369:
medical radiology may be relevant, at least until a study is done of any effects specific to backscatter x-ray machines. Fathers exposed to medical diagnostic x-rays are more likely to have infants who contract leukemia, especially if exposure is closer to conception or includes two or more X-rays of the lower gastrointestinal (GI) tract or lower abdomen. In medical radiography the x-ray beam is adjusted to expose only the area of which an image is required, so that generally shielding is applied to the patient to avoid exposing the gonads, whereas in an airport backscatter scan, the testicles of men and boys will be deliberately subjected to the direct beam in order to check for weapons in the underpants, and some radiation will also reach the ovaries of female subjects. A linear dose-response relationship has been observed between x-ray dose and double-strand breaks in DNA in human sperm.
365:. Since the dose limit is ten times higher than 0.01 μSv, their model would predict one additional cancer death per 200 million scans. Since the airports in the UK handled 218 million passengers in 2009, if all passengers in the UK were scanned at the maximum dosage, then each year this would produce on average one additional cancer death (since there would be 200 million scans per year that the scanners were in operation), though usually each death would not occur in the same year as the particular scan that caused it, since the cancer may take years to grow. In addition, additional people would be given cancer but would die from other causes.
323:, have stated that there is no specific evidence that full-body scans are unsafe. The Secure 1000 Backscatter X-ray scanner was developed in 1992 by Dr. Steve Smith. The scanner has been studied extensively for almost 20 years by the leading independent radiation safety authorities in the United States. Experimental and epidemiological data do not support the proposition, however, that there is a threshold dose of radiation below which there is no increased risk of cancer.
176:
248:: This machine does not show details of human anatomy, and is a different kind of machine from the one used in airports. TSA, part of the Department of Homeland Security, said that its scanners do not save images and that the scanners do not have the capability to save images when they are installed in airports, but later admitted that the scanners are required to be capable of saving images for the purpose of evaluation, training and testing.
20:
345:) of radiation; American Science and Engineering Inc. reports 0.09 μSv (0.009 mrem). At the high altitudes typical of commercial flights, naturally occurring cosmic radiation is considerably higher than at ground level. The radiation dose for a six-hour flight is 20 μSv (2 mrem) – 200 to 400 times larger than a backscatter scan. The
309:
and 0.39 in) plastic samples reduce the image darkness by 23% and 50% respectively. Dr. Smith states that those who calculate high skin dosage have incorrectly used the shallow imaging penetration value of a few millimeters (c. 0.16 in), whereas the actual dosage is calculated by the deeper dose penetration.
396:"A passenger would need to be scanned using a backscatter scanner, from both the front and the back, about 200,000 times to receive the amount of radiation equal to one typical CT scan," said Dr. Andrew J. Einstein, director of cardiac CT research at Columbia University Medical Center in New York City.
272:(FDA) does not need to subject them to the same safety evaluations as medical X-rays. However, the FDA has created a webpage comparing known estimates of the radiation from backscatter X-ray body scanners to that of other known sources, which cites various reasons they deem the technology to be safe.
501:
In the most general sense, N43.17 states that a device can be used for general purpose security screening of humans if the dose to the subject is less than 0.25 μSv (25 μrem) per examination and complies with other requirements of the standard. This is comparable to the average dose due to
484:
In
Germany, field tests on more than 800,000 passengers over a 10-month trial period concluded that scanners were effective, but not ready to be deployed in German airports due to a high rate of false alarms. The Italian Civil Aviation Authority removed scanners from airports after conducting a study
473:
In March 2012, scientist and blogger
Jonathan Corbett demonstrated the ineffectiveness of the technology by publishing a viral video showing how he was able to get a metal box through backscatter x-ray and millimeter wave scanners (including the currently-used "Automated Target Recognition" scanners)
442:
The designers and manufacturers of backscatter X-ray scanners claim that the scanners are designed to prevent the occurrence of these kinds of errors. The scanners' safety requirements include fail-safe controls and multiple overlapping interlocks. These features, combined with fault analysis, ensure
299:
John Sedat, the principal author of the UCSF letter, responded in
November 2010 that the White House's claim that full-body scanners pose no health risks to air travelers is in error, adding that the White House statement has "many misconceptions, and we will write a careful answer pointing out their
509:
Many types of X-ray systems can be designed to comply with ANSI N43.17 including transmission X-ray, backscatter X-ray and gamma ray systems. Not all backscatter X-ray devices necessarily comply with ANSI N43.17; only the manufacturer or end user can confirm compliance of a particular product to the
380:
As stated in NCRP Report No. 121 (1995), Principles and
Application of Collective Dose in Radiation Protection, the summation of trivial average risks over very large populations or time periods into a single value produces a distorted image of risk, completely out of perspective with risks accepted
