2466:
2196:
2331:
1500:
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to desist, partly because both his and the
Persian horses needed stored fodder in winter quarters. Forcing his troops to campaign in the winter would have been risky as Maurice had been overthrown due to his poor treatment of his troops in winter. Edward Luttwak believes that the Göktürks with their "hardy horses (or ponies)" that could survive "in almost any terrain that had almost any vegetation" were essential in Heraclius's winter campaign in hilly northeast Iran in 627. During the campaign, they took their provisions from Persian lands. With the victory at Nineveh and the capture of Persian palaces, they no longer had issues with supplying their troops in foreign territory, even in winter conditions.
1080:
2045:. Shahrbaraz stationed his forces across the river from the Byzantines. A bridge spanned the river, and the Byzantines immediately charged across. Shahrbaraz feigned retreat to lead the Byzantines into an ambush, and the vanguard of Heraclius's army was destroyed within minutes. The Persians, however, had neglected to cover the bridge, and Heraclius charged across with the rearguard, unafraid of the arrows that the Persians fired, turning the tide of battle against the Persians. Shahrbaraz expressed his admiration at Heraclius to a renegade Greek: "See your Emperor! He fears these arrows and spears no more than would an anvil!" The
2006:, and Shahraplakan (according to one source) was killed, though he re-appears later. After this victory, Heraclius crossed the Araxes and camped in the plains on the other side. Shahin, with the remnants of both his and Shahraplakan's armies, joined Shahrbaraz in the pursuit of Heraclius, but marshes slowed them down. At Aliovit, Shahrbaraz split his forces, sending some 6,000 troops to ambush Heraclius while the remainder of the troops stayed at Aliovit. Heraclius instead launched a surprise night attack on the Persian main camp in February 625, destroying it. Shahrbaraz only barely escaped, naked and alone, having lost his
2164:, while the main Avar host attacked the land walls. Patrician Bonus's galleys rammed and destroyed the Slavic boats; the Avar land assault from August 6 to the 7th also failed. With the news that Theodore had decisively triumphed over Shahin (supposedly leading Shahin to die from depression), the Avars retreated to the Balkan hinterland within two days, never to seriously threaten Constantinople again. Even though the army of Shahrbaraz was still encamped at Chalcedon, the threat to Constantinople was over. In thanks for the lifting of the siege and the supposed divine protection of the Virgin Mary, the celebrated
2127:
1336:
1414:
56:
1631:, even permitting Khosrow II to choose the emperor. Things began to look even more grim for the Byzantines when Chalcedon fell in 617 to Shahin, bringing the Persians within sight of Constantinople. Shahin courteously received a peace delegation but claimed that he did not have the authority to engage in peace talks, directing Heraclius to Khosrow, who rejected the peace offer - in retrospect, a major strategic blunder. Still, the Persian forces soon withdrew, probably to focus on their invasion of Egypt. Yet the Persians retained their advantage, capturing
2771:
1167:
1959:
2830:(there is controversy over the authorship). The latter is an Armenian compilation of various sources, arranged in only rough chronological order. This gives it an uneven coverage of the war. Furthermore, it was put together with the purpose of correlating Biblical prophecy and contemporary times, making it most certainly not objective. There are also some surviving Syriac materials from that period, which Dodgeon, Greatrex, and Lieu believe are the "most important" of the contemporary sources. These include the
1601:
and
Alexandria? And shall I not also destroy Constantinople? But I will pardon your faults if you submit to me, and come hither with your wife and children; and I will give you lands, vineyards, and olive groves, and look upon you with a kindly aspect. Do not deceive yourself with vain hope in that Christ, who was not able to save himself from the Jews, who killed him by nailing him to a cross. Even if you take refuge in the depths of the sea, I will stretch out my hand and take you, whether you will or no.
1558:. The loss of these relics was thought by many Christian Byzantines to be a clear mark of divine displeasure. Some blamed the Jews for this misfortune and for the loss of Syria in general. There were reports that Jews helped the Persians capture certain cities and that the Jews tried to slaughter Christians in cities that the Persians had already conquered but were found and foiled from doing so. These reports are likely to be greatly exaggerated and the result of general hysteria.
1217:
2721:, a manual of war, the Persians made heavy use of archers that were the most "rapid, although not powerful archery" of all warlike nations, and they avoided weather that hampered their bows. It claims that they deployed so that their formation was equal in strength in the center and the flanks. They also apparently neutralized the charge of Roman lancers by using rough terrain since the latter preferred to avoid hand-to-hand combat. Thus, the
2439:, also known as Siroes, in his stead. Khosrow was shut in a dungeon, where he suffered for five days on bare sustenance—he was shot to death slowly with arrows on the fifth day. Kavad immediately sent peace offers to Heraclius. Heraclius did not impose harsh terms, knowing that his own empire was also near exhaustion. Under the terms of the peace treaty, the Byzantines regained all their lost territories, their captured soldiers, a
2077:
414:
350:
267:
2123:. Upon hearing the news, Heraclius split his army into three parts; although he judged that the capital was relatively safe, he still sent some reinforcements to Constantinople to boost the morale of the defenders. Another part of the army was under the command of his brother Theodore and was sent to deal with Shahin, while the third and smallest part would remain under his own control, intending to raid the Persian heartland.
1072:
1661:
1719:, but some, like Kaegi, disagree with this moniker because religion was just one component in the war. Thousands of volunteers were gathered and equipped with money from the church. Heraclius himself decided to command the army from the front lines. Thus, the Byzantine troops had been replenished, re-equipped, and were now led by a competent general—while maintaining a full treasury.
2112:'s control of the Bosporus strait, however, the Persians could not send troops to the European side to aid their ally. This reduced the effectiveness of the siege, because the Persians were experts in siege warfare. Furthermore, the Persians and Avars had difficulties communicating across the guarded Bosporus—though undoubtedly, there was some communication between the two forces.
1902:
2392:
2745:, primarily used bows and wore only leather armor. Byzantine infantry played a key role in stabilizing battle lines against enemy cavalry and also as an anchor to launch friendly cavalry attacks. According to Richard A. Gabriel, the Byzantine heavy infantry "combined the best capabilities of the Roman legion with the old Greek phalanx".
1898:
marching through
Armenia to assault the core Persian lands directly. According to Walter Kaegi, Heraclius led an army of no more than 40,000, and most likely between 20,000 and 24,000. Before journeying to the Caucasus, he recovered Caesarea in Cappadocia, in defiance of the earlier letter that Khosrow had sent him.
2493:" for his six years of unbroken victories and for leading the Roman army where no Roman army had ever gone before. The triumphal raising of the True Cross in the Hagia Sophia was a crowning moment in his achievements. Had Heraclius died then, he would have been recorded in history, in the words of the historian
2486:. There, the True Cross was slowly raised up until it vertically towered over the high altar. To many, this was a sign that a new golden age was about to begin for the Byzantine Empire. Heraclius is said to have returned the True Cross to Jerusalem, on 21 March 630, or alternatively twice, in 629 and 630.
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to prevent easy counterattack and used mantelets or wooden frames covered with animal hides to protect against defending archers. Furthermore, like many nomads, they gathered other warriors such as Gepids and Slavs to assist them. However, since Avars depended on raiding the countryside for supplies,
2621:
were also lost, reducing the empire to a territorial core consisting of
Anatolia and a scatter of islands and footholds in the Balkans and Italy. However, unlike Persia, the Byzantine Empire ultimately survived the Arab assault, holding onto its remaining territories and decisively repulsing two Arab
2353:
maneuver on a theater-wide scale" because it habituated the
Persians to strategically ineffective raids that caused them to decide not to recall border troops to defend the heartland. His army numbered between 25,000 and 50,000 Byzantine troops and 40,000 Göktürks that quickly deserted him because of
1322:
commanded a sizable force in central
Anatolia but was assassinated by the Armenian commander Justin, removing a major threat to Heraclius's reign. Still, transfer of the forces commanded by Comentiolus had been delayed, allowing the Persians to advance further in Anatolia. Trying to increase revenues
2761:
As for any army, logistics were always a problem. In his initial campaigns in
Byzantine territories, especially in Anatolia, Heraclius likely supplied his troops by requisitioning from his surroundings. During each of Heraclius's offensive raids into Persia, the harsh conditions of winter forced him
2373:
took place on
December 12, in the fog, reducing the Persian advantage in missile troops. Heraclius feigned retreat, leading the Persians to the plains, before reversing his troops to the surprise of the Persians. After eight hours of fighting, the Persians suddenly retreated to nearby foothills, but
2175:
Furthermore, after the emperor showed
Shahrbaraz intercepted letters from Khosrow ordering the Persian general's death, the latter switched to Heraclius's side. Shahrbaraz then moved his army to northern Syria, where he could easily decide to support either Khosrow or Heraclius at a moment's notice.
2037:. Heraclius then carried on towards the Euphrates, pursued by Shahrbaraz. According to Arab sources, he was stopped at the Satidama or Batman Su River and defeated; Byzantine sources, however, do not mention this incident. There was then another minor skirmish between Heraclius and Shahrbaraz at the
1580:
orthodoxy and were not eager to aid
Byzantine imperial forces. Afterward they were supported by Khosrow, but they did not resist imperial forces between 600 and 638, and many saw the Persian occupation in negative terms. Byzantine resistance in Alexandria was led by Nicetas. After a year-long siege,
2585:
However, the Byzantine Empire was also severely affected, with the Balkans now largely in the hands of the Slavs. Additionally, Anatolia had been devastated by repeated Persian invasions, and the empire's hold on its recently regained territories in the Caucasus, Syria, Mesopotamia, Palestine, and
2573:
The devastating impact of the war of 602–628, along with the cumulative effects of a century of almost continuous Byzantine-Persian conflict, left both empires crippled. The Sasanians were further weakened by economic decline, heavy taxation to finance Khosrow II's campaigns, religious unrest, and
2152:
On 29 June 626, a coordinated assault on the walls began. Inside the walls, some 12,000 well-trained Byzantine cavalry troops (presumably dismounted) defended the city against the forces of some 80,000 Avars and Slavs. Despite continuous bombardment for a month, morale was high inside the walls of
1880:
Heraclius was fortunately warned in time and managed to escape, chased by the Avars all the way to Constantinople. However, many members of his court, as well as an alleged 70,000 Thracian peasants who came to see their Emperor, were captured and killed by the Khagan's men. Despite this treachery,
1600:
Khosrow, greatest of Gods, and master of the earth, to Heraclius, his vile and insensate slave. Why do you still refuse to submit to our rule, and call yourself a king? Have I not destroyed the Greeks? You say that you trust in your God. Why has he not delivered out of my hand Caesarea, Jerusalem,
2757:
According to Kaegi, the Byzantines had "an almost compulsive ... preference to avoid changing the essential elements of the status quo". They tried to secure allies and divide their enemies through diplomacy. Although they failed against Khosrow and the Avar Khagan, their ties with the Slavs, who
1424:
Heraclius joined with his general Priscus's siege of the Persians at Caesarea Mazaca. Priscus pretended to be ill, however, and did not meet the emperor. This was a veiled insult to Heraclius, who hid his dislike of Priscus and returned to Constantinople in 612. Meanwhile, Shahin's troops escaped
2103:
slipped through Heraclius's flanks and bee-lined for Chalcedon, the Persian base across the Bosporus from Constantinople. Khosrow also coordinated with the Khagan of the Avars so as to launch a coordinated attack on Constantinople from both European and Asiatic sides. The Persian army stationed
1897:
Heraclius offered peace to Khosrow, presumably in 624, threatening otherwise to invade Iran, but Khosrow rejected the offer. On March 25, 624, Heraclius left Constantinople to attack the Persian heartland. He willingly abandoned any attempt to secure his rear or his communications with the sea,
1706:
Heraclius now halved the pay of officials, enforced increased taxation, forced loans, and levied extreme fines on corrupt officials in order to finance his counter-offensive. Despite disagreements over the incestuous marriage of Heraclius to his niece Martina, the clergy of the Byzantine Empire
2796:
has surviving letters along with a history that gives the political outlook of the Byzantines, but that history only really covers from 582 to 602. Theodore the Synkellos has a surviving speech, which was made during the Siege of Constantinople in 626, that contains useful information for some
2315:
to breach the walls, one of the first known uses by the Byzantines. Khosrow sent 1,000 cavalry under Shahraplakan to reinforce the city, but it nevertheless fell, probably in late 628. Ziebel died by the end of that year, however, saving Epiphania from marriage to a barbarian. Whilst the siege
2929:
and the early Muslims siding with the Monotheistic Greeks while the non-Muslim Meccans sided with the non-Monotheist Persians, each side regarding the victories of their favorites as proof of their own religious stance. The Quran also predicts the Romans being victorious in regaining the lost
1202:, the eunuch appointed by Phocas to deal with him, but when Narses attempted to return to Constantinople to discuss peace terms, Phocas ordered him seized and burned alive. The death of Narses along with the failure to stop the Persians damaged the prestige of Phocas's military regime.
1698:
also dropped in weight from 11 grams to somewhere between 8 and 9 grams. Heraclius faced severely decreased revenues due to the loss of provinces; furthermore, a plague broke out in 619, which further damaged the tax base and also increased fears of divine retribution. The
1707:
strongly backed his efforts against the Persians by proclaiming the duty of all Christian men to fight and by offering to give him a war loan consisting of all the gold and silver-plated objects in Constantinople. Precious metals and bronze were stripped from monuments and even the
2586:
Egypt was loosened by years of Persian occupation. With their financial reserves exhausted, the Byzantines found difficulties paying veterans of the war with the Persians and recruiting new troops. Clive Foss called this war the "first stage in the process which marked the end of
1190:
to besiege Edessa, prompting Narses to request help from the Persian king Khosrow II. Khosrow, who was only too willing to help avenge Maurice, his "friend and father-", used Maurice's death as an excuse to attack the Byzantine Empire, trying to reconquer Armenia and Mesopotamia.
