4213: 4209: 4204: 4201: 4198: 4194: 4189: 4186: 4183:, p. 724 4182: 4177: 4174: 4170: 4165: 4162: 4159: 4155: 4150: 4147: 4144: 4140: 4135: 4133: 4131: 4129: 4127: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4112: 4109: 4105: 4100: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4070: 4067: 4064: 4060: 4055: 4053: 4051: 4049: 4045: 4042: 4038: 4033: 4030: 4027: 4023: 4018: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4003: 4000: 3997: 3993: 3988: 3985: 3982: 3978: 3973: 3970: 3966: 3961: 3958: 3955: 3951: 3950:Fouracre 2006 3946: 3943: 3940: 3936: 3931: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3916: 3913: 3910: 3906: 3901: 3898: 3895: 3891: 3886: 3884: 3880: 3877: 3873: 3868: 3866: 3864: 3860: 3857: 3853: 3848: 3845: 3842: 3838: 3833: 3830: 3827: 3823: 3818: 3816: 3812: 3809: 3805: 3800: 3797: 3794: 3790: 3785: 3782: 3779:, p. 188 3778: 3773: 3771: 3767: 3764: 3760: 3755: 3752: 3749:, p. 185 3748: 3743: 3741: 3737: 3734: 3730: 3725: 3722: 3719: 3715: 3710: 3707: 3704:, p. 186 3703: 3698: 3696: 3694: 3692: 3688: 3685: 3681: 3676: 3674: 3672: 3670: 3666: 3663: 3659: 3654: 3652: 3650: 3648: 3644: 3641: 3637: 3632: 3629: 3626: 3622: 3617: 3614: 3610: 3605: 3602: 3598: 3593: 3590: 3586: 3581: 3578: 3575: 3571: 3566: 3564: 3560: 3557: 3553: 3548: 3545: 3542: 3538: 3533: 3530: 3527: 3523: 3518: 3515: 3512: 3508: 3503: 3500: 3497: 3493: 3488: 3486: 3482: 3479: 3475: 3470: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3455: 3452: 3449:, p. 187 3448: 3443: 3441: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3426: 3423: 3419: 3414: 3412: 3408: 3405: 3401: 3396: 3394: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3379: 3376: 3373:, p. 184 3372: 3367: 3365: 3361: 3358:, p. 722 3357: 3352: 3349: 3346: 3342: 3337: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3322: 3319: 3316: 3312: 3307: 3304: 3301: 3297: 3292: 3289: 3286: 3282: 3277: 3274: 3271: 3267: 3262: 3259: 3256: 3252: 3247: 3245: 3243: 3239: 3236:, p. 401 3235: 3230: 3227: 3224: 3220: 3215: 3212: 3209: 3205: 3200: 3197: 3194: 3190: 3185: 3182: 3178: 3173: 3170: 3167: 3163: 3158: 3155: 3152: 3148: 3143: 3140: 3137: 3133: 3128: 3125: 3122: 3118: 3113: 3110: 3107: 3103: 3098: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3083: 3080: 3074: 3072: 3069: 3065: 3060: 3055: 3054: 3049: 3045: 3040: 3035: 3031: 3026: 3021: 3016: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2998: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2980: 2973: 2968: 2966: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2955:Sigillography 2952: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2935:hagiographies 2931: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2917: 2916: 2910: 2908: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2886: 2884: 2880: 2879:Brief History 2876: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2863:Brief History 