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used in evaluating the safety of backscatter x-ray machines. They argued that the effective dose is higher than claimed by the TSA and the body scanner manufacturers because the dose was calculated as if distributed throughout the whole body, whereas most of the radiation is absorbed in the skin and
73:
use "Automated Target
Recognition" software, which replaces the picture of a nude body with the cartoon-like representation. As a result of this law, all backscatter X-ray machines formerly in use by the Transportation Security Administration were removed from airports by May 2013, since the agency
464:
on March 28, 2011, researchers at the
University of California "calculated that fully implementing backscatter scanners would not significantly increase the lifetime risk of cancer for travelers". The researchers calculated that for every 100 million passengers who flew seven one-way flights, there
308:
as body tissue), copper (the image subject), and an x-ray scanner. The dose-penetration experiment shows that 5 and 50 mm (0.20 and 1.97 in) plastic samples absorb 5% and 50% of the beam intensity respectively, whereas the imaging penetration experiment shows that 4.8 and 10 mm (0.19
291:
The UCSF professors requested that additional data be made public detailing the specific data regarding sensitive areas, such as the skin and certain organs, as well as data on the special (high-risk) population. In
October 2010, the FDA and TSA responded to these concerns. The letter cites reports
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It is "possible for backscatter X-raying to produce photo-quality images of what's going on beneath our clothes", thus, many software implementations of the scan have been designed to distort private areas. According to the TSA, further distortion is used in the
Phoenix airport's trial system where
513:
ANSI standards use a standard of measurement algorithm called "effective dose" that considers the different exposure of all parts of the body and then weights them differently. The interior of the human body is given more weight in this survey, and the exterior, including the skin organ, are given
450:
issued a report stating that backscatter x-ray scanners pose no known health risk, and that "assuming all other conditions equal", that backscatter x-ray scanners, which expose people to ionizing radiation, should not be used when millimeter-wave scanners that "have less effects on the human body"
523:(0.020 in) of lead. Another product, Flying Pasties, "are designed to obscure the most private parts of the human body when entering full body airport scanners", but their description does not seem to claim any protection from the X-ray beam penetrating the body of the person being scanned.
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Backscatter scanners installed by the TSA until 2013 were unable to screen adequately for security threats inside hats and head coverings, casts, prosthetics and loose clothing. This technology limitation of current scanners often requires these persons to undergo additional screening by hand or
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In a
December 2, 2010 letter to the House of Representatives, Dr. Steven Smith, inventor of the body scanner in 1991, stated that the concerns of Brenner and UCSF regarding the skin dose of backscatter scanners is incorrect and the result of a confusion between dose and imaging penetration. Smith
454:
However, the
European Commission report provides no data substantiating its claim that "all other conditions are equal". One area where backscatter X-ray scanners can provide better performance than MM wave scanners, for example, is in the inspection of the shoes, groin and armpit regions of the
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but at the doses used in airport scanners this effect is believed to be negligible for an individual. If 1 million people were exposed to 520 scans in one year, one study estimated that roughly four additional cancers would occur due to the scanner, in contrast to the 600 additional cancers that
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Backscatter x-ray technology has been proposed as an alternative to personal searches at airport and other security checkpoints easily penetrating clothing to reveal concealed weapons. It raises privacy concerns about what is seen by the person viewing the scan. Some worry that viewing the image
522:
Some people wish to prevent either the loss of privacy or the possibility of health problems or genetic damage that might be associated with being subjected to a backscatter X-ray scan. One company sells X-ray absorbing underwear which is said to have X-ray absorption equivalent to 0.5 mm
438:
Experts evaluating backscatter x-ray machine technology have also argued that defects in the machines, damage from normal wear-and-tear, or software errors could focus an intense dose of radiation on just one spot of the body. For example, Dr. Peter Rez, a professor of physics at Arizona State
368:
There may not yet be evidence of hereditary effects of x-rays administered by backscatter scanners, but backscatter scanners use the same kind of x-ray photons as are produced in medical x-ray machines but expose the subject at a considerably lower dose, so it is possible that the results from
101:. Unlike a traditional X-ray machine, which relies on the transmission of X-rays through the object, backscatter X-ray detects the radiation that reflects from the object and forms an image. The backscatter pattern is dependent on the material property and is good for imaging organic material.
402:
By comparison, the amount of radiation from a backscatter scanner is equivalent to about 10 minutes of natural background radiation in the United States, Einstein said. "I believe that the general public has nothing to worry about in terms of the radiation from airline scanning," he added.