2732:
cavalry, which became a symbol of Byzantium. They wore chain mail, had heavily armored horses, and used lances as their primary weapon. They had small shields mounted on their arms, could also use bows, and carried a broadsword and an axe. Heavy Byzantine infantry, or
1997:
Two soldiers who feigned desertion were sent to Shahrbaraz, claiming that the Byzantines were fleeing before Shahin. Due to jealousy between the Persian commanders, Shahrbaraz hurried with his army to take part in the glory of the victory. Heraclius met them at
1764:. He spent the summer training to improve the skills of his men and his own generalship. In the autumn, Heraclius threatened Persian communications from the Euphrates valley to Anatolia by marching to Cappadocia. This forced the Persian forces in Anatolia under
2477:
After some months of travel, Heraclius entered Constantinople in triumph and was met by the people of the city, his son Heraclius Constantine, and Patriarch Sergius, prostrating themselves in joy. His alliance with Shahrbaraz resulted in the recovery of the
1297:, who was to be the new emperor. Organized resistance against Heraclius soon collapsed, and Phocas was handed to him by the patrician Probos (Photius). Phocas was executed, though not before a celebrated exchange of comments between him and his successor:
1585:, who was a major supporter of Nicetas in Egypt. The fate of Nicetas is unclear, since he disappears from records after this, but Heraclius was presumably deprived of a trusted commander. The loss of Egypt was a severe blow to the Byzantine empire, as
809:
2748:
The Avars had mounted archers with composite bows that could double as heavy cavalry with lances. They were skilled in siegecraft and could construct trebuchets and siege towers. In their siege of Constantinople, they constructed walls of
1730:, where the volunteers were given inalienable grants of land on the condition of hereditary military service. However, modern scholars generally discredit this theory, placing the creation of the themes later, under Heraclius's successor
1677:
Khosrow's letter did not cow Heraclius but prompted him to try a desperate strike against the Persians. He now reorganized the remainder of his empire to allow his forces to fight on. Already, in 615, a new, lighter (6.82 grams)
5094:"The definitive annexation of Tokharistan and Gandhara to the Western Türk Empire was to take place some years later, in c. 625, when Sasanian Iran became involved in the war against Byzantium that ultimately led to its eclipse." in
1390:
from Constantinople. The Persian conquest was a gradual process; by the time of Heraclius's accession the Persians had conquered all Roman cities east of the Euphrates and in Armenia before moving on to Cappadocia, where Shahin took
2382:
suggests that Rhahzadh challenged Heraclius to personal combat, and that Heraclius accepted and killed Rhahzadh in a single thrust; two other challengers fought against him and also lost. However, he received an injury to his lip.
1876:
in Thrace, where the Avar army was located; Heraclius agreed to this meeting, coming with his royal court. The Khagan, however, put horsemen en route to Heraclea to ambush and capture Heraclius, so they could hold him for ransom.
1531:. He managed to win a small victory near Emesa, however, where both sides suffered heavy casualties—the total death count was 20,000. More seriously, the weakness of the resistance enabled the Persians and their Jewish allies to
1429:, an old general of Maurice's, was appointed as commander-in-chief, but he proved himself incompetent against the Persians, avoiding engagements in battle. Heraclius then appointed himself commander along with his brother
2904:
in the 10th century and has material from unidentified sources on the 620s. Howard-Johnston considered the histories of Movses and Sebeos as "the most important of extant non-Muslim sources". The history of the Patriarch
989:
While the Persians proved largely successful during the first stage of the war from 602 to 622, conquering much of the Levant, Egypt, several islands in the Aegean Sea and parts of Anatolia, the ascendancy of the emperor
1779:
What followed next is not entirely clear, but Heraclius certainly won a crushing victory over Shahrbaraz in the fall of 622. The key factor was Heraclius's discovery of Persian forces hidden in ambush and responding by
3022: Some authors, including Dodgeon, Greatrex, and Lieu, have expressed the belief that the raid on Chalcedon is fictitious. Either way, by 610, the Persians captured all the Byzantine cities east of the Euphrates.
2739:, carried large oval shields and wore lamellar or mail armor. They carried many weapons against enemy cavalry such as spears to ward off cavalry and axes to cut the legs off of horses. Light Byzantine infantry, or
1266:, died. Many sources claim that the Jews were involved in the fighting, though it is unclear where they were members of factions and where they were opponents of Christians. Phocas responded by appointing Bonus as
802:
4075:
1788:
assaulted the pursuing Persians, causing them to flee. Thus he saved Anatolia from the Persians. Heraclius had to return to Constantinople, however, to deal with the threat posed to his Balkan domains by the
1908:, a major Persian fire temple belonging to the Warrior class, destroyed during the Roman campaign. Major Christian holy sites were destroyed after the Persian-Jewish capture of Jerusalem earlier in the war.
2578:. According to Howard-Johnston: " victories in the field over the following years and their political repercussions ... saved the main bastion of Christianity in the Near East and gravely weakened its old
1138:. In order to generate a reserve in the treasury, Maurice instituted strict fiscal measures and cut army pay; which led to four mutinies. The final mutiny in 602 resulted from Maurice ordering his troops
1122:
to the Byzantines, though the exact details are not clear. More importantly for the Byzantine economy, they no longer had to pay tribute to the Persians. Emperor Maurice then began new campaigns in the
795:
2176:
Still, with the neutralization of Khosrow's most skilled general, Heraclius deprived his enemy of some of his best and most experienced troops, while securing his flanks prior to his invasion of Iran.
954:. Khosrow declared war, ostensibly to avenge the death of the deposed emperor Maurice. This became a decades-long conflict, the longest war in the series, and was fought throughout the Middle East: in
2160:
On 7 August, a fleet of Persian rafts ferrying troops across the Bosporus were surrounded and destroyed by Byzantine ships. The Slavs under the Avars attempted to attack the sea walls from across the
1283:. Bonus went to Egypt to try to stop Nicetas, but was defeated by the latter outside Alexandria. In 610, Nicetas succeeded in capturing the province, establishing a power base there with the help of
496:
2778:, made after the conclusion of the war in 629–630. The plate, using the costumes of the early Byzantine court, suggests that, like Saul and David, the Byzantine emperor was a ruler chosen by God.
1398:
Heraclius's accession as Emperor did little to reduce the Persian threat. Heraclius began his reign by attempting to make peace with the Persians, since Phocas, whose actions were the original
2195:
2725:
advised fighting on level terrain with rapid charges to avoid the Persian arrows. They were seen as skilled in laying siege and liked to "achieve their results by planning and generalship".
530:
1023:
By the end of the conflict, both sides had exhausted their human and material resources and achieved very little. Consequently, they were vulnerable to the sudden emergence of the Islamic
2949:
gives an idea of the panic at the time of the Siege of Jerusalem. However, there are some doubts as to whether hagiographic texts may be corrupted from 8th or 9th century interpolations.
2418:
I pursue and run after peace. I do not willingly burn Persia, but compelled by you. Let us now throw down our arms and embrace peace. Let us quench the fire before it burns up everything.
2758:
would become the Serbs and Croats, and their decades-long negotiations with the Göktürks resulted in Slavs actively opposing the Avars in addition to a key alliance with the Göktürks.
1841:, the most important Byzantine city in the Balkans after Constantinople, ended in failure, allowing the Empire to hold onto a vital stronghold in the region. Other minor cities on the
2582:
rival. They may be shadowed by the even more extraordinary military achievements of the Arabs in the following two decades, but hindsight should not be allowed to dim their lustre."
2601:, the "unnecessarily prolonged Byzantine–Persian conflict opened the way for Islam". The Sasanian Empire rapidly succumbed to these attacks and was completely destroyed. During the
1889:, his nephew Stephen, and the illegitimate son of the patrician Bonus as hostages in return for peace. This left him more able to focus his war effort completely on the Persians.
1581:
resistance in Alexandria collapsed, supposedly after a traitor told the Persians of an unused canal, allowing them to storm the city. Nicetas fled to Cyprus along with Patriarch
1535:
following a three weeks siege in 614. Ancient sources claim 57,000 or 66,500 people were slain there; another 35,000 were deported to Persia, including the Patriarch Zacharias.
1347:
The Persians took advantage of this civil war in the Byzantine empire by conquering frontier towns in Armenia and Upper Mesopotamia. Along the Euphrates, in 609, they conquered
7079:
1868:
Because of the need to defend against these incursions, the Byzantines could not afford to use all their forces against the Persians. Heraclius sent an envoy to the Avar
489:
1872:, saying that the Byzantines would pay a tribute in return for the Avars withdrawing north of the Danube. The Khagan replied by asking for a meeting on 5 June 623, at
6859:
1970:, gathering forces for the next year. Khosrow was not content to let Heraclius quietly rest in Albania. He sent three armies, commanded by Shahrbaraz, Shahin, and
2465:
4076:"Destruction of the ādur gušnasp temple in ādurbādagān as a revenge for abduction of the Holy Cross from Jerusalem in the context of the letters of Heraclius"
2406:, which was a palace of Khosrow's, and gained tremendous riches while recovering 300 captured Byzantine flags. Khosrow had already fled to the mountains of
482:
1425:
Priscus's blockade and burned Caesarea, much to Heraclius's displeasure. Priscus was soon removed from command, along with others who served under Phocas.
2095:
Khosrow, seeing that a decisive counterattack was needed to defeat the Byzantines, recruited two new armies from all the able men, including foreigners.
1095:
1000:. Heraclius's campaigns in Iranian lands from 622 to 626 forced the Persians onto the defensive, allowing his forces to regain momentum. Allied with the
939:
771:
1643:
fell in 622/3, threatening a naval assault on Constantinople. Such was the despair in Constantinople that Heraclius considered moving the government to
7084:
1589:
relied on grain shipments from fertile Egypt to feed the multitudes in the capital. The free grain ration in Constantinople, which echoed the earlier
1323:
and reduce costs, Heraclius limited the number of state-sponsored personnel of the Church in Constantinople by not paying new staff from the imperial
1614:
1395:. There, Phocas's son-in-law Priscus, who had encouraged Heraclius and his father to rebel, started a year-long siege to trap them inside the city.
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858:
535:
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at the hands of Shahin. Details of the battle are not known. After this victory the Persians looted the city, slew the Patriarch of Antioch and
746:
572:
1410:
by destroying the Byzantine empire, though because of the loss of the royal Persian archives, no document survives to conclusively prove this.
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606:
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Byzantine Rome and the Greek Popes: Eastern Influences on Rome and the Papacy from Gregory the Great to Zacharias, A.d. 590-752, Parts 590-752
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1994:, and Iberian allies and soldiers, saying: "Do not let the number of our enemies disturb us. For, God willing, one will pursue ten thousand."
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1272:(Count of the East) to stop the violence. Bonus punished the Greens, a horse racing party, in Antioch for their role in the violence in 609.
2551:, a grandson of Khosrow II, succeeded to the throne in 632 was there stability, but by then it was too late to rescue the Sasanian kingdom.
1468:
and the Cilician plain. This defeat cut the Byzantine empire in half, severing Constantinople and Anatolia's land link to Syria, Palestine,
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7164:
7099:
2708:) was probably its preferred weapon, having the power to skewer two men simultaneously. Its horses along with their riders were covered in
2354:
the unfamiliar winter conditions and harassment from the Persians. He advanced quickly but was tailed by a Persian army under the Armenian
1079:
601:
562:
2349:
describes the seasonal retreat of Heraclius for the winters of 624–626 followed by a change in 627 to threaten Ctesiphon as a "high-risk,
2230:, but also proposed an alliance against Sasanian Iran. Justin II agreed and sent an embassy to the Turkic Khaganate, ensuring the direct
1837:, threatening commerce and agriculture, even near the gates of Constantinople. However, numerous attempts by the Avars and Slavs to take
1402:, had been overthrown. The Persians rejected these overtures, however, since their armies were widely victorious. According to historian
2593:
Neither empire was given much chance to recover, as within a few years they were struck by the onslaught of the Arabs, newly united by
7194:
2635:
658:
2518:
1378:, the eldest son and co-emperor of Maurice, who had supposedly fled to the protection of Khosrow. In 608, the Persians under general
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was not strong; although the locals constructed fortifications, they generally tried to negotiate with the Persians. The cities of
2099:
was entrusted with 50,000 men and stayed in Mesopotamia and Armenia to prevent Heraclius from invading Iran; a smaller army under
1499:
2618:
2358:, who faced difficulties in provisioning his army due to the Byzantines taking most of the provisions as they moved south toward
1590:
848:
2489:
The conclusion of the war cemented Heraclius's position as one of history's most successful generals. He was hailed as "the new
678:
7089:
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the "most complete Byzantine field manual"; it provides valuable insight into the military thinking and practices of the time.
1932:, he captured and killed some of Khosrow's guards, leading to the disintegration of the Persian army. Heraclius then destroyed
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557:
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2482:, which was fastened to the True Cross in an elaborate ceremony on 14 September 629. The ceremonial parade went toward the
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304:
2303:, responded to the alliance by sending 40,000 of their men to ravage the Iranian Empire in 626, marking the start of the
1327:. He used ceremonies to legitimize his dynasty, and he secured a reputation for justice to strengthen his grip on power.
7119:
7114:
1179:
1155:
1111:
540:
2153:
Constantinople because of Patriarch Sergius's religious fervor and his processions along the wall with the icon of the
927:
739:
39:
7179:
7104:
5030:"Early Turks: Male Costume in the Chinese Art Second half of the 6th – first half of the 8th cc. (Images of 'Others')"
2986: All dates, especially between 602–620 are only approximate. This is primarily because many popular sources like
2222:
had turned to Byzantium when their relations with Iran soured over commerce issues. Istämi sent an embassy led by the
2116:
1757:
1375:
1315:
878:
648:
377:
1572:
In 618, Shahrbaraz's forces invaded Egypt, a province that had been mostly untouched by war for three centuries. The
1199:
289:
2104:
themselves at Chalcedon, while the Avars placed themselves on the European side of Constantinople and destroyed the
5966:
2610:
2564:
1727:
1567:
1240:
1044:
863:
299:
6998:, Travaux et Mémoires, vol. 17, Paris: Association des Amis du Centre d'Histoire et Civilisation de Byzance,
2770:
2754:
it was difficult for them to maintain long sieges, especially when considering their less mobile gathered allies.
2885:
all likely drew their information from a common source, probably the 8th-century historian Theophilos of Edessa.
2810:
uses now lost sources and contains a history of the Sasanian dynasty. Non-Greek contemporary sources include the
1036:
715:
663:
582:
577:
1627:, that Heraclius had agreed to stand down and was about ready to allow the Byzantine Empire to become a Persian
7094:
7020:
6099:
3033:
2987:
2869:
is useful in creating a framework of the war. It is usually supplemented by even later Syriac sources like the
2858:
2691:
2614:
2606:
2470:
2276:
2267:
During the 626 siege of Constantinople, Heraclius formed an alliance with people Byzantine sources called the "
1449:
1335:
1263:
1166:
550:
366:
330:
192:
6272:
Women Writing Latin: Women writing in Latin in Roman antiquity, late antiquity, and early modern Christian era
2602:
2568:
1056:
594:
519:
43:
833:
7144:
7139:
7134:
2906:
2782:
The sources for this war are mostly of Byzantine origin. Foremost among the contemporary Greek texts is the
2370:
2335:
2325:
1692:'may God help the Romans'; Kaegi believes this shows the desperation of the empire at this time. The copper
1453:
1284:
1244:
1131:
910:
838:
725:
683:
668:
587:
64:
2957:, the study of seals, is also used for dating. Art and other archaeological findings are also of some use.