2860: 2856: 2851: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2816:John of Nikiu 2813: 2809: 2808: 2803: 2798: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2786: 2777: 2772: 2765: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2752: 2746: 2743: 2737: 2731: 2726: 2724: 2720: 2719: 2713: 2711: 2707: 2704:. The lance ( 2703: 2697: 2696:Sasanian army 2693: 2689: 2681: 2679: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2591: 2589: 2583: 2581: 2577: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2554: 2552: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2520: 2512: 2510: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2499:Julius Caesar 2496: 2495:Norman Davies 2492: 2487: 2485: 2481: 2472: 2467: 2460: 2455: 2451:Significance 2450: 2448: 2446: 2442: 2441:war indemnity 2438: 2433: 2431: 2419: 2415: 2413: 2409: 2405: 2397: 2393: 2386: 2384: 2381: 2380:Brief History 2377: 2372: 2368: 2363: 2361: 2357: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2337: 2332: 2327: 2319: 2317: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2297: 2295: 2292: 2291: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2264: 2256: 2254: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2235: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2192: 2184: 2179: 2177: 2173: 2171: 2167: 2166:Akathist Hymn 2163: 2158: 2156: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2122: 2118: 2113: 2111: 2107: 2102: 2098: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2078: 2073: 2065: 2060: 2058: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2011: 2009: 2005: 2004:baggage train 2001: 1995: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1960: 1956: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1939: 1936:, the famous 1935: 1934:Adur Gushnasp 1931: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1907: 1906:Adur Gushnasp 1903: 1899: 1892: 1890: 1888: 1884: 1878: 1875: 1871: 1866: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1800: 1798: 1796: 1792: 1787: 1783: 1777: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1745: 1737: 1735: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1720: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1704: 1702: 1697: 1696: 1690: 1685: 1681: 1672: 1668: 1667: 1662: 1655: 1650: 1648: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1616: 1608: 1606: 1602: 1597: 1594: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1579: 1575: 1569: 1561: 1559: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1536: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1501: 1496: 1492: 1484: 1479: 1477: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1434: 1432: 1428: 1420: 1415: 1411: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1396: 1394: 1389: 1386:, across the 1385: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1364: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1342: 