111:
Backscatter X-ray was first applied in a commercial low-dose personnel scanning system by Dr. Steven W. Smith. Smith developed the Secure 1000 whole-body scanner in 1992 and then sold the device and associated patents to Rapiscan Systems, who now manufactures and distributes the device.
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that revealed them to be inaccurate and inconvenient. The European Commission decided to effectively ban backscatter machines. In a 2011 staff report by Republican Members of Congress about the TSA, airport body scanners were described as "ineffective" and "easily thwarted".
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that failure of any subsystem results in non-operation of the x-ray generator to prevent accidental exposures. In the United States, the TSA requires that certification to the ANSI N43.17 safety standard is performed by a third party and not by the manufacturer themselves.
162:
Since in addition to weapons, these machines are designed to be capable of detecting drugs, currency and contraband, which have no direct effect on airport security and passenger safety, some have argued that the use of these full body scanners is a violation of the
421:"From a radiation standpoint there has been no evidence that there is really any untoward effect from the use of this device , so I would not be concerned about it from a radiation dose standpoint – the issues of personal privacy are a different thing," he said.
120:
Some backscatter X-ray scanners can scan much larger objects, such as trucks and containers. This scan is much faster than a physical search and could potentially allow a larger percentage of shipping to be checked for smuggled items, weapons, drugs, or people.
493:
In the US, manufacturers of security related equipment can apply for protection under the SAFETY act, which limits their financial liability in product liability cases to the amount of their insurance coverage. The Rapiscan Secure 1000 was listed in 2006.
356:
According to a draft standard on the United States FDA website, the allowable dose from a scan would be 0.1 μSv, and that report uses a model whereby a 0.01 μSv dose increases an individual's risk of death by cancer during his or her lifetime by
239:
It is a violation of clear Islamic teachings that men or women be seen naked by other men and women. Islam highly emphasizes haya (modesty) and considers it part of faith. The Quran has commanded the believers, both men and women, to cover their private
220:, which prohibits the creation and distribution of indecent images of children. This concern may delay the introduction of routine backscatter scanning in UK airports, which had been planned in response to the attempted Christmas Day 2009 attack on
207:
photo-quality images are replaced by chalk outlines. In light of this, some journalists have expressed concern that this blurring may allow people to carry weapons or certain explosives aboard by attaching the object or substance to their genitals.
724:
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University, has said, "The thing that worries me the most, is not what happens if the machine works as advertised, but what happens if it doesn't", adding that a potential malfunction of the machine could increase the radiation dose.
497:
In the US, an X-ray system can be considered to comply with requirements for general purpose security screening of humans if the device complies with American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Standard #N43.17.
296:. Regarding the UCSF concerns over the high-risk population to sensitive organs, the letter states that such an individual "would have to receive more than 1,000 screenings to begin to approach the annual limit".
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in two US airports. In April 2012, Corbett released a second video interviewing a TSA screener, who described firearms and simulated explosives passing through the scanners during internal testing and training.
1565:
FDA & NIST Assessment (2006): "Our dose modeling reveals that a screening that delivers 0.25 μSv effective dose would deliver approximately 0.12 μSv to the uterus or 0.69 μSv to the testes."
376:(NCRP). On May 26, 2010, NCRP issued a press release to address such comments about full body scanners that are compliant with ANSI N43.17. In Commentary No. 16 issued on May 26, 2010, it reads as follows:
431:"I am very interested in performing a National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements study on the use of millimeter-wave security screening systems," said Thomas S. Tenforde, council president.
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The UK Health Protection Agency has completed an analysis of the X-ray dose from backscatter scanners and has written that the dose is extremely low and "about the same as people receive from
399:"Another way to look at this is that if you were scanned with a backscatter scanner every day of your life, you would still only receive a tenth of the dose of a typical CT scan," he said.
316:
293:
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The next generation of backscatter scanners are able to screen these types of clothing, according to manufacturers; however, these machines are not currently in use in public airports.
1174:
1926:
2048:"The Gonad Shield in Pelvic X-Rays: Covering a Multitude of Sins? : Booth Hall Children's Hospital, Central Manchester and Manchester Children's University Hospitals NHS Trust"
46:
from the target. It has potential applications where less-destructive examination is required, and can operate even if only one side of the target is available for examination.
385:
According to NCRP, the use of statistical extrapolations that predict 1 death for every 200 million persons scanned for example (as above) is an unrealistic over-estimation.
2284:
1879:
Upton, AC (2003). "The state of the art in the 1990s: NCRP report No. 136 on the scientific bases for linearity in the dose-response relationship for ionizing radiation".
164:
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108:, which create a 3D image, backscatter X-ray scanners will typically only create a 2D image. For airport screening, images are taken from both sides of the human body.
353:. While this is not specifically for airline-associated radiation, the limit is an effective proxy for understanding what level is deemed safe by a regulatory agency.