2527:
died only months after coming to the throne, Persia was plunged into several years of dynastic turmoil and
1748:
By 622, Heraclius was ready to mount a counter-offensive. He left Constantinople the day after celebrating
1413:
1158:– but they proved ineffective. Maurice fled but was soon intercepted and killed by the soldiers of Phocas.
506:
6700:
Liturgical Illuminations: Discovering Received Tradition in the Eastern Orthros of Feasts of the Theotokos
5029:
3052:
2942:
2717:
2560:
2502:
2330:
2304:
2262:
2250:
2085:
1508:
1307:
The elder Heraclius disappears soon afterward from sources, supposedly dying, though the date is unknown.
1251:—thereby implicitly claiming the imperial title—and minted coins with the two wearing the consular robes.
1048:
1032:
1013:
996:
900:
693:
673:
643:
633:
611:
163:
5072:, ed. Michael Adas, American Historical Association, Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001, p. 168.
2432:
was blocked due to the collapse of a bridge leading over it, and he did not attempt to bypass the canal.
7044:
6861:
Decline and fall of the Sasanian empire: the Sasanian-Parthian confederacy and the Arab conquest of Iran
6678:
6588:
2897:
2882:
2793:
2226:
diplomat Maniah directly to Constantinople, which arrived in 568 and offered not only silk as a gift to
2211:
1753:
1683:
1473:
710:
638:
545:
76:
2341:
In mid-September 627, Heraclius invaded the Iranian heartland in a surprising winter campaign, leaving
2030:
1359:, which some Christians are said to have believed would be defended by Jesus himself on behalf of King
1194:
Germanus died in battle against the Persians. An army sent by Phocas against Khosrow was defeated near
2994:. Thus, there are few independent witnesses of the following events, making reliable dating difficult.
1784:
during the battle. The Persians left their cover to chase the Byzantines, whereupon Heraclius's elite
2991:
2835:
2643:
2096:
2017:. In 625, his forces attempted to push back towards the Euphrates. In a mere seven days, he bypassed
1379:
688:
459:
361:
1198:
in Upper Mesopotamia, leading to the capture of that important fortress in 605. Narses escaped from
6798:
5465:
2847:
2587:
2506:
1991:
1944:
1917:
1873:
1711:. This military campaign has been seen as the first "crusade", or at least as an antecedent to the
1679:
1460:
many citizens. Roman forces lost again while attempting to defend the area north of Antioch at the
1228:
1183:
705:
382:
4979:
2800:
The Persian archives were lost so there are no contemporary Persian sources of this war. However,
2598:
1978:, aiming to capture the mountain passes. Shahrbaraz was sent to block Heraclius's retreat through
17:
6835:
2938:
2874:
2784:
2105:
2080:
Siege of Constantinople in 626 by the combined Sasanian, Avar, and Slavic forces depicted on the
1999:
1830:
1723:
1703:
of the coinage allowed the Byzantines to maintain expenditure in the face of declining revenues.
1406:, it is conceivable that the Persians' goal was to restore or even surpass the boundaries of the
1195:
1024:
975:
47:
2505:, losing battle after battle against their onslaught and tarnishing his reputation for victory.
2930:
territories. Such prediction would have been considered ridiculous at the time of the chapter.
2374:
the battle did not become a rout. During the battle, approximately 6,000 Persians were killed.
1948:
427:
7054:
7030:
6999:
6979:
6959:
6926:
6903:
6883:
6865:
6845:
6808:
6785:
6765:
6742:
6724:
6704:
6684:
6664:
6644:
6621:
6598:
6575:
6553:
6533:
6515:
6495:
6475:
6435:
6415:
6397:
6379:
6359:
6316:
6296:
6276:
6256:
6236:
6201:
6011:
5927:
5912:
5861:
5846:
5831:
5816:
5789:
5562:
5505:
5450:
5435:
5393:
5389:
5374:
5103:
5097:
5057:
5006:
4985:
4942:
4927:
4912:
4852:
4774:
4702:
4619:
4601:
4544:
4469:
4454:
4424:
4409:
4394:
4379:
4360:
4330:
4315:
4277:
4196:
4142:
4083:
4040:
3980:
3953:
3938:
3717:
3540:
3525:
3477:
3344:
3284:
3269:
3254:
3222:
3207:
3192:
3165:
3150:
3135:
3120:
2789:
2651:
2293:
2169:
2126:
2120:
1967:
1921:
1886:
1761:
1582:
1407:
1392:
1360:
1287:
1091:
1088:
943:
883:
732:
720:
626:
621:
525:
422:
314:
6594:
East Rome, Sasanian Persia And the End of Antiquity: Historiographical And Historical Studies
5774:
5759:
5669:
5582:
5558:
5554:
5550:
5083:
Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies: the Role of Cross Border Trade and Travel
4514:
4499:
4375:
4262:
4157:
4025:
3995:
3908:
3893:
3875:
3855:
3840:
3825:
3807:
3792:
3762:
3732:
3683:
3661:
3639:
3624:
3573:
3555:
3510:
3495:
3403:
3314:
3299:
3105:
1962:
Campaign map of Heraclius in 624, 625, and 627–628 through Armenia, Anatolia, and Mesopotamia
1154:
by arming the Blues and the Greens – supporters of the two major chariot racing teams of the
6457:
6044:
5744:
4345:
2667:
2631:
2490:
2003:
1979:
1862:
1524:
1293:
The main rebel force was employed in a naval invasion of Constantinople, led by the younger
1259:
1236:
1232:
1211:
1119:
1103:
931:
888:
653:
431:
399:
386:
281:
181:
4062:
1833:
even claims that the Slavs took "Greece" from the Byzantines. The Avars also began to raid
55:
6916:
5099:
History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, A.D. 250 to 750
2893:
2819:
2750:
2705:
2369:, Heraclius engaged Rhahzadh before reinforcements could reach the Persian commander. The
2137:
2076:
2046:
1794:
1790:
1781:
1716:
1469:
1436:
Khosrow took advantage of the incompetence of Heraclius's generals to launch an attack on
1371:
1115:
1107:
1001:
935:
873:
451:
440:
227:
211:
206:
200:
6341:
6232:
Empires of the Silk Road: a history of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the present
5962:
1974:, to try to trap and destroy Heraclius's forces. Shahraplakan retook lands up as far as
1958:
1726:
believed that volunteers were gathered through the reorganization of Anatolia into four
6755:
6717:
Liska, George (1998), "Projection contra Prediction: Alternative Futures and Options",
6568:
3050:
to describe the trebuchet, though earlier uses may be attested to in Emperor Maurice's
2709:
2687:
2605:, the exhausted Byzantine Empire's recently regained eastern and southern provinces of
2429:
2346:
2289:
2280:
2190:
2109:
1937:
1882:
1670:
1665:
1586:
1539:
1465:
1461:
1340:
1268:
1151:
983:
756:
445:
413:
349:
266:
2002:
and routed the forces of Shahraplakan and Shahin one after the other. Shahin lost his
1020:
broke out in Persia, during which the Persians killed their king, and sued for peace.
7073:
5068:
Liu, Xinru, "The Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Interactions in Eurasia", in
3067:
2954:
2815:
2695:
2498:
2494:
2440:
2199:
2165:
2026:
1933:
1905:
1516:
1352:
1318:, the 35-year-old Heraclius set out to perform his work as emperor. Phocas's brother
1311:
1028:
616:
60:
1986:. Heraclius, planning to engage the Persian armies separately, spoke to his worried
1523:
fell quickly in 613, giving the Sasanian army a chance to strike further south into
7189:
7184:
6940:
6634:
6611:
2548:
2532:
2483:
2038:
2018:
1971:
1913:
1838:
1708:
1628:
1577:
1573:
1403:
1248:
1071:
787:
372:
3012:. The successful conclusion to that war meant that the tribute was no longer paid.
2148:). This is only an allegory, since Khosrow never submitted in person to Heraclius.
2134:
7026:
The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text
7024:
6973:
6953:
6920:
6897:
6839:
6825:
6802:
6779:
6759:
6718:
6698:
6658:
6638:
6615:
6592:
6547:
6509:
6489:
6469:
6461:
6429:
6373:
6353:
6310:
6290:
6270:
6250:
6230:
2237:
In the East, in 625, the Turks took advantage of the Sasanian weakness to occupy
6511:
Mary and the fathers of the church: the Blessed Virgin Mary in patristic thought
3009:
2950:
2934:
2579:
2544:
2479:
2469:
Heraclius returns the True Cross to Jerusalem, anachronistically accompanied by
2435:
Regardless, the Persian army rebelled and overthrew Khosrow II, raising his son
2391:
2284:
2242:
2161:
2154:
2050:
2022:
1952:
1940:
1731:
1660:
1551:
1457:
1437:
1399:
1255:
963:
761:
319:
138:
2523:
For their part, the Sasanians struggled to establish a stable government. When
2402:
With no Persian army left to oppose him, Heraclius's victorious army plundered
1596:
After conquering Egypt, Khosrow allegedly sent Heraclius the following letter:
1247:
and son-in-law of Phocas. Heraclius proclaimed himself and his namesake son as
1216:
2958:
2729:
2540:
2536:
2444:
2100:
1901:
1814:
1810:
1765:
1700:
1640:
1547:
1543:
1503:
Campaign map from 611 to 624 through Syria, Anatolia, Armenia, and Mesopotamia
1441:
1418:
1099:
979:
947:
355:
343:
324:
187:
134:
72:
4087:
6992:
Zuckerman, Constantin (2013), "Heraclius and the Return of the Holy Cross",
3047:
3008:
had refused to give the Sasanians the usual tribute dating from the time of
3005:
2990:' Chronicles are all drawn from a common source, thought to be a history by
2896:
probably have similar sources to the ones that the compiler of Sebeos used.
2801:
2655:
2524:
2411:
2403:
2395:
2312:
2231:
2227:
2207:
2203:
1850:
1785:
1620:
1555:
1383:
1294:
1147:
1135:
1060:
991:
766:
255:
237:
68:
6448:
Foss, Clive (1975), "The Persians in Asia Minor and the End of Antiquity",
2219:
2133:
and Heraclius receiving the submission of Khosrow II; plaque from a cross (
1928:, Heraclius met Khosrow's army, some 40,000 strong. With the help of loyal
1605:
However, the genuineness of the letter has been denied by modern scholars.
1303:"Will you," replied Phocas, with unexpected spirit, "govern it any better?"
1262:
in the wake of Heraclius's revolt. In 609 or 610 the Patriarch of Antioch,
2053:
magnified. In the aftermath of the battle, the Byzantine army wintered at
2926:
2918:
2671:
2663:
2574:
the increasing power of the provincial landholders at the expense of the
2436:
2355:
2300:
2157:, inspiring the belief that the Byzantines were under divine protection.
2014:
1842:
1769:
1712:
1644:
1512:
1387:
971:
967:
464:
395:
232:
216:
118:
114:
1673:
mint. Struck 610–613. Helmeted and cuirassed facing bust, holding cross.
1055:. In the following centuries, the Byzantine and Arab forces would fight
1027:, whose forces invaded both empires only a few years after the war. The
4092:
Genuineness of the letter had been convincingly denied by R. W. Thomson
2701:
2659:
2407:
2366:
2359:
2268:
2238:
2089:
2054:
1822:
1818:
1809:
poured into the Balkans, capturing several Byzantine cities, including
1773:
1538:
Many churches in the city (including the Church of the Resurrection or
1445:
1367:
950:
regain his throne. In 602, Maurice was murdered by his political rival
130:
6899:
The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part II, 363-630 AD)
6355:
The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part II, 363-630 AD)
2961:
sources or inscriptions are of limited use. Luttwak called Maurice's
2914:
2827:
2797:
events. There are some surviving papyri from Egypt from that period.
2740:
2734:
2675:
2647:
2342:
2272:
2223:
2141:
2130:
2081:
2034:
1987:
1983:
1975:
1925:
1869:
1858:
1834:
1826:
1749:
1694:
1636:
1632:
1624:
1356:
1348:
1221:
1143:
959:
951:
474:
261:
126:
6993:
6781:
The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire - Volume III, AD 527–641
6352:
Dodgeon, Michael H.; Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2002),
6269:
Brown, Phyllis Rugg; Churchill, Laurie J.; Jeffrey, Jane E. (2002),
5070:
Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History
2316:
proceeded, Heraclius worked to secure his base in the upper Tigris.
2287:, plying him with wondrous gifts and the promise of marriage to the
1805:
While the Byzantines were occupied with the Persians, the Avars and
6289:
Chrysostomides, J.; Dendrinos, Charalambos; Herrin, Judith (2003),
2945:
have proven to be helpful in understanding the era of the war. The
2597:, which Howard-Johnston likened to "a human tsunami". According to
2547:
all succeeded to the throne within months of each other. Only when
1301:"Is it thus", asked Heraclius, "that you have governed the Empire?"
2922:
2775:
2769:
2594:
2464:
2390:
2329:
2246:
2194:
2145:
2125:
2075:
2042:
2007:
1957:
1929:
1900:
1854:
1846:
1806:
1659:
1528:
1498:
1412:
1334:
1280:
1215:
1186:, a major city of the province. Emperor Phocas instructed general
1165:
1078:
1070:
1005:
955:
122:
6549:
Byzantium in the Seventh Century: the Transformation of a Culture
2115:
The defense of Constantinople was under the command of Patriarch
1635:, an important military base in central Anatolia, in 620 or 622.
1134:
had eliminated the surplus in the treasury left from the time of
6340:, vol. 39, Duke University, pp. 99–115, archived from
5415:
5413:
2575:
2168:
was written by an unknown author, possibly Patriarch Sergius or
1520:
1366:
In Armenia, the strategically important city of Theodosiopolis (
1324:
1527:. Nicetas continued to resist the Persians but was defeated at
791:
478:
2307:. Joint Byzantine and Göktürk operations were then focused on
6720:
Expanding Realism: The Historical Dimension of World Politics
4326:
2428:
However, Heraclius could not attack Ctesiphon itself, as the
1083:
The Sasanian Empire on the eve of the Final Roman-Persian War
1881:
Heraclius was forced to give the Avars a subsidy of 200,000
1142:
to live off the land during the winter. The army proclaimed
6778:
Martindale, John R.; Jones, A. H. M.; Morris, John (1992),
2646:. However, some losses were permanent, such as the loss of
2509:
succinctly described Heraclius as having "lived too long".
1464:, despite some initial success. The Persians then captured
6530:
The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 363-628
3036:' Chronicles, is usually identified with Takht-i-Suleiman.
1776:
to eastern Anatolia in order to block his access to Iran.
1098:
by helping the exiled Sasanian prince Khosrow, the future
6660:
Encyclopaedic Ethnography of Middle-East and Central Asia
6394:
The Age of Justinian: The Circumstances of Imperial Power
3070:
may have lessened local resistance to the Arab expansion.