1337: 1330: 1328: 1326: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1312:Fabia Eudokia 1308: 1304: 1298: 1296: 1291: 1289: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1273: 1271: 1270: 1265: 1264:Anastasius II 1261: 1257: 1252: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1223: 1218: 1213: 1203: 1201: 1197: 1192: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1168: 1161: 1159: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1146:, a Thracian 1145: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1128: 1126: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1104:Bahrām Chobin 1101: 1097: 1093: 1090: 1081: 1073: 1066: 1064: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1029:Muslim armies 1026: 1021: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 998: 993: 987: 985: 981: 977: 973: 969: 965: 961: 957: 953: 949: 945: 941: 937: 933: 929: 925: 912: 911:Nineveh (627) 909: 907: 904: 902: 899: 897: 894: 890: 887: 885: 882: 881: 880: 877: 875: 872: 870: 867: 865: 862: 860: 857: 855: 852: 850: 847: 845: 844:Jewish revolt 842: 840: 839:Antioch (613) 837: 835: 832: 831: 828: 823: 813: 808: 806: 801: 799: 794: 793: 790: 778: 775: 773: 770: 768: 765: 763: 760: 758: 755: 753: 750: 748: 745: 744: 743: 742: 741: 734: 731: 727: 724: 722: 719: 717: 714: 712: 709: 707: 704: 703: 702: 699: 695: 692: 690: 687: 685: 682: 681: 680: 677: 675: 672: 670: 669:Carrhae (296) 667: 665: 664:3rd Ctesiphon 662: 660: 657: 655: 652: 650: 647: 645: 642: 640: 637: 635: 634:Nisibis (252) 632: 628: 625: 623: 620: 618: 615: 613: 612:Nisibis (235) 610: 608: 605: 604: 603: 600: 599: 598: 597: 596: 589: 586: 584: 581: 579: 578:2nd Ctesiphon 576: 574: 571: 569: 566: 564: 561: 559: 556: 552: 549: 547: 544: 542: 539: 538: 537: 534: 532: 529: 527: 524: 523: 522: 521: 515: 510: 500: 495: 493: 488: 486: 481: 480: 477: 466: 463: 461: 458: 455: 449: 447: 444: 442: 439: 437: 435: 429: 426: 424: 421: 418: 415: 410: 407: 405: 403: 397: 394: 392: 390: 384: 381: 379: 376: 374: 371: 368: 365: 363: 360: 357: 354: 351: 346: 345: 341: 340: 338: 332: 329: 326: 323: 321: 318: 316: 313: 311: 308: 306: 303: 301: 298: 296: 293: 291: 288: 285: 279: 276: 274: 271: 268: 263: 260: 258: 257: 253: 252: 250: 249: 244: 239: 236: 234: 231: 229: 226: 223: 220: 218: 215: 213: 210: 208: 205: 204: 203: 202: 198: 194: 191: 189: 186: 185: 184: 183: 179: 178: 173: 166: 165: 161: 156: 155: 152: 148: 145: 144: 140: 136: 132: 128: 124: 120: 116: 112: 109: 108: 95: 92: 91: 87: 78: 74: 70: 66: 62: 61:Anachronistic 57: 52: 49: 45: 41: 36: 31: 19: 7067: 7049: 7025: 6994: 6974: 6954: 6944: 6941:"Hormozd IV" 6921: 6898: 6879: 6860: 6840: 6826: 6803: 6780: 6760: 6738: 6719: 6699: 6683:, ABC-CLIO, 6679: 6659: 6639: 6616: 6593: 6569: 6548: 6529: 6514:, Ignatius, 6510: 6490: 6470: 6453: 6449: 6430: 6411: 6393: 6374: 6354: 6342:the original 6337: 6311: 