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Remember Homeland Security told the public the scanners aren't capable of storing images? Someone forgot to tell the scanner at the federal courthouse in Orlando...
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409:"A pregnant woman will receive much more radiation from cosmic rays she is exposed to while flying than from passing through a scanner in the airport," he said.
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Below 5–10 rem (which includes occupational and environmental exposures), risks of health effects are either too small to be observed or are nonexistent.
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tissues immediately underneath. Other professors from the radiology department at UCSF disagree with the claims of the signing four professors.
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background radiation (i.e. radioactivity within the surrounding environment) at sea level in 1.5 hours; it is also comparable to the dose from
200:
70:
1697:
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1200:
Mullenders, Leon; Atkinson, Mike; Paretzke, Herwig; Sabatier, Laure; Bouffler, Simon (2009). "Assessing cancer risks of low-dose radiation".
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Extrapolations of cancer risk from minuscule exposures to radiation across large populations, however, are not supported by analysis by the
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In August 2010, it was reported that U.S. Marshals (part of the Department of Justice), saved thousands of images from a low resolution
143:, claiming that DHS had withheld nearly 1000 pages of documents related to the Z backscatter vans and other mobile backscatter devices.
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An image of Susan Hallowell, Director of the Transportation Security Administration's research lab taken with backscatter x-ray system.
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of airline passengers to detect hidden weapons, tools, liquids, narcotics, currency, and other contraband. A competing technology is
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In the United States, the FAA Modernization and Reform Act of 2012 required that all full-body scanners operated in airports by the
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For moms-to-be, no evidence supports an increased risk of miscarriage or fetal abnormalities from these scanners, Einstein added.
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are opposed to this use of the technology. The ACLU refers to backscatter x-rays as a "virtual strip search". According to the
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which show that the specific dose to the skin is some 89,000 times lower than the annual limit to the skin established by the
2138:
2018:"Association of paternal diagnostic X-ray exposure with risk of infant leukemia. Investigators of the Childrens Cancer Group"
924:
1793:
Cerra, Frank. "Assessment of the Rapiscan Secure 1000 Bodyscanner for Conformance with Radiological Safety Standards". NIST.
203:(TSA), in one trial 79 percent of the public opted to try backscatter over the traditional pat-down in secondary screening.
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In the European Union, backscatter X-ray screening of airline passengers was banned in 2012 to protect passenger safety.
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Unlike cell phone signals, or millimeter-wave scanners, the energy being emitted by a backscatter X-ray is a type of
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has revealed concern among British officials that the use of such scanners to scan children may be illegal under the
1999:
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The TSA has also made public various independent safety assessments of the Secure 1000 Backscatter X-ray Scanner.
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261:
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1948:
1514:"Response to University of California – San Francisco Regarding Their Letter of Concern, October 12, 2010"
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NII Non-Intrusive Inspection, JPE-CBD, US Army Project Manager – Force Protection Systems, IED Threat Detection
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Furthermore, other scientists claim the health effects of backscatter are well understood whereas those from
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machine of this type as a "body scanner", "whole body imager (WBI)", "security scanner" or "naked scanner".
54:
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334:
2479:"$ 1 B of TSA Nude Body Scanners Made Worthless by Blog – How Anyone Can Get Anything Past The Scanners"
2017:
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857:"Whole Body Imaging Technology and Body Scanners ("Backscatter" X-Ray and Millimeter Wave Screening)"
327:
49:
The technology is one of two types of whole-body imaging technologies that have been used to perform
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intensity transmitted through the target. In contrast, backscatter X-ray detects the radiation that
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279:, among them members of NAS and an expert in cancer and imaging, in an April 2010 letter to the
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However, no long-term studies have been done on the health effects of millimeter wave scanners.
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limits radiation exposure to the public to less than 1 mSv (100 mrem) per year from
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2016:
Shu, XO; Reaman, GH; Lampkin, B; Sather, HN; Pendergrass, TW; Robison, LL (December 1994).
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337:(HPS) reports that a person undergoing a backscatter scan receives approximately 0.05
3385:
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3067:
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1672:
1175:"Feds admit they stored body scanner images, despite TSA claim the images cannot be saved"
957:
563:
2618:"News – Test of full-body scanners: Effective, but not yet ready for nation-wide rollout"
1431:
588:
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2379:
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Recent Applications of the NCRP Public Dose Limit Recommendation for Ionizing Radiation
1356:
1331:
610:
1380:"U.S. Government Glossed Over Cancer Concerns As It Rolled Out Airport X-Ray Scanners"
722:, Steven W. Smith, "X-ray Backscatter Detection System", issued 1993-01-19
3416:
3161:
2131:"Screening of Humans for Security Purposes Using Ionizing Radiation Scanning Systems"
1892:
990:
185:
35:
31:
2568:"Travel advisory: Know Your Rights if Asked to Undergo New TSA 'Enhanced Pat-Downs'"
2164:"Structural Shielding Design and Evaluation for Megavoltage Radiotherapy Facilities"
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are largely unknown, and at least one expert believes a safety study is warranted.