2792:
wrote many poems and other works that were contemporary.
6252:
History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene
3066: Ambivalence toward Byzantine rule on the part of
2912:
The Quran also provides some detail on the matter. The
1682:
appeared with the usual image of Heraclius and his son
1374:, because of the persuasion of a man who claimed to be
3246:
3244:
3242:
3713:
3536:
2728:
The most important arm of the Byzantine army was its
2447:
and other relics that were lost in Jerusalem in 614.
5096:
Dani, Ahmad Hasan; Litvinsky, B. A. (January 1996).
2822:
but only survives in Ethiopian translation, and the
2630:. The Byzantine Empire also lost its territories in
6197:
6122:
6074:
6025:
6007:
5227:
5197:
5158:
4815:
4681:
3776:
3746:
3742:
3740:
3701:
3521:
3446:
3370:
3325:
3146:
3131:
2953:, the study of coins, has proven useful to dating.
2013:Heraclius spent the rest of winter to the north of
27:
Last war between the Byzantine and Sasanian empires
6567:
2423:Heraclius's ultimatum to Khosrow II, 6 January 628
1542:) were burned, and numerous relics, including the
1343:, including the 591 border between the two empires
6471:The New Cambridge Medieval History: c. 500-c. 700
3046: That was the first known usage of the term
2414:. Heraclius then issued an ultimatum to Khosrow:
2049:was a successful retreat for the Byzantines that
6021:
6019:
5007:"Maracanda/Samarkand, une métropole pré-mongole"
2700:The elite cavalry corps of the Persians was the
1756:, was left behind as regent under the charge of
6528:Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2005),
6086:
6003:
6001:
5999:
5997:
5995:
5993:
5991:
5641:
5574:
5572:
5570:
5531:
5516:
5223:
5221:
5193:
5191:
4811:
4809:
4231:
2416:
2365:Towards the end of the year, near the ruins of
1598:
1452:, Byzantine forces under Heraclius and Nicetas
1299:
32:
6896:Reinink, Bernard H.; Stolte, Geoffrey (2002),
3772:
3770:
3697:
3695:
3693:
3691:
3442:
3440:
3438:
3366:
3364:
2909:contains many errors, but is a useful source.
1444:. Heraclius attempted to stop the invasion at
1440:, under the leadership of the Persian general
942:between the two powers had ended in 591 after
6680:The Persian Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia
5351:
5349:
5347:
4868:
4866:
4864:
4862:
4860:
4754:
4752:
4750:
4748:
4746:
4744:
4742:
4740:
3976:
1075:The Byzantine Empire in the early 7th century
1016:, Heraclius invaded the heartland of Persia.
803:
490:
8:
6955:A History of the Byzantine State and Society
6431:Shadows in the desert: ancient Persia at war
5542:
5540:
5310:
5308:
5208:
5206:
4796:
4794:
4727:
4725:
4712:
4710:
4662:
4660:
4658:
4656:
4643:
4641:
4639:
4611:
4609:
4295:
4293:
4291:
4289:
4287:
4285:
4219:
4115:
4103:
4054:
4052:
4050:
4048:
3565:
3563:
3086:
2678:were captured by Arabs in the 10th century.
1290:, who was elected with the help of Nicetas.
7029:. Merchantville, NJ: Evolution Publishing.
6947:. Vol. XII, Fasc. 5. pp. 466–467.
6185:
6133:
6131:
5366:
5364:
5049:
5047:
4844:
4842:
4840:
4838:
4836:
4694:
4692:
4690:
4593:
4591:
4578:
4576:
4510:
4495:
4434:
4432:
4371:
4327:Chrysostomides, Dendrinos & Herrin 2003
3904:
3295:
3097:
3095:
2788:by an unidentified author from around 630.
2410:to try to rally support for the defense of
1687:
1623:in 615, it was at this point, according to
1382:launched a raid into Anatolia that reached
1254:At about the same time rebellions began in
1127:to stop incursions by the Slavs and Avars.
1010:final attempt to take Constantinople in 626
994:in 610 led, despite initial setbacks, to a
6761:The grand strategy of the Byzantine Empire
6331:"Byzantine Heavy Artillery: the Helepolis"
6058:
6056:
6054:
6052:
6036:
6034:
5978:
5976:
5974:
4981:History of Central Asia, The: 4-volume set
4677:
4675:
4536:
4534:
4479:
4477:
4254:
4252:
4134:
4132:
4130:
4128:
4126:
4124:
4017:
4015:
3930:
3928:
3885:
3883:
3867:
3865:
3863:
3817:
3815:
3675:
3673:
3671:
3669:
3653:
3651:
3649:
3647:
3487:
3485:
3469:
3467:
3413:
3411:
3395:
3393:
3391:
3336:
3334:
2921:tells how news of the ongoing war reached
2650:, the remaining Byzantine holdings in the
1686:, but uniquely carried the inscription of
1554:, were carried off to the Persian capital
1150:, as emperor. Maurice attempted to defend
926:was the final and most devastating of the
810:
796:
788:
497:
483:
475:
29:
6617:Byzantium and the early Islamic conquests
5461:
5419:
4770:
4390:
3250:
3218:
3203:
1639:and several other islands in the eastern
1433:to finally solidify command of the army.
1339:Map of the Roman-Persian frontier during
5501:
5085:, McFarland & Company, 2012, p. 133.
4923:
4341:
3949:
3004: The war had originally begun when
2877:. However, these sources, excepting the
2865:of Patriarch Nikephoros I. Theophanes's
1178:, governor of the Byzantine province of
1130:The generosity and campaigns of emperor
1102:, to regain his throne from the usurper
1087:After decades of inconclusive fighting,
7053:. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
6739:The Routledge Companion to the Crusades
6570:The Oxford Illustrated History of Italy
6161:
5950:
5938:
5923:
5908:
5896:
5872:
5857:
5842:
5827:
5812:
5800:
5785:
5770:
5755:
5740:
5692:
5680:
5527:
5525:
5477:
5355:
5299:
5170:
4938:
4908:
4872:
4758:
4299:
4192:
3569:
3382:
3310:
3233:
3176:
3101:
3079:
2497:, as "the greatest Roman general since
1947:. Heraclius's raids went as far as the
1752:on Sunday, 4 April 622. His young son,
452:
6212:
5716:
5665:
5578:
5546:
5134:
5053:
4984:. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 243.
4405:
4058:
2881:by Nikephoros, and the Christian Arab
2682:Composition of the armies and strategy
2202:officers during an audience with king
282:
6173:
6137:
6062:
6040:
5982:
5884:
5704:
5653:
5605:
5593:
5489:
5431:
5404:
5385:
5338:
5326:
5314:
5287:
5275:
5263:
5251:
5239:
5212:
5182:
5146:
5122:
4965:
4953:
4896:
4884:
4827:
4800:
4785:
4731:
4716:
4666:
4647:
4630:
4615:
4597:
4582:
4567:
4555:
4525:
4483:
4465:
4450:
4438:
4420:
4356:
4311:
4273:
4258:
4168:
4153:
4021:
4006:
3991:
3964:
3919:
3889:
3871:
3851:
3836:
3821:
3803:
3788:
3758:
3728:
3679:
3657:
3635:
3620:
3608:
3596:
3584:
3551:
3506:
3491:
3458:
3429:
3417:
3399:
2443:, and most importantly for them, the
2398:in 629-632 (aged 54–57), with his son
1865:(Lezhë) also survived the invasions.
1715:, by many historians, beginning with
1615:Shahin's invasion of Asia Minor (615)
1182:, rebelled against Phocas and seized
1170:Byzantine and Sasanian empires in 600
7:
6149:
6100:"Fulfilled Prophecy of Surat Ar-Rum"
5728:
5629:
5617:
5446:
5370:
5011:Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales
4848:
4698:
4540:
4243:
4180:
4138:
4036:
3934:
3473:
3355:
3340:
3280:
3265:
3188:
3161:
3116:
2712:to protect them from enemy archers.
2033:, important fortresses on the upper
1275:Heraclius the Elder sent his nephew
6456:, Oxford University Press: 721–47,
4978:Baumer, Christoph (18 April 2018).
4207:
4074:Iwona, Maksymiuk Katarzyna (2017).
3714:Brown, Churchill & Jeffrey 2002
3537:Martindale, Jones & Morris 1992
2774:Silver plate showing the arming of
2642:, though these too were ultimately
2180:Byzantine-Turkic alliance (626–628)
1982:, and Shahin was sent to block the
1793:, so he left his army to winter in
1768:to retreat from the front-lines of
1669:of Emperor Heraclius (aged 35–38).
1012:, but were defeated there. In 627,
6412:Sassanian elite cavalry AD 224-642
6338:Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies
2275:, now generally identified as the
1576:living in Egypt were unhappy with
1363:against all enemies, fell in 610.
25:
18:Byzantine–Sassanian War of 602–628
7080:Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628
6198:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002
6123:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002
6075:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002
6026:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002
6008:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002
5228:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002
5198:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002
5159:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002
4816:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002
4682:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002
3777:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002
3747:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002
3702:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002
3522:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002
3447:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002
3371:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002
3326:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002
3147:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002
3132:Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu 2002
2890:History of the House of Artsrunik
2853:Later Greek accounts include the
2807:History of the Prophets and Kings
2501:". Instead, he lived through the
2345:to continue the siege of Tiflis.
2218:Earlier, in 568, the Turks under
1096:Byzantine–Sasanian War of 572–591
924:Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628
33:Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628
7085:7th century in Georgia (country)
6995:Constructing the Seventh Century
6975:Byzantium and Its Army, 284-1081
1885:along with his illegitimate son
412:
348:
265:
54:
7050:The Last Great War of Antiquity
6878:Pourshariati, Parvaneh (2010),
6858:Pourshariati, Parvaneh (2008),
6640:Heraclius: Emperor of Byzantium
2334:Maneuvers before and after the
2234:trade desired by the Sogdians.
1491:Jewish revolt against Heraclius
1370:) surrendered in 609 or 610 to
71:'s army and the Persians under
7130:7th century in Byzantine Egypt
6925:, Cambridge University Press,
6841:History of the Byzantine State
6784:, Cambridge University Press,
6643:, Cambridge University Press,
6620:, Cambridge University Press,
6552:, Cambridge University Press,
6474:, Cambridge University Press,
6235:, Princeton University Press,
6229:Beckwith, Christopher (2009),
3032: Thebarmes, described in
1920:, the capital of Armenia, and
1507:Resistance to the Persians in
1495:Sasanian conquest of Jerusalem
1448:, but despite the blessing of
1:
6978:, Stanford University Press,
6972:Treadgold, Warren T. (1998),
6958:, Stanford University Press,
6952:Treadgold, Warren T. (1997),
6697:Kimball, Virginia M. (2010),
6491:The great armies of antiquity
6450:The English Historical Review
2850:living in Persian territory.
2654:, which was conquered by the
2519:Sasanian civil war of 628–632
2140:over gilt copper, 1160–1170,
2072:Siege of Constantinople (626)
2066:Siege of Constantinople (626)
1912:Heraclius advanced along the
1310:After marrying his betrothed
607:Campaign of Severus Alexander
96:
79:
7160:620s in the Byzantine Empire
7155:610s in the Byzantine Empire
7150:600s in the Byzantine Empire
6939:Shahbazi, A. Shapur (2004).
6844:, Rutgers University Press,
6804:A Short History of Byzantium
6764:, Harvard University Press,
6723:, Rowman & Littlefield,
6663:, New Delhi: Global Vision,
6372:Ekonomou, Andrew J. (2008),
5102:. UNESCO. pp. 370–375.
5028:Yatsenko, Sergey A. (2009).
2937:(lives of saints) of Saints
2741:
2735:
2311:, where the Byzantines used
2021:and the 200 miles along the
1951:, a residence of Khosrow in
1174:Upon the murder of Maurice,
1110:ceded parts of northeastern
150:
7175:620s in the Sasanian Empire
7170:610s in the Sasanian Empire
7165:600s in the Sasanian Empire
7100:Military history of Armenia
6574:, Oxford University Press,
2846:gives the perspective of a
2461:Byzantine Empire, Heraclius
1893:Byzantine assault on Persia
1738:Byzantine counter-offensive
701:Julian's Persian expedition
679:Perso-Roman wars of 337–361
222:Jewish and Samaritan rebels
7211:
6462:10.1093/ehr/XC.CCCLVII.721
6329:Dennis, George T. (1998),
5967:Metropolitan Museum of Art
2888:The 10th-century Armenian
2685:
2565:Islamic conquest of Persia
2558:
2539:, and Khosrow's daughters
2516:
2323:
2260:
2188:
2069:
1916:, destroying Persian-held
1825:(Sofia), while destroying
1744:Heraclius' campaign of 622
1741:
1619:When the Persians reached
1612:
1568:Sasanian conquest of Egypt
1565:
1488:
1209:
568:Trajan's Parthian campaign
536:Pompeian–Parthian invasion
7195:History of the Aegean Sea
7045:Howard-Johnston, James H.
6827:Europe, 476-918, Volume 1
6488:Gabriel, Richard (2002),
3977:Reinink & Stolte 2002
2947:Life of George of Khozeba
2622:sieges of its capital in
2257:Heraclius-Ziebel alliance
1454:suffered a serious defeat
1314:and being crowned by the
1205:
1162:Beginning of the conflict
1041:territories in the Levant
1039:as well as the Byzantine
946:helped the Sasanian king
829:
583:Parthian war of Caracalla
531:Caesar's planned invasion
516:
245:
174:
88:
53:
37:
6392:Evans, J. A. S. (2002),
6275:, Taylor & Francis,
4220:Greatrex & Lieu 2005
2859:Theophanes the Confessor
2692:Byzantine battle tactics
2666:in the 8th century. The
2299:The Turks, based in the
2277:Western Turkic Khaganate
1593:, was abolished in 618.
1450:Saint Theodore of Sykeon
982:and before the walls of
450:Vahram-Arshusha V (
193:Western Turkic Khaganate
6566:Holmes, George (2001),
6508:Gambero, Luigi (1999),
6468:Fouracre, Paul (2006),
6428:Farrokh, Kaveh (2007),
6410:Farrokh, Kaveh (2005),
6309:Davies, Norman (1998),
6255:, vol. 2, Cosimo,
5005:Grenet, Frantz (2004).