6291: 6271: 6251: 6231: 6208: 6193: 6181: 6176:, p. 14 6169: 6162:Luttwak 2009 6157: 6145: 6140:, p. 10 6118: 6107:. Retrieved 6103: 6094: 6082: 6070: 5958: 5951:Luttwak 2009 5946: 5939:Luttwak 2009 5934: 5924:Luttwak 2009 5919: 5909:Luttwak 2009 5904: 5897:Luttwak 2009 5892: 5887:, p. 32 5880: 5873:Luttwak 2009 5868: 5858:Luttwak 2009 5853: 5843:Gabriel 2002 5838: 5828:Gabriel 2002 5823: 5813:Gabriel 2002 5808: 5801:Gabriel 2002 5796: 5786:Gabriel 2002 5781: 5771:Farrokh 2005 5766: 5756:Farrokh 2005 5751: 5741:Farrokh 2005 5736: 5724: 5719:, p. 37 5712: 5700: 5693:Norwich 1997 5688: 5681:Norwich 1997 5676: 5661: 5649: 5644:, p. xv 5637: 5625: 5613: 5601: 5596:, p. 39 5589: 5512: 5497: 5485: 5480:, p. 97 5478:Norwich 1997 5473: 5457: 5442: 5427: 5400: 5381: 5358:, p. 94 5356:Norwich 1997 5334: 5322: 5300:Farrokh 2007 5295: 5283: 5271: 5259: 5247: 5235: 5178: 5171:Luttwak 2009 5166: 5154: 5142: 5130: 5118: 5098: 5090: 5082: 5077: 5069: 5064: 5037: 5033: 5023: 5014: 5010: 5000: 4980: 4973: 4961: 4949: 4939:Gambero 1999 4934: 4919: 4909:Kimball 2010 4904: 4892: 4880: 4875:, p. 93 4873:Norwich 1997 4823: 4781: 4766: 4761:, p. 92 4759:Norwich 1997 4626: 4563: 4551: 4521: 4506: 4491: 4486:, p. 95 4461: 4446: 4416: 4401: 4386: 4367: 4352: 4337: 4322: 4307: 4302:, p. 91 4300:Norwich 1997 4269: 4239: 4227: 4215: 4203: 4193:Luttwak 2009 4188: 4176: 4171:, p. 85 4164: 4149: 4118:, p. 1. 4111: 4099: 4091: 4079: 4069: 4032: 4009:, p. 92 4002: 3987: 3972: 3967:, p. 30 3960: 3945: 3922:, p. 80 3915: 3900: 3847: 3832: 3799: 3784: 3754: 3724: 3709: 3631: 3616: 3611:, p. 60 3604: 3599:, p. 54 3592: 3587:, p. 52 3580: 3570:Norwich 1997 3547: 3532: 3517: 3502: 3461:, p. 55 3454: 3432:, p. 41 3425: 3420:, p. 37 3385:, p. 89 3383:Norwich 1997 3378: 3351: 3321: 3311:Norwich 1997 3306: 3291: 3276: 3261: 3234:Luttwak 2009 3229: 3214: 3199: 3184: 3179:, p. 86 3177:Norwich 1997 3172: 3157: 3142: 3127: 3112: 3102:Norwich 1997 3082: 3068:monophysites 3063: 3059: 3051: 3043: 3039: 3029: 3025: 3019: 3015: 3001: 2997: 2983: 2979: 2977: 2962: 2946: 2932: 2913: 2911: 2901: 2889: 2887: 2878: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2854: 2852: 2843: 2839: 2831: 2823: 2811: 2805: 2799: 2783: 2781: 2760: 2756: 2747: 2727: 2722: 2716: 2714: 2699: 2619:North Africa 2599:George Liska 2592: 2584: 2572: 2549:Yazdgerd III 2533:Ardashir III 2522: 2507:Lord Norwich 2488: 2484:Hagia Sophia 2476: 2471:Saint Helena 2434: 2427: 2417: 2401: 2379: 2364: 2350: 2340: 2298: 2288: 2266: 2236: 2217: 2214:, Samarkand. 