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demonstrated this difference with two experiments using plastic (with a similar
43:
19:
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violates confidential medical information, such as the fact a passenger uses a
3176:
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have made the following statements in support of the safety of body scanners:
342:
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895:"TSA Tests Second Passenger Imaging Technology at Phoenix Sky Harbor Airport"
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1243:
125:
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Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks (2012).
283:
raised several concerns about the validity of the indirect comparisons the
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that breaks chemical bonds. Ionizing radiation is considered carcinogenic
3047:
1590:
Wagner, Louis K. (1994), "Limitation of exposure to ionizing radiation",
1265:
1073:
929:, "Backscatter" X-Ray Screening Technology, HowStuffWorks, archived from
2596:
1635:"Biochemist says 'naked' X-ray scanner may be unsafe | Privacy Inc"
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other methods and can cause additional delay or feelings of harassment.
23:
Backscatter technology produces an image that resembles a chalk etching.
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2625:
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1619:
338:
2404:"Analysis Suggests Cancer Risk of Backscatter Airport Scanners is Low"
1949:"NRC: 10 CFR 20.1301 Dose limits for individual members of the public"
1495:"TSA Scanners: U.C. San Francisco Radiologists Debunk Radiation Fears"
3006:
2291:
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Rez, Peter; Metzger, Robert I.; Mossman, Kenneth L. (November 2010).
94:
78:) did not meet their contractual deadline to implement the software.
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when traveling in an airplane at cruising altitude for two minutes.
268:
Since the scanners do not have a medical purpose, the United States
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2673:"Europe Bans Airport X-Ray Scanners. Should the U.S. Follow Suit?"
1117:"TSA Response to "Feds admit storing checkpoint body scan images""
232:
174:
39:
18:
881:"ACLU Backgrounder on Body Scanners and "Virtual Strip Searches""
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2651:"Tests in Italy Raise New Questions About Airport Body Scanners"
603:"Germany plans lab tests for airport naked scans | Reuters"
192:
2940:
2899:"Full-body scans of fliers set off debate over privacy, health"
2137:. National Council on Radiation Protection & Measurements.
1993:"Size of Reporting Airports December 2008 — November 2009"
265:
would occur from the higher levels of radiation during flight.
188:, has a missing limb or wears a prosthesis, or is transgender.
2788:"US Environmental Protection Agency Radiation Dose Calculator"
926:
Do 'Backscatter' X-Ray Systems Pose a Risk to Frequent Fliers?
2843:
2723:
1662:"Re: Misinformation on airport body scanner radiation safety"
739:"Steven W. Smith / Original Developer of Secure 1000 in 1992"
2498:"Blogger Says TSA's Full-Body Scanners Can be Easily Duped"
2192:"Airport Full Body Scanners Pose No Health Threat: Experts"
2917:
1043:"'Fatwa' forbids Muslims going through full-body scanners"
1069:"'Peep Show Database of American Travelers' — Video"
317:
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements
2814:"Products: X-ray passenger vehicle inspection VACIS XPL"
1273:, Position Statement, The American Nuclear Society, 2001
696:. Transportation Security Administration. Archived from
2088:"X-ray induced DNA double-strand breaks in human sperm"
167:
and can be construed as an illegal search and seizure.
2894:: a backscatter x-ray, mounted on surveillance trucks.
2516:"TSA Admits $ 1 B Nude Body Scanner Fleet Worthless!"
2425:"Cancer risk is low, but possible in airport scanners"
2455:"Airport security scans: What would your doctor do?"
1829:"Advanced Imaging Technology: 'Radiation Risk Tiny'"
1464:"Scientists Question Safety Of New Airport Scanners"
997:, Electronic Privacy Information Center, 18 Mar 2007
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2294:: Rise project. bullet 3 on p. 6/47. Archived from
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38:detect hard and soft materials by the variation in
165:Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution
1823:
1821:
769:"New Airport Body Scans Don't Detect All Weapons"
2347:"Airport Full-Body Screening: What Is the Risk?"
2022:Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention
1970:"Draft Standard for Personnel Screening Systems"
1762:"Radiation Safety Engineering Assessment Report"
1332:"Airport Full-Body Screening: What Is the Risk?"