2907:Eutychius of Alexandria
2838:, composed in 640. The
2818:, which was written in
2715:According to Maurice's
2456:Short-term consequences
2326:Battle of Nineveh (627)
2320:Battle of Nineveh (627)
1245:Count of the Excubitors
1220:A gold coin of Emperor
740:Byzantine–Sasanian wars
573:Lucius Verus' campaigns
65:Battle of Nineveh (627)
40:Byzantine–Sasanian wars
7090:7th century in Armenia
6589:Howard-Johnston, James
6546:Haldon, John (1997) ,
2943:Anastasios the Persian
2779:
2561:Early Muslim conquests
2555:Long-term consequences
2474:
2426:
2399:
2338:
2305:Third Perso-Turkic War
2263:Third Perso-Turkic War
2251:Yabghus of Tokharistan
2215:
2149:
2092:
1966:Heraclius wintered in
1963:
1909:
1688:
1674:
1603:
1504:
1421:
1344:
1305:
1224:
1171:
1084:
1076:
1037:entire Sasanian Empire
1008:, the Persians made a
997:status quo ante bellum
901:Third Perso-Turkic War
558:Mark Antony's campaign
246:Commanders and leaders
164:Status quo ante bellum
7125:7th century in Europe
6945:Encyclopaedia Iranica
6741:, London: Routledge,
6677:Kia, Mehrdad (2016),
2898:Movses Kaghankatvatsi
2883:Agapius of Hierapolis
2873:and the Chronicle by
2794:Theophylact Simocatta
2773:
2559:Further information:
2517:Further information:
2473:. 15th century, Spain
2468:
2394:
2333:
2198:
2189:Further information:
2129:
2079:
1961:
1904:
1754:Heraclius Constantine
1684:Heraclius Constantine
1663:
1502:
1474:Exarchate of Carthage
1416:
1338:
1219:
1206:Heraclius's rebellion
1169:
1082:
1074:
563:Armenian War of 58–63
77:Piero della Francesca
7110:7th century in Egypt
6799:Norwich, John Julius
6737:Lock, Peter (2013),
6087:Howard-Johnston 2006
5642:Howard-Johnston 2006
5532:Howard-Johnston 2006
5517:Howard-Johnston 2006
5081:Howard, Michael C.,
4232:Howard-Johnston 2006
2992:Theophilus of Edessa
2836:Thomas the Presbyter
2387:End of the war (628)
2376:Patriarch Nikephoros
2249:, and establish the
2185:Background (568–625)
2010:, baggage, and men.
1680:silver imperial coin
1651:Byzantine resurgence
1485:Capture of Jerusalem
896:Constantinople (626)
460:Benjamin of Tiberias
7120:7th century in Asia
7115:7th century in Iran
6836:Ostrogorsky, George
6657:Khanam, R. (2005),
6378:, Lexington Books,
6249:Bury, J.B. (2008),
5422:, pp. 197–218.
4080:Метаморфозы истории
2848:Nestorian Christian
2844:Khuzistan Chronicle
2658:by 629. Similarly,
2603:Byzantine–Arab Wars
2569:Byzantine–Arab Wars
2535:, Heraclius's ally
2313:traction trebuchets
2086:Moldovița Monastery
1689:Deus adiuta Romanis
1229:Heraclius the Elder
1059:for control of the
930:fought between the
595:Roman–Sasanian wars
520:Roman–Parthian Wars
44:Avar–Byzantine wars
7180:Wars of Khosrow II
7105:Byzantine Anatolia
7021:Charles, Robert H.
6635:Kaegi, Walter Emil
6612:Kaegi, Walter Emil
5953:, pp. 405–406
5185:, pp. 158–159
2939:Theodore of Sykeon
2875:Michael the Syrian
2840:Chronicle of Guidi
2785:Chronicon Paschale
2780:
2475:
2400:
2339:
2216:
2150:
2119:and the patrician
2106:Aqueduct of Valens
2093:
1964:
1910:
1831:Isidore of Seville
1760:and the patrician
1724:George Ostrogorsky
1675:
1591:grain dole in Rome
1583:John the Almsgiver
1505:
1422:
1345:
1331:Persian ascendancy
1288:John the Almsgiver
1225:
1172:
1085:
1077:
1025:Rashidun Caliphate
820:Byzantine–Sasanian
508:Roman–Persian Wars
48:Turco-Persian wars
7060:978-0-19-883019-1
7036:978-1-889758-87-9
7005:978-2-916-71645-9
6985:978-0-804-73163-8
6965:978-0-804-72630-6
6932:978-0-521-61148-0
6922:The First Crusade
6909:978-9-042-91228-1
6889:978-0-857-71199-1
6871:978-1-845-11645-3
6851:978-0-813-51198-6
6814:978-0-679-77269-9
6791:978-0-521-20160-5
6771:978-0-674-03519-5
6748:978-1-135-13137-1
6730:978-0-847-68680-3
6710:978-1-449-07212-4
6690:978-1-610-69391-2
6670:978-8-182-20063-0
6650:978-0-521-81459-1
6627:978-0-521-48455-8
6604:978-0-860-78992-5
6581:978-0-192-85444-5
6559:978-0-521-31917-1
6539:978-1-134-75646-9
6521:978-0-89870-686-4
6501:978-0-275-97809-9
6481:978-0-521-36291-7
6441:978-1-846-03108-3
6421:978-1-841-76713-0
6403:978-1-134-55976-3
6385:978-0-739-11978-5
6365:978-0-415-00342-1
6322:978-0-060-97468-8
6315:, HarperCollins,
6312:Europe: a history
6302:978-0-754-63696-0
6282:978-0-415-94183-9
6262:978-1-605-20405-5
6242:978-0-691-13589-2
6215:, pp. 99–104
6164:, pp. 268–71
6152:, pp. 729–30
5941:, pp. 403–04
5632:, pp. 746–47
5407:, pp. 185–86
5109:978-92-3-103211-0
4991:978-1-83860-868-2
4818:, pp. 179–81
4116:Pourshariati 2010
4104:Pourshariati 2008
3328:, pp. 183–84
3087:Pourshariati 2008
2902:History of Aluank
2871:Chronicle of 1234
2790:George of Pisidia
2662:was taken by the
2652:Iberian Peninsula
2371:Battle of Nineveh
2336:Battle of Nineveh
2309:besieging Tbilisi
2294:Eudoxia Epiphania
2170:George of Pisidia
2108:. Because of the
2061:Climax of the war
1968:Caucasian Albania
1887:John Athalarichos
1758:Patriarch Sergius
1533:capture Jerusalem
1480:Persian dominance
1408:Achaemenid Empire
1361:Abgar V of Edessa
1106:. In return, the
1014:allied with Turks
919:
918:
906:Tbilisi (627-628)
849:Caesarea Maritima
785:
784:
473:
472:
170:
169:
16:(Redirected from
7202:
7064:
7040:
7008:
6988:
6968:
6948:
6935:
6917:Runciman, Steven
6912:
6892:
6882:, I. B. Tauris,
6880:The Sasanian Era
6874:
6864:, I. B. Tauris,
6854:
6831:
6817:
6794:
6774:
6751:
6733:
6713:
6693:
6673:
6653:
6630:
6607:
6584:
6573:
6562:
6542:
6524:
6504:
6484:
6464:
6444:
6424:
6406:
6388:
6368:
6348:
6346:
6335:
6325:
6305:
6285:
6265:
6245:
6216:
6210:
6204:
6195:
6189:
6188:, pp. 79–80
6186:Ostrogorsky 1969
6183:
6177:
6171:
6165:
6159:
6153:
6147:
6141:
6135:
6126:
6120:
6114:
6113:
6111:
6110:
6104:islammessage.org
6096:
6090:
6089:, pp. 42–43
6084:
6078:
6072:
6066:
6060:
6047:
6038:
6029:
6023:
6014:
6005:
5986:
5980:
5969:
5960:
5954:
5948:
5942:
5936:
5930:
5921:
5915:
5906:
5900:
5894:
5888:
5882:
5876:
5870:
5864:
5855:
5849:
5840:
5834:
5825:
5819:
5810:
5804:
5798:
5792:
5783:
5777:
5768:
5762:
5753:
5747:
5738:
5732:
5726:
5720:
5714:
5708:
5702:
5696:
5690:
5684:
5678:
5672:
5663:
5657:
5651:
5645:
5639:
5633:
5627:
5621:
5615:
5609:
5608:, pp. 43–44
5603:
5597:
5591:
5585:
5576:
5565:
5544:
5535:
5529:
5520:
5514:
5508:
5499:
5493:
5487:
5481:
5475:
5469:
5462:Treadgold (1997)
5459:
5453:
5444:
5438:
5429:
5423:
5420:Zuckerman (2013)
5417:
5408:
5402:
5396:
5383:
5377:
5368:
5359:
5353:
5342:
5336:
5330:
5324:
5318:
5312:
5303:
5297:
5291:
5285:
5279:
5273:
5267:
5261:
5255:
5249:
5243:
5237:
5231:
5225:
5216:
5210:
5201:
5195:
5186:
5180:
5174:
5168:
5162:
5156:
5150:
5144:
5138:
5132:
5126:
5120:
5114:
5113:
5092:
5086:
5079:
5073:
5066:
5060:
5051:
5042:
5041:
5025:
5019:
5018:
5002:
4996:
4995:
4975:
4969:
4963:
4957:
4951:
4945:
4936:
4930:
4921:
4915:
4906:
4900:
4894:
4888:
4882:
4876:
4870:
4855:
4846:
4831:
4825:
4819:
4813:
4804:
4798:
4789:
4783:
4777:
4768:
4762:
4756:
4735:
4729:
4720:
4714:
4705:
4696:
4685:
4679:
4670:
4664:
4651:
4645:
4634:
4628:
4622:
4613:
4604:
4595:
4586:
4580:
4571:
4565:
4559:
4553:
4547:
4538:
4529:
4523:
4517:
4511:Ostrogorsky 1969
4508:
4502:
4496:Ostrogorsky 1969
4493:
4487:
4481:
4472:
4463:
4457:
4448:
4442:
4436:
4427:
4418:
4412:
4403:
4397:
4388:
4382:
4372:Ostrogorsky 1969
4369:
4363:
4354:
4348:
4339:
4333:
4324:
4318:
4309:
4303:
4297:
4280:
4271:
4265:
4256:
4247:
4241:
4235:
4229:
4223:
4217:
4211:
4205:
4199:
4190:
4184:
4178:
4172:
4166:
4160:
4151:
4145:
4136:
4119:
4113:
4107:
4101:
4095:
4094:
4071:
4065:
4056:
4043:
4034:
4028:
4019:
4010:
4004:
3998:
3989:
3983:
3974:
3968:
3962:
3956:
3947:
3941:
3932:
3923:
3917:
3911:
3905:Ostrogorsky 1969
3902:
3896:
3887:
3878:
3869:
3858:
3849:
3843:
3834:
3828:
3819:
3810:
3801:
3795:
3786:
3780:
3774:
3765:
3756:
3750:
3744:
3735:
3726:
3720:
3711:
3705:
3699:
3686:
3677:
3664:
3655:
3642:
3633:
3627:
3618:
3612:
3606:
3600:
3594:
3588:
3582:
3576:
3567:
3558:
3549:
3543:
3534:
3528:
3519:
3513:
3504:
3498:
3489:
3480:
3471:
3462:
3456:
3450:
3444:
3433:
3427:
3421:
3415:
3406:
3397:
3386:
3380:
3374:
3368:
3359:
3353:
3347:
3338:
3329:
3323:
3317:
3308:
3302:
3296:Ostrogorsky 1969
3293:
3287:
3278:
3272:
3263:
3257:
3248:
3237:
3231:
3225:
3216:
3210:
3201:
3195:
3186:
3180:
3174:
3168:
3159:
3153:
3144:
3138:
3129:
3123:
3114:
3108:
3099:
3090:
3084:
3061:
3041:
3027:
3017:
2999:
2981:
2832:Chronicle of 724
2744:
2738:
2668:Balearic Islands
2638:to the Arabs in
2590:in Asia Minor".