2200:Western Turk 2174: 2159: 2151: 2114: 2094: 2031:Martyropolis 2019:Mount Ararat 2012: 1996: 1972:Shahraplakan 1965: 1914:Araxes River 1911: 1896: 1879: 1867: 1839:Thessalonica 1817:(Kostolac), 1813:(Belgrade), 1804: 1778: 1747: 1721: 1709:Hagia Sophia 1705: 1693: 1676: 1664: 1629:client state 1618: 1604: 1599: 1595: 1578:Chalcedonian 1574:Monophysites 1571: 1537: 1506: 1435: 1423: 1404:Walter Kaegi 1397: 1365: 1346: 1309: 1306: 1300: 1292: 1274: 1267: 1253: 1226: 1193: 1173: 1129: 1086: 1053:North Africa 1045:the Caucasus 1022: 995: 988: 940:previous war 923: 921: 819: 776: 738: 737: 711:Maiozamalcha 649:Dura-Europos 593: 592: 518: 433: 401: 388: 373:Shahraplakan 342: 295:Domentziolus 254: 199: 180: 175:Belligerents 162: 75:. Fresco by 38:Part of the 6902:, Peeters, 6830:, Macmillan 6807:, Vintage, 6597:, Ashgate, 6295:, Ashgate, 6222:Works cited 6213:Dennis 1998 6065:, p. 9 6010:, pp. 5985:, p. 7 5926:, pp. 5911:, pp. 5860:, pp. 5815:, pp. 5731:, p. 7 5717:Holmes 2001 5668:, pp. 5666:Haldon 1997 5581:, pp. 5579:Haldon 1997 5549:, pp. 5547:Haldon 1997 5534:, p. 9 5388:, pp. 5135:Dennis 1998 5054:Khanam 2005 5034:Transoxiana 4408:, pp. 4406:Haldon 1997 4374:, pp. 4059:Davies 1998 4039:, pp. 3854:, pp. 3731:, pp. 3221:, pp. 3053:Strategikon 3010:Justinian I 2963:Strategikon 2951:Numismatics 2723:Strategikon 2718:Strategikon 2580:Zoroastrian 2545:Azarmidokht 2480:Holy Sponge 2285:Tong Yabghu 2243:Afghanistan 2210:. 648–651, 2162:Golden Horn 2155:Virgin Mary 2051:panegyrists 2039:Sarus River 2025:to capture 2000:Tigranakert 1984:Bitlis Pass 1953:Adurbadagan 1941:fire temple 1938:Zoroastrian 1845:coast like 1821:(Niš), and 1801:Avar threat 1732:Constans II 1647:in Africa. 1552:Holy Sponge 1427:Philippicus 1400:casus belli 1351:and Amida ( 1320:Comentiolus 1256:Roman Syria 1180:Mesopotamia 1132:Tiberius II 1112:Mesopotamia 1018:A civil war 964:Mesopotamia 762:Iberian War 694:2nd Singara 684:1st Singara 639:Barbalissos 602:Mesopotamia 551:Mt Gindarus 546:Amanus Pass 369:(until 626) 358:(until 626) 333:(after 626) 327:(after 626) 273:Philippicus 157:Territorial 139:Mesopotamia 83: 1452 7074:Categories 6434:, Osprey, 6414:, Osprey, 6200:, p. 6174:Kaegi 2003 6138:Kaegi 2003 6109:2023-06-04 6063:Kaegi 2003 6043:, p. 6041:Kaegi 2003 5983:Kaegi 2003 5885:Kaegi 1995 5845:, p. 5830:, p. 5788:, p. 5773:, p. 5758:, p. 5743:, p. 5705:Evans 2002 5654:Liska 1998 5606:Kaegi 1995 5594:Kaegi 1995 5504:, p. 5490:Kaegi 2003 5464:, p. 5449:, p. 5434:, p. 5432:Kaegi 2003 5405:Kaegi 2003 5386:Kaegi 2003 5373:, p. 5339:Kaegi 2003 5327:Kaegi 2003 5315:Kaegi 2003 5288:Kaegi 2003 5276:Kaegi 2003 5264:Kaegi 2003 5252:Kaegi 2003 5240:Kaegi 2003 5213:Kaegi 2003 5183:Kaegi 2003 5147:Kaegi 2003 5123:Kaegi 2003 5056:, p. 4966:Kaegi 2003 4954:Kaegi 2003 4941:, p. 4926:, p. 4911:, p. 4897:Kaegi 2003 4885:Kaegi 2003 4851:, p. 4828:Kaegi 2003 4801:Kaegi 2003 4786:Kaegi 2003 4773:, p. 4732:Kaegi 2003 4717:Kaegi 2003 4701:, p. 4667:Kaegi 2003 4648:Kaegi 2003 4631:Kaegi 2003 4618:, p. 4616:Kaegi 2003 4600:, p. 4598:Kaegi 2003 4583:Kaegi 2003 4568:Kaegi 2003 4556:Kaegi 2003 4543:, p. 4526:Kaegi 2003 4513:, p. 4498:, p. 4484:Kaegi 2003 4468:, p. 4466:Kaegi 2003 4453:, p. 4451:Kaegi 2003 4439:Kaegi 2003 4423:, p. 4421:Kaegi 2003 4393:, p. 4359:, p. 