533:Visible Intermodal Prevention and Response team
419:
394:
378:
237:
2913:Research—High Resolution Scatter X-ray Imaging
637:"TSA Pulls Plug on Airport Nude Body Scanners"
381:every day, both voluntarily and involuntarily.
2952:
2240:"The Dose From Compton Backscatter Screening"
682:. Health and Consumers Scientific Committees.
137:United States Department of Homeland Security
8:
2536:"Sikhs Cautioned Over 'Random' Air Searches"
2221:"Airport body-scan radiation under scrutiny"
1543:. Office of Science and Technology Policy.
1516:. Office of Science and Technology Policy.
1402:"Products for Security Screening of People"
1330:Mehta, P.; Smith-Bindman, R. (2011-03-28).
1315:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
315:Radiation safety authorities including the
281:presidential science and technology advisor
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2937:
2746:. Health Physics Society. January 15, 2010
1767:. Johns Hopkins University. Archived from
1735:. Johns Hopkins University. Archived from
1430:Sedat, John; et al. (April 6, 2010).
2378:
2103:
1730:"Radiation Engineering Assessment Report"
1355:
1251:, Health Physics Society, 2004, PS010-2,
918:
916:
538:Explosives trace-detection portal machine
2768:. Health Physics Society. August 9, 2007
2086:Singh, NP; Stephens, RE (January 1998).
374:National Council on Radiation Protection
2916:, University of Florida, archived from
2699:House GOP report: a call for TSA reform
2125:
2123:
1425:
1423:
897:. TSA. October 11, 2007. Archived from
838:. Electronic Privacy Information Center
574:
277:University of California, San Francisco
89:Backscatter technology is based on the
2928:Backscatter X-ray technology and risks
2285:"Ethics of Body Scanner Policy Report"
2272:, ANSI, 2009, sections 7.2.1 and 7.2.2
1807:
1796:
1308:
424:The health effects of the more common
201:Transportation Security Administration
153:Full body scanner § Controversies
71:Transportation Security Administration
2554:"Sikh outrage at US airport security"
2345:Mehta, P.; Smith-Bindman, R. (2011).
2141:from the original on 14 November 2010
1929:from the original on 24 November 2010
1547:from the original on 17 February 2017
1520:from the original on 12 November 2010
1474:from the original on 13 November 2010
1444:from the original on 26 November 2010
1408:from the original on 22 November 2010
1297:from the original on 16 December 2010
1267:Health Effects of Low-Level Radiation
1154:from the original on 14 November 2010
779:from the original on 12 November 2010
762:
760:
544:Future Attribute Screening Technology
319:, The Health Physics Society and the
197:Electronic Privacy Information Center
133:Electronic Privacy Information Center
7:
1287:"BEIR VII Report Supports LNT Model"
1011:"New scanners break child porn laws"
2595:. Tek84. 2010-03-17. Archived from
2453:Cohen, Elizabeth (March 31, 2011).
2323:. Tek84. 2010-03-17. Archived from
1127:from the original on 16 August 2010
1023:from the original on 6 January 2010
235:in relation to full-body scanners:
2842:. Rocky flats gear. Archived from
2794:from the original on 1 August 2010
2724:"US government SAFETY act website"
923:Layton, Julia (27 February 2007),
767:Hamilton, Jon (January 14, 2010).
14:
2246:. Oxford Journals. Archived from
1861:(fact sheet), TSA, archived from
1173:Shahid, Aliyah (August 4, 2010).
1095:Lundin, Leigh (August 15, 2010).
128:-based systems coming to market.
16:Advanced X-ray imaging technology
2705:, Document cloud, archived from
2671:Melnick, Meredith (2011-11-21).
2431:. March 28, 2011. Archived from
1893:10.1097/00004032-200307000-00005
1539:Larson, Phil (8 November 2010).
1009:Travis, Alan (January 4, 2009).
489:Safety regulations and standards
465:would be one additional cancer.
2402:Bardi, Jason (March 28, 2011).
1148:"Feds Admit Storing Body Scans"
833:"Mobile Body Scanner Complaint"
806:, OSD, Aug 2008, archived from
231:have also issued the following
218:Protection of Children Act 1978
2570:. CAIR-Chicago. Archived from
2363:10.1001/archinternmed.2011.105
2244:Radiation Protection Dosimetry
1382:. ProPublica. November 1, 2011
1348:10.1001/archinternmed.2011.105
1:
2351:Archives of Internal Medicine
1336:Archives of Internal Medicine
1245:Radiation Risk in Perspective
1146:Quinn, Rob (August 6, 2010).
652:Rapiscan backscatter contract
635:Kravets, David (2013-01-18).