2513:Sasanian kingdom
2424:
2212:Afrasiyab murals
1980:Caucasian Iberia
1945:Takht-i-Suleiman
1782:feigning retreat
1691:
1525:Palaestina Prima
1260:Palaestina Prima
1233:Exarch of Africa
1227:In 608, general
1212:Heraclian revolt
1120:Caucasian Iberia
1057:a series of wars
934:and the Persian
932:Byzantine Empire
869:Cappadocia (622)
859:Asia Minor (615)
824:
812:
805:
798:
789:
511:
509:
499:
492:
485:
476:
454:
436:
416:
404:
391:
352:
284:
269:
182:Byzantine Empire
105:
101:
98:
90:
89:
84:
81:
63:painting of the
58:
30:
21:
7210:
7209:
7205:
7204:
7203:
7201:
7200:
7199:
7095:Byzantine Syria
7070:
7069:
7061:
7043:
7037:
7019:
7016:
7014:Further reading
7011:
7006:
6991:
6986:
6971:
6966:
6951:
6938:
6933:
6915:
6910:
6895:
6890:
6877:
6872:
6857:
6852:
6834:
6820:
6815:
6797:
6792:
6777:
6772:
6756:Luttwak, Edward
6754:
6749:
6736:
6731:
6716:
6711:
6703:, AuthorHouse,
6696:
6691:
6676:
6671:
6656:
6651:
6633:
6628:
6610:
6605:
6587:
6582:
6565:
6560:
6545:
6540:
6527:
6522:
6507:
6502:
6487:
6482:
6467:
6447:
6442:
6427:
6422:
6409:
6404:
6391:
6386:
6371:
6366:
6351:
6344:
6333:
6328:
6323:
6308:
6303:
6288:
6283:
6268:
6263:
6248:
6243:
6228:
6224:
6219:
6211:
6207:
6196:
6192:
6184:
6180:
6172:
6168:
6160:
6156:
6148:
6144:
6136:
6129:
6121:
6117:
6108:
6106:
6098:
6097:
6093:
6085:
6081:
6073:
6069:
6061:
6050:
6039:
6032:
6024:
6017:
6006:
5989:
5981:
5972:
5961:
5957:
5949:
5945:
5937:
5933:
5922:
5918:
5907:
5903:
5895:
5891:
5883:
5879:
5871:
5867:
5856:
5852:
5841:
5837:
5826:
5822:
5811:
5807:
5799:
5795:
5784:
5780:
5769:
5765:
5754:
5750:
5739:
5735:
5727:
5723:
5715:
5711:
5703:
5699:
5691:
5687:
5679:
5675:
5664:
5660:
5652:
5648:
5640:
5636:
5628:
5624:
5616:
5612:
5604:
5600:
5592:
5588:
5577:
5568:
5545:
5538:
5530:
5523:
5515:
5511:
5500:
5496:
5488:
5484:
5476:
5472:
5460:
5456:
5445:
5441:
5430:
5426:
5418:
5411:
5403:
5399:
5384:
5380:
5369:
5362:
5354:
5345:
5337:
5333:
5325:
5321:
5313:
5306:
5298:
5294:
5286:
5282:
5274:
5270:
5262:
5258:
5250:
5246:
5238:
5234:
5226:
5219:
5211:
5204:
5196:
5189:
5181:
5177:
5169:
5165:
5157:
5153:
5145:
5141:
5133:
5129:
5121:
5117:
5110:
5095:
5093:
5089:
5080:
5076:
5067:
5063:
5052:
5045:
5027:
5026:
5022:
5004:
5003:
4999:
4992:
4977:
4976:
4972:
4964:
4960:
4952:
4948:
4937:
4933:
4922:
4918:
4907:
4903:
4895:
4891:
4883:
4879:
4871:
4858:
4847:
4834:
4826:
4822:
4814:
4807:
4799:
4792:
4784:
4780:
4769:
4765:
4757:
4738:
4730:
4723:
4715:
4708:
4697:
4688:
4680:
4673:
4665:
4654:
4646:
4637:
4629:
4625:
4614:
4607:
4596:
4589:
4581:
4574:
4566:
4562:
4554:
4550:
4539:
4532:
4524:
4520:
4509:
4505:
4494:
4490:
4482:
4475:
4464:
4460:
4449:
4445:
4437:
4430:
4419:
4415:
4404:
4400:
4389:
4385:
4370:
4366:
4355:
4351:
4340:
4336:
4325:
4321:
4310:
4306:
4298:
4283:
4272:
4268:
4257:
4250:
4242:
4238:
4230:
4226:
4218:
4214:
4206:
4202:
4191:
4187:
4179:
4175:
4167:
4163:
4152:
4148:
4137:
4122:
4114:
4110:
4102:
4098:
4073:
4072:
4068:
4057:
4046:
4035:
4031:
4020:
4013:
4005:
4001:
3990:
3986:
3975:
3971:
3963:
3959:
3948:
3944:
3933:
3926:
3918:
3914:
3903:
3899:
3888:
3881:
3870:
3861:
3850:
3846:
3835:
3831:
3820:
3813:
3802:
3798:
3787:
3783:
3775:
3768:
3757:
3753:
3745:
3738:
3727:
3723:
3712:
3708:
3700:
3689:
3678:
3667:
3656:
3645:
3634:
3630:
3619:
3615:
3607:
3603:
3595:
3591:
3583:
3579:
3568:
3561:
3550:
3546:
3535:
3531:
3520:
3516:
3505:
3501:
3490:
3483:
3472:
3465:
3457:
3453:
3445:
3436:
3428:
3424:
3416:
3409:
3398:
3389:
3381:
3377:
3369:
3362:
3354:
3350:
3339:
3332:
3324:
3320:
3309:
3305:
3294:
3290:
3279:
3275:
3264:
3260:
3249:
3240:
3232:
3228:
3217:
3213:
3202:
3198:
3187:
3183:
3175:
3171:
3160:
3156:
3145:
3141:
3130:
3126:
3115:
3111:
3100:
3093:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3071:
3058:
3057:
3038:
3037:
3024:
3023:
3014:
3013:
2996:
2995:
2978:
2976:
2971:
2894:Thomas Artsruni
2768:
2751:circumvallation
2698:
2686:Main articles:
2684:
2640:later conflicts
2571:
2557:
2521:
2515:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2425:
2422:
2389:
2328:
2322:
2265:
2259:
2193:
2187:
2182:
2074:
2068:
2063:
2047:Battle of Sarus
1895:
1861:(Shkodër), and
1803:
1746:
1740:
1717:William of Tyre
1658:
1653:
1617:
1611:
1570:
1564:
1497:
1489:Main articles:
1487:
1482:
1438:Byzantine Syria
1417:A gold coin of
1393:Caesarea Mazaca
1372:Ashtat Yeztayar
1333:
1302:
1214:
1208:
1164:
1116:Persian Armenia
1069:
944:Emperor Maurice
936:Sasanian Empire
920:
915:
864:Egypt (618–621)
825:
821:
818:
816:
786:
781:
512:
507:
505:
503:
469:
441:Ashtat Yeztayar
432:
400:
387:
336:
212:Sasanian Iberia
201:Sasanian Empire
158:
141:
103:
99:
82:
59:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7208:
7206:
7198:
7197:
7192:
7187:
7182:
7177:
7172:
7167:
7162:
7157:
7152:
7147:
7145:620s conflicts
7142:
7140:610s conflicts
7137:
7135:600s conflicts
7132:
7127:
7122:
7117:
7112:
7107:
7102:
7097:
7092:
7087:
7082:
7072:
7071:
7066:
7065:
7059:
7041:
7035:
7015:
7012:
7010:
7009:
7004:
6989:
6984:
6969:
6964:
6949:
6936:
6931:
6913:
6908:
6893:
6888:
6875:
6870:
6855:
6850:
6832:
6818:
6813:
6795:
6790:
6775:
6770:
6752:
6747:
6734:
6729:
6714:
6709:
6694:
6689:
6674:
6669:
6654:
6649:
6631:
6626:
6608:
6603:
6585:
6580:
6563:
6558:
6543:
6538:
6525:
6520:
6505:
6500:
6485:
6480:
6465:
6445:
6440:
6425:
6420:
6407:
6402:
6389:
6384:
6369:
6364:
6349:
6326:
6321:
6306:
6301:
6292:Porphyrogenita
6286:
6281:
6266:
6261:
6246:
6241:
6225:
6223:
6220:
6218:
6217:
6205:
6190:
6178:
6166:
6154:
6142:
6127:
6115:
6091:
6079:
6067:
6048:
6030:
6028:, p. xxvi
6015:
5987:
5970:
5955:
5943:
5931:
5916:
5901:
5889:
5877:
5875:, pp. 403
5865:
5850:
5835:
5820:
5805:
5793:
5778:
5763:
5748:
5733:
5721:
5709:
5697:
5685:
5673:
5658:
5646:
5634:
5622:
5610:
5598:
5586:
5566:
5536:
5521:
5509:
5494:
5482:
5470:
5454:
5439:
5424:
5409:
5397:
5378:
5360:
5343:
5331:
5319:
5304:
5292:
5280:
5268:
5256:
5244:
5232:
5217:
5202:
5187:
5175:
5173:, pp. 408
5163:
5151:
5139:
5127:
5115:
5108:
5087:
5074:
5061:
5043:
5020:
4997:
4990:
4970:
4958:
4946:
4931:
4916:
4901:
4889:
4877:
4856:
4832:
4820:
4805:
4790:
4778:
4771:Treadgold 1997
4763:
4736:
4721:
4706:
4686:
4671:
4652:
4635:
4623:
4605:
4587:
4572:
4560:
4548:
4530:
4518:
4503:
4488:
4473:
4458:
4443:
4428:
4413:
4398:
4391:Treadgold 1997
4383:
4364:
4349:
4334:
4319:
4304:
4281:
4266:
4248:
4236:
4224:
4222:, p. 197.
4212:
4210:, p. 223.
4200:
4185:
4173:
4161:
4146:
4120:
4108:
4106:, p. 141.
4096:
4082:(9): 109–125.
4066:
4044:
4029:
4011:
3999:
3984:
3969:
3957:
3942:
3924:
3912:
3897:
3879:
3859:
3844:
3829:
3811:
3796:
3781:
3766:
3751:
3736:
3721:
3706:
3687:
3665:
3643:
3628:
3613:
3601:
3589:
3577:
3559:
3544:
3529:
3514:
3499:
3481:
3463:
3451:
3434:
3422:
3407:
3387:
3375:
3360:
3348:
3330:
3318:
3303:
3288:
3273:
3258:
3251:Treadgold 1997
3238:
3226:
3219:Treadgold 1998
3211:
3204:Treadgold 1998
3196:
3181:
3169:
3154:
3139:
3124:
3109:
3091:
3089:, p. 142.
3078:
3076:
3073:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2967:
2933:The Byzantine
2826:attributed to
2767:
2766:Historiography
2764:
2710:lamellar armor
2688:Byzantine army
2683:
2680:
2636:southern Italy
2556:
2553:
2514:
2511:
2503:Arab invasions
2462:
2459:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2430:Nahrawan Canal
2420:
2388:
2385:
2347:Edward Luttwak
2324:Main article:
2321:
2318:
2290:porphyrogenita
2261:Main article:
2258:
2255:
2245:as far as the
2191:Byzantine silk
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2110:Byzantine navy
2070:Main article:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2023:Arsanias River
1894:
1891:
1802:
1799:
1742:Main article:
1739:
1736:
1671:Constantinople
1657:
1656:Reorganization
1654:
1652:
1649:
1613:Main article:
1610:
1607:
1587:Constantinople
1566:Main article:
1563:
1560:
1540:Holy Sepulchre
1486:
1483:
1481:
1478:
1462:Cilician Gates
1341:Late Antiquity
1332:
1329:
1269:comes Orientis
1239:, urged on by
1210:Main article:
1207:
1204:
1163:
1160:
1152:Constantinople
1140:in the Balkans
1068:
1065:
984:Constantinople
928:series of wars
917:
916:
914:
913:
908:
903:
898:
893:
892:
891:
886:
876:
871:
866:
861:
856:
851:
846:
841:
836:
830:
827:
826:
822:War of 602–628
817:
815:
814:
807:
800:
792:
783:
782:
780:
779:
777:War of 602–628
774:
772:War of 572–591
769:
764:
759:
757:Anastasian War
754:
749:
747:War of 421–422
736:
735:
730:
729:
728:
723:
718:
713:
708:
698:
697:
696:
691:
686:
676:
671:
666:
661:
659:Caesarea (260)
656:
651:
646:
641:
636:
631:
630:
629:
624:
619:
614:
609:
591:
590:
585:
580:
575:
570:
565:
560:
555:
554:
553:
548:
543:
541:Cilician Gates
533:
528:
517:
514:
513:
504:
502:
501:
494:
487:
479:
471:
470:
468:
467:
462:
457:
448:
446:Senitam Khusro
443:
438:
425:
420:
417:
406:
393:
380:
375:
370:
364:
359:
353:
339:
337:
335:
334:
328:
322:
317:
312:
307:
302:
297:
292:
287:
275:
270:
259:
251:
248:
247:
243:
242:
241:
240:
235:
230:
225:
219:
214:
209:
197:
196:
195:
190:
177:
176:
172:
171:
168:
167:
160:
154:
153:
151:§ Results
147:
143:
142:
113:
111:
107:
106:
94:
86:
85:
51:
50:
35:
34:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7207:
7196:
7193:
7191:
7188:
7186:
7183:
7181:
7178:
7176:
7173:
7171:
7168:
7166:
7163:
7161:
7158:
7156:
7153:
7151:
7148:
7146:
7143:
7141:
7138:
7136:
7133:
7131:
7128:
7126:
7123:
7121:
7118:
7116:
7113:
7111:
7108:
7106:
7103:
7101:
7098:
7096:
7093:
7091:
7088:
7086:
7083:
7081:
7078:
7077:
7075:
7068:
7062:
7056:
7052:
7051:
7046:
7042:
7038:
7032:
7028:
7027:
7022:
7018:
7017:
7013:
7007:
7001:
6997:
6996:
6990:
6987:
6981:
6977:
6976:
6970:
6967:
6961:
6957:
6956:
6950:
6946:
6942:
6937:
6934:
6928:
6924:
6923:
6918:
6914:
6911:
6905:
6901:
6900:
6894:
6891:
6885:
6881:
6876:
6873:
6867:
6863:
6862:
6856:
6853:
6847:
6843:
6842:
6837:
6833:
6829:
6828:
6823:
6822:Oman, Charles
6819:
6816:
6810:
6806:
6805:
6800:
6796:
6793:
6787:
6783:
6782:
6776:
6773:
6767:
6763:
6762:
6757:
6753:
6750:
6744:
6740:
6735:
6732:
6726:
6722:
6721:
6715:
6712:
6706:
6702:
6701:
6695:
6692:
6686:
6682:
6681:
6675:
6672:
6666:
6662:
6661:
6655:
6652:
6646:
6642:
6641:
6636:
6632:
6629:
6623:
6619:
6618:
6613:
6609:
6606:
6600:
6596:
6595:
6590:
6586:
6583:
6577:
6572:
6571:
6564:
6561:
6555:
6551:
6550:
6544:
6541:
6535:
6532:, Routledge,
6531:
6526:
6523:
6517:
6513:
6512:
6506:
6503:
6497:
6494:, Greenwood,
6493:
6492:
6486:
6483:
6477:
6473:
6472:
6466:
6463:
6459:
6455:
6451:
6446:
6443:
6437:
6433:
6432:
6426:
6423:
6417:
6413:
6408:
6405:
6399:
6396:, Routledge,
6395:
6390:
6387:
6381:
6377:
6376:
6370:
6367:
6361:
6358:, Routledge,
6357:
6356:
6350:
6347:on 2011-08-05
6343:
6339:
6332:
6327:
6324:
6318:
6314:
6313:
6307:
6304:
6298:
6294:
6293:
6287:
6284:
6278:
6274:
6273:
6267:
6264:
6258:
6254:
6253:
6247:
6244:
6238:
6234:
6233:
6227:
6226:
6221:
6214:
6209:
6206:
6203:
6199:
6194:
6191:
6187:
6182:
6179:
6175:
6170:
6167:
6163:
6158:
6155:
6151:
6146:
6143:
6139:
6134:
6132:
6128:
6125:, p. 192
6124:
6119:
6116:
6105:
6101:
6095:
6092:
6088:
6083:
6080:
6077:, p. xxv
6076:
6071:
6068:
6064:
6059:
6057:
6055:
6053:
6049:
6046:
6042:
6037:
6035:
6031:
6027:
6022:
6020:
6016:
6013:
6009:
6004:
6002:
6000:
5998:
5996:
5994:
5992:
5988:
5984:
5979:
5977:
5975:
5971:
5968:
5964:
5963:Online notice
5959:
5956:
5952:
5947:
5944:
5940:
5935:
5932:
5929:
5925:
5920:
5917:
5914:
5910:
5905:
5902:
5899:, p. 404
5898:
5893:
5890:
5886:
5881:
5878:
5874:
5869:
5866:
5863:
5859:
5854:
5851:
5848:
5844:
5839:
5836:
5833:
5829:
5824:
5821:
5818:
5814:
5809:
5806:
5803:, p. 282
5802:
5797:
5794:
5791:
5787:
5782:
5779:
5776:
5772:
5767:
5764:
5761:
5757:
5752:
5749:
5746:
5742:
5737:
5734:
5730:
5725:
5722:
5718:
5713:
5710:
5707:, p. 180
5706:
5701:
5698:
5695:, p. 155
5694:
5689:
5686:
5683:, p. 134
5682:
5677:
5674:
5671:
5667:
5662:
5659:
5656:, p. 170
5655:
5650:
5647:
5643:
5638:
5635:
5631:
5626:
5623:
5620:, p. 747
5619:
5614:
5611:
5607:
5602:
5599:
5595:
5590:
5587:
5584:
5580:
5575:
5573:
5571:
5567:
5564:
5560:
5556:
5552:
5548:
5543:
5541:
5537:
5533:
5528:
5526:
5522:
5519:, p. 291
5518:
5513:
5510:
5507:
5503:
5502:Beckwith 2009
5498:
5495:
5492:, p. 227
5491:
5486:
5483:
5479:
5474:
5471:
5467:
5463:
5458:
5455:
5452:
5448:
5443:
5440:
5437:
5433:
5428:
5425:
5421:
5416:
5414:
5410:
5406:
5401:
5398:
5395:
5391:
5387:
5382:
5379:
5376:
5372:
5367:
5365:
5361:
5357:
5352:
5350:
5348:
5344:
5341:, p. 174
5340:
5335:
5332:
5329:, p. 172
5328:
5323:
5320:
5317:, p. 173
5316:
5311:
5309:
5305:
5302:, p. 259
5301:
5296:
5293:
5290:, p. 167
5289:
5284:
5281:
5278:, p. 169
5277:
5272:
5269:
5266:, p. 163
5265:
5260:
5257:
5254:, p. 161
5253:
5248:
5245:
5242:, p. 160
5241:
5236:
5233:
5230:, p. 215
5229:
5224:
5222:
5218:
5215:, p. 159
5214:
5209:
5207:
5203:
5200:, p. 213
5199:
5194:
5192:
5188:
5184:
5179:
5176:
5172:
5167:
5164:
5161:, p. 212
5160:
5155:
5152:
5149:, p. 144
5148:
5143:
5140:
5137:, p. 104
5136:
5131:
5128:
5125:, p. 143
5124:
5119:
5116:
5111:
5105:
5101:
5100:
5091:
5088:
5084:
5078:
5075:
5071:
5065:
5062:
5059:
5055:
5050:
5048:
5044:
5039:
5035:
5031:
5024:
5021:
5016:
5012:
5008:
5001:
4998:
4993:
4987:
4983:
4982:
4974:
4971:
4968:, p. 151
4967:
4962:
4959:
4956:, p. 148
4955:
4950:
4947:
4944:
4940:
4935:
4932:
4929:
4925:
4924:Ekonomou 2008
4920:
4917:
4914:
4910:
4905:
4902:
4899:, p. 137
4898:
4893:
4890:
4887:, p. 136
4886:
4881:
4878:
4874:
4869:
4867:
4865:
4863:
4861:
4857:
4854:
4850:
4845:
4843:
4841:
4839:
4837:
4833:
4830:, p. 134
4829:
4824:
4821:
4817:
4812:
4810:
4806:
4803:, p. 140
4802:
4797:
4795:
4791:
4788:, p. 133
4787:
4782:
4779:
4776:
4772:
4767:
4764:
4760:
4755:
4753:
4751:
4749:
4747:
4745:
4743:
4741:
4737:
4734:, p. 132
4733:
4728:
4726:
4722:
4719:, p. 131
4718:
4713:
4711:
4707:
4704:
4700:
4695:
4693:
4691:
4687:
4684:, p. 204
4683:
4678:
4676:
4672:
4669:, p. 130
4668:
4663:
4661:
4659:
4657:
4653:
4650:, p. 129
4649:
4644:
4642:
4640:
4636:
4633:, p. 128
4632:
4627:
4624:
4621:
4617:
4612:
4610:
4606:
4603:
4599:
4594:
4592:
4588:
4585:, p. 122
4584:
4579:
4577:
4573:
4570:, p. 120
4569:
4564:
4561:
4558:, p. 119
4557:
4552:
4549:
4546:
4542:
4537:
4535:
4531:
4528:, p. 118
4527:
4522:
4519:
4516:
4512:
4507:
4504:
4501:
4497:
4492:
4489:
4485:
4480:
4478:
4474:
4471:
4467:
4462:
4459:
4456:
4452:
4447:
4444:
4441:, p. 115
4440:
4435:
4433:
4429:
4426:
4422:
4417:
4414:
4411:
4407:
4402:
4399:
4396:
4392:
4387:
4384:
4381:
4377:
4373:
4368:
4365:
4362:
4358:
4353:
4350:
4347:
4343:
4342:Runciman 2005
4338:
4335:
4332:
4328:
4323:
4320:
4317:
4313:
4308:
4305:
4301:
4296:
4294:
4292:
4290:
4288:
4286:
4282:
4279:
4275:
4270:
4267:
4264:
4260:
4255:
4253:
4249:
4246:, p. 725
4245:
4240:
4237:
4234:, p. 33.
4233:
4228:
4225:
4221:
4216:
4213:
4209:
4204:
4201:
4198:
4194:
4189:
4186:
4183:, p. 724
4182:
4177:
4174:
4170:
4165:
4162:
4159:
4155:
4150:
4147:
4144:
4140:
4135:
4133:
4131:
4129:
4127:
4125:
4121:
4117:
4112:
4109:
4105:
4100:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4077:
4070:
4067:
4064:
4060:
4055:
4053:
4051:
4049:
4045:
4042:
4038:
4033:
4030:
4027:
4023:
4018:
4016:
4012:
4008:
4003:
4000:
3997:
3993:
3988:
3985:
3982:
3978:
3973:
3970:
3966:
3961:
3958:
3955:
3951:
3950:Fouracre 2006
3946:
3943:
3940:
3936:
3931:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3916:
3913:
3910:
3906:
3901:
3898:
3895:
3891:
3886:
3884:
3880:
3877:
3873:
3868:
3866:
3864:
3860:
3857:
3853:
3848:
3845:
3842:
3838:
3833:
3830:
3827:
3823:
3818:
3816:
3812:
3809:
3805:
3800:
3797:
3794:
3790:
3785:
3782:
3779:, p. 188
3778:
3773:
3771:
3767:
3764:
3760:
3755:
3752:
3749:, p. 185
3748:
3743:
3741:
3737:
3734:
3730:
3725:
3722:
3719:
3715:
3710:
3707:
3704:, p. 186
3703:
3698:
3696:
3694:
3692:
3688:
3685:
3681:
3676:
3674:
3672:
3670:
3666:
3663:
3659:
3654:
3652:
3650:
3648:
3644:
3641:
3637:
3632:
3629:
3626:
3622:
3617:
3614:
3610:
3605:
3602:
3598:
3593:
3590:
3586:
3581:
3578:
3575:
3571:
3566:
3564:
3560:
3557:
3553:
3548:
3545:
3542:
3538:
3533:
3530:
3527:
3523:
3518:
3515:
3512:
3508:
3503:
3500:
3497:
3493:
3488:
3486:
3482:
3479:
3475:
3470:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3455:
3452:
3449:, p. 187
3448:
3443:
3441:
3439:
3435:
3431:
3426:
3423:
3419:
3414:
3412:
3408:
3405:
3401:
3396:
3394:
3392:
3388:
3384:
3379:
3376:
3373:, p. 184
3372:
3367:
3365:
3361:
3358:, p. 722
3357:
3352:
3349:
3346:
3342:
3337:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3322:
3319:
3316:
3312:
3307:
3304:
3301:
3297:
3292:
3289:
3286:
3282:
3277:
3274:
3271:
3267:
3262:
3259:
3256:
3252:
3247:
3245:
3243:
3239:
3236:, p. 401
3235:
3230:
3227:
3224:
3220:
3215:
3212:
3209:
3205:
3200:
3197:
3194:
3190:
3185:
3182:
3178:
3173:
3170:
3167:
3163:
3158:
3155:
3152:
3148:
3143:
3140:
3137:
3133:
3128:
3125:
3122:
3118:
3113:
3110:
3107:
3103:
3098:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3083:
3080:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3054:
3049:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2980:
2973:
2968:
2966:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2955:Sigillography
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2935:hagiographies
2931:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2917:
2916:
2910:
2908:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2886:
2884:
2880:
2879:Brief History
2876:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2863:Brief History
2860:
2856:
2851:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2816:John of Nikiu
2813:
2809:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2786:
2777:
2772:
2765:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2752:
2746:
2743:
2737:
2731:
2726:
2724:
2720:
2719:
2713:
2711:
2707:
2704:. The lance (
2703:
2697:
2696:Sasanian army
2693:
2689:
2681:
2679:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2591:
2589:
2583:
2581:
2577:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2554:
2552:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2520:
2512:
2510:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2499:Julius Caesar
2496:
2495:Norman Davies
2492:
2487:
2485:
2481:
2472:
2467:
2460:
2455:
2451:Significance
2450:
2448:
2446:
2442:
2441:war indemnity
2438:
2433:
2431:
2419:
2415:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2397:
2393:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2380:Brief History
2377:
2372:
2368:
2363:
2361:
2357:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2337:
2332:
2327:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2291:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2264:
2256:
2254:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2235:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2192:
2184:
2179:
2177:
2173:
2171:
2167:
2166:Akathist Hymn
2163:
2158:
2156:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2122:
2118:
2113:
2111:
2107:
2102:
2098:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2065:
2060:
2058:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2011:
2009:
2005:
2004:baggage train
2001:
1995:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1960:
1956:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1939:
1936:, the famous
1935:
1934:Adur Gushnasp
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1907:
1906:Adur Gushnasp
1903:
1899:
1892:
1890:
1888:
1884:
1878:
1875:
1871:
1866:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1800:
1798:
1796:
1792:
1787:
1783:
1777:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1745:
1737:
1735:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1720:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1704:
1702:
1697:
1696:
1690:
1685:
1681:
1672:
1668:
1667:
1662:
1655:
1650:
1648:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1616:
1608:
1606:
1602:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1579:
1575:
1569:
1561:
1559:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1536:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1501:
1496:
1492:
1484:
1479:
1477:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1434:
1432:
1428:
1420:
1415:
1411:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1396:
1394:
1389:
1386:, across the
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1364:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1342:
1337:
1330:
1328:
1326:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1312:Fabia Eudokia
1308:
1304:
1298:
1296:
1291:
1289:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1273:
1271:
1270:
1265:
1264:Anastasius II
1261:
1257:
1252:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1223:
1218:
1213:
1203:
1201:
1197:
1192:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1168:
1161:
1159:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1146:, a Thracian
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1128:
1126:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1104:Bahrām Chobin
1101:
1097:
1093:
1090:
1081:
1073:
1066:
1064:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1029:Muslim armies
1026:
1021:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
998:
993:
987:
985:
981:
977:
973:
969:
965:
961:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
937:
933:
929:
925:
912:
911:Nineveh (627)
909:
907:
904:
902:
899:
897:
894:
890:
887:
885:
882:
881:
880:
877:
875:
872:
870:
867:
865:
862:
860:
857:
855:
852:
850:
847:
845:
844:Jewish revolt
842:
840:
839:Antioch (613)
837:
835:
832:
831:
828:
823:
813:
808:
806:
801:
799:
794:
793:
790:
778:
775:
773:
770:
768:
765:
763:
760:
758:
755:
753:
750:
748:
745:
744:
743:
742:
741:
734:
731:
727:
724:
722:
719:
717:
714:
712:
709:
707:
704:
703:
702:
699:
695:
692:
690:
687:
685:
682:
681:
680:
677:
675:
672:
670:
669:Carrhae (296)
667:
665:
664:3rd Ctesiphon
662:
660:
657:
655:
652:
650:
647:
645:
642:
640:
637:
635:
634:Nisibis (252)
632:
628:
625:
623:
620:
618:
615:
613:
612:Nisibis (235)
610:
608:
605:
604:
603:
600:
599:
598:
597:
596:
589:
586:
584:
581:
579:
578:2nd Ctesiphon
576:
574:
571:
569:
566:
564:
561:
559:
556:
552:
549:
547:
544:
542:
539:
538:
537:
534:
532:
529:
527:
524:
523:
522:
521:
515:
510:
500:
495:
493:
488:
486:
481:
480:
477:
466:
463:
461:
458:
455:
449:
447:
444:
442:
439:
437:
435:
429:
426:
424:
421:
418:
415:
410:
407:
405:
403:
397:
394:
392:
390:
384:
381:
379:
376:
374:
371:
368:
365:
363:
360:
357:
354:
351:
346:
345:
341:
340:
338:
332:
329:
326:
323:
321:
318:
316:
313:
311:
308:
306:
303:
301:
298:
296:
293:
291:
288:
285:
279:
276:
274:
271:
268:
263:
260:
258:
257:
253:
252:
250:
249:
244:
239:
236:
234:
231:
229:
226:
223:
220:
218:
215:
213:
210:
208:
205:
204:
203:
202:
198:
194:
191:
189:
186:
185:
184:
183:
179:
178:
173:
166:
165:
161:
156:
155:
152:
148:
145:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
109:
108:
95:
92:
91:
87:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
61:Anachronistic
57:
52:
49:
45:
41:
36:
31:
19:
7067:
7049:
7025:
6994:
6974:
6954:
6944:
6941:"Hormozd IV"
6921:
6898:
6879:
6860:
6840:
6826:
6803:
6780:
6760:
6738:
6719:
6699:
6683:, ABC-CLIO,
6679:
6659:
6639:
6616:
6593:
6569:
6548:
6529:
6514:, Ignatius,
6510:
6490:
6470:
6453:
6449:
6430:
6411:
6393:
6374:
6354:
6342:the original
6337:
6311:
6291:
6271:
6251:
6231:
6208:
6193:
6181:
6176:, p. 14
6169:
6162:Luttwak 2009
6157:
6145:
6140:, p. 10
6118:
6107:. Retrieved
6103:
6094:
6082:
6070:
5958:
5951:Luttwak 2009
5946:
5939:Luttwak 2009
5934:
5924:Luttwak 2009
5919:
5909:Luttwak 2009
5904:
5897:Luttwak 2009
5892:
5887:, p. 32
5880:
5873:Luttwak 2009
5868:
5858:Luttwak 2009
5853:
5843:Gabriel 2002
5838:
5828:Gabriel 2002
5823:
5813:Gabriel 2002
5808:
5801:Gabriel 2002
5796:
5786:Gabriel 2002
5781:
5771:Farrokh 2005
5766:
5756:Farrokh 2005
5751:
5741:Farrokh 2005
5736:
5724:
5719:, p. 37
5712:
5700:
5693:Norwich 1997
5688:
5681:Norwich 1997
5676:
5661:
5649:
5644:, p. xv
5637:
5625:
5613:
5601:
5596:, p. 39
5589:
5512:
5497:
5485:
5480:, p. 97
5478:Norwich 1997
5473:
5457:
5442:
5427:
5400:
5381:
5358:, p. 94
5356:Norwich 1997
5334:
5322:
5300:Farrokh 2007
5295:
5283:
5271:
5259:
5247:
5235:
5178:
5171:Luttwak 2009
5166:
5154:
5142:
5130:
5118:
5098:
5090:
5082:
5077:
5069:
5064:
5037:
5033:
5023:
5014:
5010:
5000:
4980:
4973:
4961:
4949:
4939:Gambero 1999
4934:
4919:
4909:Kimball 2010
4904:
4892:
4880:
4875:, p. 93
4873:Norwich 1997
4823:
4781:
4766:
4761:, p. 92
4759:Norwich 1997
4626:
4563:
4551:
4521:
4506:
4491:
4486:, p. 95
4461:
4446:
4416:
4401:
4386:
4367:
4352:
4337:
4322:
4307:
4302:, p. 91
4300:Norwich 1997
4269:
4239:
4227:
4215:
4203:
4193:Luttwak 2009
4188:
4176:
4171:, p. 85
4164:
4149:
4118:, p. 1.