4357:Kaegi 2003 4344:, p. 4329:, p. 4314:, p. 4312:Kaegi 2003 4276:, p. 4274:Kaegi 2003 4261:, p. 4259:Kaegi 2003 4195:, p. 4169:Kaegi 2003 4156:, p. 4154:Kaegi 2003 4141:, p. 4061:, p. 4024:, p. 4022:Kaegi 2003 4007:Kaegi 2003 3994:, p. 3992:Kaegi 2003 3979:, p. 3965:Kaegi 1995 3952:, p. 3937:, p. 3920:Kaegi 2003 3907:, p. 3892:, p. 3890:Kaegi 2003 3874:, p. 3872:Kaegi 2003 3852:Kaegi 2003 3839:, p. 3837:Kaegi 2003 3824:, p. 3822:Kaegi 2003 3806:, p. 3804:Kaegi 2003 3791:, p. 3789:Kaegi 2003 3761:, p. 3759:Kaegi 2003 3729:Kaegi 2003 3716:, p. 3682:, p. 3680:Kaegi 2003 3660:, p. 3658:Kaegi 2003 3638:, p. 3636:Kaegi 2003 3623:, p. 3621:Kaegi 2003 3609:Kaegi 2003 3597:Kaegi 2003 3585:Kaegi 2003 3572:, p. 3554:, p. 3552:Kaegi 2003 3539:, p. 3524:, p. 3509:, p. 3507:Kaegi 2003 3494:, p. 3492:Kaegi 2003 3476:, p. 3459:Kaegi 2003 3430:Kaegi 2003 3418:Kaegi 2003 3402:, p. 3400:Kaegi 2003 3343:, p. 3313:, p. 3298:, p. 3283:, p. 3268:, p. 3253:, p. 3206:, p. 3191:, p. 3164:, p. 3149:, p. 3134:, p. 3119:, p. 3104:, p. 3034:Theophanes 2988:Theophanes 2969:References 2959:Epigraphic 2900:wrote the 2730:cataphract 2541:Purandokht 2537:Shahrbaraz 2445:True Cross 2351:relational 2101:Shahrbaraz 1922:Nakhchivan 1853:(Trogir), 1815:Viminacium 1811:Singidunum 1766:Shahrbaraz 1722:Historian 1701:debasement 1550:, and the 1548:Holy Lance 1544:True Cross 1472:, and the 1442:Shahrbaraz 1419:Khosrow II 1376:Theodosius 1353:Diyarbakır 1279:to attack 1156:Hippodrome 1114:, much of 1100:Khosrow II 1094:ended the 1067:Background 980:Aegean Sea 948:Khosrow II 752:War of 440 706:Pirisabora 378:Theodosius 367:Kardarigan 356:Shahrbaraz 344:Khosrow II 331:Kardarigan 325:Shahrbaraz 188:Ghassanids 135:Aegean Sea 104: 628 102: – c. 100: 602 73:Khosrow II 7047:(2021) . 7023:(2007) . 6614:(1995) , 6150:Foss 1975 5729:Lock 2013 5630:Foss 1975 5618:Foss 1975 5447:Bury 2008 5371:Oman 1893 5040:: Fig.25. 5017:: Fig. B. 4849:Oman 1893 4699:Oman 1893 4541:Oman 1893 4244:Foss 1975 4181:Foss 1975 4139:Oman 1893 4088:2308-6181 4037:Oman 1893 3935:Oman 1893 3474:Oman 1893 3356:Foss 1975 3341:Oman 1893 3281:Oman 1893 3266:Oman 1893 3189:Oman 1893 3162:Oman 1893 3117:Oman 1893 3075:Citations 3048:helepolis 3006:Justin II 2867:Chronicle 2855:Chronicle 2812:Chronicle 2802:al-Tabari 2736:skoutatoi 2656:Visigoths 2644:recovered 2588:Antiquity 2529:civil war 2525:Kavadh II 2412:Ctesiphon 2404:Dastagird 2396:Heraclius 2283:, led by 2271:", under 2232:Silk Road 2228:Justin II 2208:Samarkand 2204:Varkhuman 2135:Champlevé 2055:Trebizond 1949:Gayshawan 1857:(Budva), 1851:Tragurium 1849:(Zadar), 1786:Optimatoi 1621:Chalcedon 1556:Ctesiphon 1384:Chalcedon 1316:Patriarch 1295:Heraclius 1285:Patriarch 1148:centurion 1136:Justin II 1108:Sasanians 1061:Near East 1033:conquered 992:Heraclius 854:Jerusalem 767:Lazic War 733:Bagrevand 716:Ctesiphon 428:Dzuan Veh 419:Bayan III 383:Stephen I 256:Heraclius 238:Visigoths 69:Heraclius 6919:(2005), 6838:(1969), 6824:(1893), 6801:(1997), 6758:(2009), 6637:(2003), 6591:(2006), 4208:Kia 2016 2927:Muhammad 2861:and the 2672:Sardinia 2664:Lombards 2437:Kavad II 2421:— 2356:Rhahzadh 2301:Caucasus 2281:Göktürks 2015:Lake Van 1992:Abasgian 1874:Heraclea 1843:Adriatic 1829:in 614. 