559:Container Security Initiative
461:Archives of Internal Medicine
347:Nuclear Regulatory Commission
321:American College of Radiology
229:Fiqh Council of North America
222:Northwest Airlines Flight 253
2198:, 2010-01-08, archived from
2054:, UK: Effort. Archived from
1978:Food and Drug Administration
1698:"Safety study AIT info Memo"
1660:Smith, Steven (2010-12-02).
613:. 2008-11-29. Archived from
458:In a study published in the
285:Food and Drug Administration
270:Food and Drug Administration
1923:"Body scanning at airports"
1102:. Orlando: Criminal Brief.
1097:"You show me yours and ..."
741:. Tek84.com. Archived from
3449:
3231:X-Ray Fluorescence Imaging
3119:Anomalous X-ray scattering
150:
141:Freedom of Information Act
518:Technical countermeasures
3058:Synchrotron light source
2522:, Word press, 2012-04-10
2485:, Word press, 2012-03-06
1671:. Tek 84. Archived from
1541:"Backscatter Back-Story"
883:. ACLU. January 8, 2010.
415:millimeter wave scanners
262:even in very small doses
106:millimeter wave scanners
34:technology. Traditional
3077:Interaction with matter
3036:Sources and instruments
2892:(video), Educated Earth
2152:(subscription required)
1578:, Statement, NCRP, 2004
956:April 27, 2007, at the
549:Millimeter wave scanner
426:millimeter wave scanner
275:Four professors at the
135:filed suit against the
65:Deployments at airports
55:millimeter wave scanner
3209:Diffraction tomography
2816:. SAIC. Archived from
2790:. EPA. June 28, 2006.
2628:: Bund. Archived from
2105:10.1093/mutage/13.1.75
1806:Cite journal requires
436:
411:
383:
335:Health Physics Society
242:
210:The British newspaper
180:
57:. One can refer to an
24:
3320:X-ray crystallography
3189:Soft x-ray microscopy
3157:Panoramic radiography
2997:Synchrotron radiation
1703:. TSA. Archived from
1202:Nature Reviews Cancer
1123:. TSA. June 8, 2010.
971:"Digital Penetration"
720:US patent 5181234
587:, TSA, archived from
178:
22:
3089:Photoelectric effect
3022:Characteristic X-ray
2820:on 10 September 2010
2520:TSA out of our pants
2483:TSA out of our pants
2321:"Body scanner: more"
2227:. November 12, 2010.
1868:on December 13, 2010
1710:on December 15, 2011
1291:Society News Archive
694:"Imaging Technology"
388:Other scientists at
351:nuclear power plants
328:background radiation
3433:Explosive detection
3109:Photodisintegration
3084:Rayleigh scattering
3063:Free-electron laser
2202:on February 5, 2010
1742:on February 5, 2011
1633:McCullagh, Declan.
1604:1994RadR..137..417W
1432:"Letter of Concern"
1049:. February 12, 2010
745:on 8 September 2010
680:European Commission
676:"Security Scanners"
591:on December 3, 2010
448:European Commission
390:Columbia University
3350:X-ray reflectivity
3129:X-ray fluorescence
3094:Compton scattering
3027:High-energy X-rays
2840:"X-ray protection"
1598:(116), NCRP: 417,
1592:Radiation Research
1437:. NPR. p. 4.
1285:25 November 2010.
969:Salatan, William.
617:on January 4, 2016
306:rate of absorption
258:ionizing radiation
181:
99:ionizing radiation
91:Compton scattering
25:
3423:Aviation security
3410:
3409:
3406:
3405:
3398:X-ray lithography
3330:Backscatter X-ray
3325:X-ray diffraction
3152:X-ray radiography
3124:X-ray diffraction
3017:Siegbahn notation
2889:Z-Backscatter Van
2301:on 21 August 2010
1774:on April 19, 2011
1512:Holdren, John P.
995:Air travel piracy
901:on 15 August 2010
700:on 6 January 2010
554:Full body scanner
131:In May 2011, the
74:said the vendor (
28:Backscatter X-ray
3440:
3236:X-ray holography
3142:
3114:Radiation damage
2961:
2954:
2947:
2938:
2932:
2921:
2906:
2893:
2875:
2874:
2872:
2871:
2865:"Flying Pasties"
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2534:Orovic, Joseph.
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1493:Smiley, Lauren.
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540:(puffer machine)
364:
362:
139:(DHS) under the
59:airport security
3448:
3447:
3443:
3442:
3441:
3439:
3438:
3437:
3413:
3412:
3411:
3402:
3386:X-ray astronomy
3374:
3306:
3255:
3241:X-ray telescope
3133:
3104:Photoionization
3072:
3068:X-ray nanoprobe
3031:
2987:Absorption edge
2975:Characteristics
2970:
2965:
2931:, Article world
2925:
2910:
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1835:, TSA, Mar 2010
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564:NYPD X-ray vans
529:
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451:are available.