4111:
4099:
4091:
4079:
4069:
4032:
4009:, p. 92
4002:
3987:
3972:
3967:, p. 30
3960:
3945:
3922:, p. 80
3915:
3900:
3847:
3832:
3799:
3784:
3754:
3724:
3709:
3631:
3616:
3611:, p. 60
3604:
3599:, p. 54
3592:
3587:, p. 52
3580:
3570:Norwich 1997
3547:
3532:
3517:
3502:
3461:, p. 55
3454:
3432:, p. 41
3425:
3420:, p. 37
3385:, p. 89
3383:Norwich 1997
3378:
3351:
3321:
3311:Norwich 1997
3306:
3291:
3276:
3261:
3234:Luttwak 2009
3229:
3214:
3199:
3184:
3179:, p. 86
3177:Norwich 1997
3172:
3157:
3142:
3127:
3112:
3102:Norwich 1997
3082:
3068:monophysites
3063:
3059:
3051:
3043:
3039:
3029:
3025:
3019:
3015:
3001:
2997:
2983:
2979:
2977:
2962:
2946:
2932:
2913:
2911:
2901:
2889:
2887:
2878:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2854:
2852:
2843:
2839:
2831:
2823:
2811:
2805:
2799:
2783:
2781:
2760:
2756:
2747:
2727:
2722:
2716:
2714:
2699:
2619:North Africa
2599:George Liska
2592:
2584:
2572:
2549:Yazdgerd III
2533:Ardashir III
2522:
2507:Lord Norwich
2488:
2484:Hagia Sophia
2476:
2471:Saint Helena
2434:
2427:
2417:
2401:
2379:
2364:
2350:
2340:
2298:
2288:
2266:
2236:
2217:
2214:, Samarkand.
2200:Western Turk
2174:
2159:
2151:
2114:
2094:
2031:Martyropolis
2019:Mount Ararat
2012:
1996:
1972:Shahraplakan
1965:
1914:Araxes River
1911:
1896:
1879:
1867:
1839:Thessalonica
1817:(Kostolac),
1813:(Belgrade),
1804:
1778:
1747:
1721:
1709:Hagia Sophia
1705:
1693:
1676:
1664:
1629:client state
1618:
1604:
1599:
1595:
1578:Chalcedonian
1574:Monophysites
1571:
1537:
1506:
1435:
1423:
1404:Walter Kaegi
1397:
1365:
1346:
1309:
1306:
1300:
1292:
1274:
1267:
1253:
1226:
1193:
1173:
1129:
1086:
1053:North Africa
1045:the Caucasus
1022:
995:
988:
940:previous war
923:
921:
819:
776:
738:
737:
711:Maiozamalcha
649:Dura-Europos
593:
592:
518:
433:
401:
388:
373:Shahraplakan
342:
295:Domentziolus
254:
199:
180:
175:Belligerents
162:
75:. Fresco by
38:Part of the
6902:, Peeters,
6830:, Macmillan
6807:, Vintage,
6597:, Ashgate,
6295:, Ashgate,
6222:Works cited
6213:Dennis 1998
6065:, p. 9
6010:, pp.
5985:, p. 7
5926:, pp.
5911:, pp.
5860:, pp.
5815:, pp.
5731:, p. 7
5717:Holmes 2001
5668:, pp.
5666:Haldon 1997
5581:, pp.
5579:Haldon 1997
5549:, pp.
5547:Haldon 1997
5534:, p. 9
5388:, pp.
5135:Dennis 1998
5054:Khanam 2005
5034:Transoxiana
4408:, pp.
4406:Haldon 1997
4374:, pp.
4059:Davies 1998
4039:, pp.
3854:, pp.
3731:, pp.
3221:, pp.
3053:Strategikon
3010:Justinian I
2963:Strategikon
2951:Numismatics
2723:Strategikon
2718:Strategikon
2580:Zoroastrian
2545:Azarmidokht
2480:Holy Sponge
2285:Tong Yabghu
2243:Afghanistan
2210:. 648–651,
2162:Golden Horn
2155:Virgin Mary
2051:panegyrists
2039:Sarus River
2025:to capture
2000:Tigranakert
1984:Bitlis Pass
1953:Adurbadagan
1941:fire temple
1938:Zoroastrian
1845:coast like
1821:(Niš), and
1801:Avar threat
1732:Constans II
1647:in Africa.
1552:Holy Sponge
1427:Philippicus
1400:casus belli
1351:and Amida (
1320:Comentiolus
1256:Roman Syria
1180:Mesopotamia
1132:Tiberius II
1112:Mesopotamia
1018:A civil war
964:Mesopotamia
762:Iberian War
694:2nd Singara
684:1st Singara
639:Barbalissos
602:Mesopotamia
551:Mt Gindarus
546:Amanus Pass
369:(until 626)
358:(until 626)
333:(after 626)
327:(after 626)
273:Philippicus
157:Territorial
139:Mesopotamia
83: 1452
7074:Categories
6434:, Osprey,
6414:, Osprey,
6200:, p.
6174:Kaegi 2003
6138:Kaegi 2003
6109:2023-06-04
6063:Kaegi 2003
6043:, p.
6041:Kaegi 2003
5983:Kaegi 2003
5885:Kaegi 1995
5845:, p.
5830:, p.
5788:, p.
5773:, p.
5758:, p.
5743:, p.
5705:Evans 2002
5654:Liska 1998
5606:Kaegi 1995
5594:Kaegi 1995
5504:, p.
5490:Kaegi 2003
5464:, p.
5449:, p.
5434:, p.
5432:Kaegi 2003
5405:Kaegi 2003
5386:Kaegi 2003
5373:, p.
5339:Kaegi 2003
5327:Kaegi 2003
5315:Kaegi 2003
5288:Kaegi 2003
5276:Kaegi 2003
5264:Kaegi 2003
5252:Kaegi 2003
5240:Kaegi 2003
5213:Kaegi 2003
5183:Kaegi 2003
5147:Kaegi 2003
5123:Kaegi 2003
5056:, p.
4966:Kaegi 2003
4954:Kaegi 2003
4941:, p.
4926:, p.
4911:, p.
4897:Kaegi 2003
4885:Kaegi 2003
4851:, p.
4828:Kaegi 2003
4801:Kaegi 2003
4786:Kaegi 2003
4773:, p.
4732:Kaegi 2003
4717:Kaegi 2003
4701:, p.
4667:Kaegi 2003
4648:Kaegi 2003
4631:Kaegi 2003
4618:, p.
4616:Kaegi 2003
4600:, p.
4598:Kaegi 2003
4583:Kaegi 2003
4568:Kaegi 2003
4556:Kaegi 2003
4543:, p.
4526:Kaegi 2003
4513:, p.
4498:, p.
4484:Kaegi 2003
4468:, p.
4466:Kaegi 2003
4453:, p.
4451:Kaegi 2003
4439:Kaegi 2003
4423:, p.
4421:Kaegi 2003
4393:, p.
4359:, p.
4357:Kaegi 2003
4344:, p.
4329:, p.
4314:, p.
4312:Kaegi 2003
4276:, p.
4274:Kaegi 2003
4261:, p.
4259:Kaegi 2003
4195:, p.
4169:Kaegi 2003
4156:, p.
4154:Kaegi 2003
4141:, p.
4061:, p.
4024:, p.
4022:Kaegi 2003
4007:Kaegi 2003
3994:, p.
3992:Kaegi 2003
3979:, p.
3965:Kaegi 1995
3952:, p.
3937:, p.
3920:Kaegi 2003
3907:, p.
3892:, p.
3890:Kaegi 2003
3874:, p.
3872:Kaegi 2003
3852:Kaegi 2003
3839:, p.
3837:Kaegi 2003
3824:, p.
3822:Kaegi 2003
3806:, p.
3804:Kaegi 2003
3791:, p.
3789:Kaegi 2003
3761:, p.
3759:Kaegi 2003
3729:Kaegi 2003
3716:, p.
3682:, p.
3680:Kaegi 2003
3660:, p.
3658:Kaegi 2003
3638:, p.
3636:Kaegi 2003
3623:, p.
3621:Kaegi 2003
3609:Kaegi 2003
3597:Kaegi 2003
3585:Kaegi 2003
3572:, p.
3554:, p.
3552:Kaegi 2003
3539:, p.
3524:, p.
3509:, p.
3507:Kaegi 2003
3494:, p.
3492:Kaegi 2003
3476:, p.
3459:Kaegi 2003
3430:Kaegi 2003
3418:Kaegi 2003
3402:, p.
3400:Kaegi 2003
3343:, p.
3313:, p.
3298:, p.
3283:, p.
3268:, p.
3253:, p.
3206:, p.
3191:, p.
3164:, p.
3149:, p.
3134:, p.
3119:, p.
3104:, p.
3034:Theophanes
2988:Theophanes
2969:References
2959:Epigraphic
2900:wrote the
2730:cataphract
2541:Purandokht
2537:Shahrbaraz
2445:True Cross
2351:relational
2101:Shahrbaraz
1922:Nakhchivan
1853:(Trogir),
1815:Viminacium
1811:Singidunum
1766:Shahrbaraz
1722:Historian
1701:debasement
1550:, and the
1548:Holy Lance
1544:True Cross
1472:, and the
1442:Shahrbaraz
1419:Khosrow II
1376:Theodosius
1353:Diyarbakır
1279:to attack
1156:Hippodrome
1114:, much of
1100:Khosrow II
1094:ended the
1067:Background
980:Aegean Sea
948:Khosrow II
752:War of 440
706:Pirisabora
378:Theodosius
367:Kardarigan
356:Shahrbaraz
344:Khosrow II
331:Kardarigan
325:Shahrbaraz
188:Ghassanids
135:Aegean Sea
104: 628
102: – c.
100: 602
73:Khosrow II
7047:(2021) .
7023:(2007) .
6614:(1995) ,
6150:Foss 1975
5729:Lock 2013
5630:Foss 1975
5618:Foss 1975
5447:Bury 2008
5371:Oman 1893
5040:: Fig.25.
5017:: Fig. B.
4849:Oman 1893
4699:Oman 1893
4541:Oman 1893
4244:Foss 1975
4181:Foss 1975
4139:Oman 1893
4088:2308-6181
4037:Oman 1893
3935:Oman 1893
3474:Oman 1893
3356:Foss 1975
3341:Oman 1893
3281:Oman 1893
3266:Oman 1893
3189:Oman 1893
3162:Oman 1893
3117:Oman 1893
3075:Citations
3048:helepolis
3006:Justin II
2867:Chronicle
2855:Chronicle
2812:Chronicle
2802:al-Tabari
2736:skoutatoi
2656:Visigoths
2644:recovered
2588:Antiquity
2529:civil war
2525:Kavadh II
2412:Ctesiphon
2404:Dastagird
2396:Heraclius
2283:, led by
2271:", under
2232:Silk Road
2228:Justin II
2208:Samarkand
2204:Varkhuman
2135:Champlevé
2055:Trebizond
1949:Gayshawan
1857:(Budva),
1851:Tragurium
1849:(Zadar),
1786:Optimatoi
1621:Chalcedon
1556:Ctesiphon
1384:Chalcedon
1316:Patriarch
1295:Heraclius
1285:Patriarch
1148:centurion
1136:Justin II
1108:Sasanians
1061:Near East
1033:conquered
992:Heraclius
854:Jerusalem
767:Lazic War
733:Bagrevand
716:Ctesiphon
428:Dzuan Veh
419:Bayan III
383:Stephen I
256:Heraclius
238:Visigoths
69:Heraclius
6919:(2005),
6838:(1969),
6824:(1893),
6801:(1997),
6758:(2009),
6637:(2003),
6591:(2006),
4208:Kia 2016
2927:Muhammad
2861:and the
2672:Sardinia
2664:Lombards
2437:Kavad II
2421:—
2356:Rhahzadh
2301:Caucasus
2281:Göktürks
2015:Lake Van
1992:Abasgian
1874:Heraclea
1843:Adriatic
1829:in 614.
1770:Bithynia
1713:Crusades
1645:Carthage
1609:Anatolia
1529:Adhri'at
1513:Damascus
1458:deported
1431:Theodore
1388:Bosporus
1237:revolted
1200:Leontius
1188:Germanus
1031:swiftly
986:itself.
972:Anatolia
968:Caucasus
879:Caucasus
834:Caesarea
465:Suintila
423:Datoyean
396:Rhahzadh
310:Theodore
290:Leontius
278:Germanus
233:Lombards
228:Lakhmids
224:(c. 614)
217:Sclaveni
119:Anatolia
115:Caucasus
110:Location
67:between
5965:of the
5563:114–115
5394:189–190
4410:211–217
4041:206–207
3223:205–206
2925:, with
2824:History
2702:Aswaran
2660:Corsica
2628:717–718
2624:674–678
2611:Armenia
2408:Susiana
2367:Nineveh
2360:Assyria
2279:of the
2269:Khazars
2239:Bactria
2224:Sogdian
2117:Sergius
2090:Romania
2084:of the
1926:Ganzaka
1823:Serdica
1819:Naissus
1774:Galatia
1666:Solidus
1446:Antioch
1368:Erzurum
1277:Nicetas
1249:consuls
1241:Priscus
1125:Balkans
1092:Maurice
1089:Emperor
976:Armenia
884:Archesh
726:Samarra
721:Maranga
644:Antioch
627:Misiche
622:Resaena
588:Nisibis
526:Carrhae
434:†
402:†
389:†
305:Nicetas
300:Priscus
280: (
159:changes
131:Balkans
7057:
7033:
7002:
6982:
6962:
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1827:Salona
1795:Pontus
1750:Easter
1728:themes
1695:follis
1641:Aegean
1637:Rhodes
1633:Ancyra
1625:Sebeos
1546:, the
1519:, and
1517:Apamea
1466:Tarsus
1380:Shahin
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3856:76–77
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2974:Notes
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2919:sūrah
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2607:Syria
2595:Islam
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2146:Paris
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2041:near
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2008:harem
1988:Lazic
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315:Bonus
207:Avars
123:Egypt
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