1770:Bithynia 1713:Crusades 1645:Carthage 1609:Anatolia 1529:Adhri'at 1513:Damascus 1458:deported 1431:Theodore 1388:Bosporus 1237:revolted 1200:Leontius 1188:Germanus 1031:swiftly 986:itself. 972:Anatolia 968:Caucasus 879:Caucasus 834:Caesarea 465:Suintila 423:Datoyean 396:Rhahzadh 310:Theodore 290:Leontius 278:Germanus 233:Lombards 228:Lakhmids 224:(c. 614) 217:Sclaveni 119:Anatolia 115:Caucasus 110:Location 67:between 5965:of the 5563:114–115 5394:189–190 4410:211–217 4041:206–207 3223:205–206 2925:, with 2824:History 2702:Aswaran 2660:Corsica 2628:717–718 2624:674–678 2611:Armenia 2408:Susiana 2367:Nineveh 2360:Assyria 2279:of the 2269:Khazars 2239:Bactria 2224:Sogdian 2117:Sergius 2090:Romania 2084:of the 1926:Ganzaka 1823:Serdica 1819:Naissus 1774:Galatia 1666:Solidus 1446:Antioch 1368:Erzurum 1277:Nicetas 1249:consuls 1241:Priscus 1125:Balkans 1092:Maurice 1089:Emperor 976:Armenia 884:Archesh 726:Samarra 721:Maranga 644:Antioch 627:Misiche 622:Resaena 588:Nisibis 526:Carrhae 434:† 402:† 389:† 305:Nicetas 300:Priscus 280: ( 159:changes 131:Balkans 7057: 7033: 7002: 6982: 6962: 6929: 6906: 6886: 6868: 6848: 6811: 6788: 6768: 6745: 6727: 6707: 6687: 6667: 6647: 6624: 6601: 6578: 6556: 6536: 6518: 6498: 6478: 6438: 6418: 6400: 6382: 6362: 6319: 6299: 6279: 6259: 6239: 6012:182–83 5928:400–01 5862:395–96 5817:282–83 5106: 4988: 4086: 3062: 3042: 3028: 3018: 3000: 2982: 2915:Ar-Rum 2828:Sebeos 2820:Coptic 2742:psiloi 2706:kontos 2694:, and 2676:Sicily 2648:Spania 2617:, and 2567:, and 2491:Scipio 2343:Ziebel 2273:Ziebel 2220:Istämi 2142:Louvre 2138:enamel 2131:Cherub 2097:Shahin 2082:murals 2035:Tigris 1976:Siwnik 1883:solidi 1870:Khagan 1863:Lissus 1859:Scodra 1835:Thrace 1827:Salona 1795:Pontus 1750:Easter 1728:themes 1695:follis 1641:Aegean 1637:Rhodes 1633:Ancyra 1625:Sebeos 1546:, the 1519:, and 1517:Apamea 1466:Tarsus 1380:Shahin 1357:Edessa 1349:Mardin 1243:, the 1222:Phocas 1184:Edessa 1176:Narses 1144:Phocas 1051:, and 978:, the 966:, the 960:Levant 958:, the 952:Phocas 938:. The 889:Ganzak 674:Satala 654:Edessa 430: 411: 409:Narses 398: 385: 362:Shahin 347: 320:Ziebel 264: 262:Phocas 146:Result 127:Levant 6345:(PDF) 6334:(PDF) 5670:61–62 5583:49–50 5551:43–45 4376:95–98 3856:76–77 3733:67–68 2974:Notes 2923:Mecca 2919:sūrah 2776:David 2632:Crete 2615:Egypt 2607:Syria 2595:Islam 2247:Indus 2146:Paris 2121:Bonus 2043:Adana 2041:near 2027:Amida 2008:harem 1988:Lazic 1930:Arabs 1924:. 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Knowledge (XXG)

Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628

Index