360:
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246:mm wave scanner
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124:There are also
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104:In contrast to
87:
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51:full-body scans
30:is an advanced
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2593:"Body scanner"
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2357:(12): 1112–5.
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2050:. Manchester,
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2005:on 2010-12-07.
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3163:
3162:Tomosynthesis
3160:
3158:
3155:
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3150:
3149:
3147:
3143:
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3018:
3015:
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3008:
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3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2992:Moseley's law
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2979:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2968:X-ray science
2962:
2957:
2955:
2950:
2948:
2943:
2942:
2939:
2930:
2929:
2924:
2920:on 2010-01-03
2919:
2915:
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2909:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2891:
2890:
2885:
2884:
2880:
2866:
2860:
2857:
2846:on 2013-09-01
2845:
2841:
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2815:
2809:
2806:
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2789:
2783:
2780:
2767:
2761:
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2745:
2739:
2736:
2725:
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2716:
2712:on 2011-12-02
2708:
2701:
2700:
2693:
2690:
2678:
2674:
2667:
2664:
2652:
2646:
2643:
2632:on 2013-12-02
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2613:
2610:
2599:on 2013-12-08
2598:
2594:
2588:
2585:
2574:on 2013-12-07
2573:
2569:
2563:
2560:
2556:. Al Jazeera.
2555:
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2527:
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2364:
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2348:
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2327:on 2014-05-06
2326:
2322:
2316:
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2250:on 2016-01-09
2249:
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2196:Business Week
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2079:
2068:on 2012-03-13
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2031:
2028:(8): 645–53.
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2019:
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511:
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330:in an hour".
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186:colostomy bag
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47:
45:
41:
37:
33:
32:X-ray imaging
29:
21:
3329:
3260:Spectroscopy
3204:Ptychography
3138:Applications
3099:Auger effect
3002:Water window
2927:
2918:the original
2912:
2905:, 2010-07-13
2902:
2888:
2868:. Retrieved
2859:
2848:. Retrieved
2844:the original
2834:
2822:. Retrieved
2818:the original
2808:
2796:. Retrieved
2782:
2770:. Retrieved
2760:
2748:. Retrieved
2738:
2727:. Retrieved
2718:
2707:the original
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2692:
2681:. Retrieved
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2655:. Retrieved
2645:
2634:. Retrieved
2630:the original
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2329:. Retrieved
2325:the original
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2269:
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2254:November 26,
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2248:the original
2243:
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2200:the original
2195:
2171:. Retrieved
2158:
2145:November 12,
2143:. Retrieved
2134:
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2081:
2070:. Retrieved
2056:the original
2042:
2025:
2021:
2011:
2000:the original
1987:
1976:
1964:
1953:. Retrieved
1943:
1933:November 25,
1931:. Retrieved
1917:
1887:(1): 15–22.
1884:
1880:
1874:
1863:the original
1854:
1848:
1837:, retrieved
1833:The TSA Blog
1832:
1799:cite journal
1788:
1778:November 12,
1776:. Retrieved
1769:the original
1756:
1746:November 12,
1744:. Retrieved
1737:the original
1724:
1714:November 12,
1712:. Retrieved
1705:the original
1692:
1680:. Retrieved
1673:the original
1668:
1655:
1645:November 25,
1643:. Retrieved
1638:
1628:
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1561:
1551:November 12,
1549:. Retrieved
1534:
1524:November 12,
1522:. Retrieved
1507:
1501:. SF Weekly.
1498:
1488:
1476:. Retrieved
1467:
1458:
1448:November 26,
1446:. Retrieved
1412:November 25,
1410:. Retrieved
1396:
1386:November 18,
1384:. Retrieved
1374:
1339:
1335:
1325:
1301:November 25,
1299:. Retrieved
1290:
1280:
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1260:
1252:
1244:
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1195:
1185:November 20,
1183:. Retrieved
1178:
1168:
1158:November 20,
1156:. Retrieved
1141:
1129:. Retrieved
1121:The TSA Blog
1120:
1111:
1103:
1100:Florida News
1099:
1090:
1078:. Retrieved
1072:
1063:
1051:. Retrieved
1046:
1037:
1025:. Retrieved
1016:The Guardian
1014:
1004:
994:
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947:
935:, retrieved
931:the original
925:
903:. Retrieved
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864:. Retrieved
860:
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840:. Retrieved
827:
815:, retrieved
808:the original
799:
793:
783:November 12,
781:. Retrieved
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743:the original
733:
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704:December 31,
702:. Retrieved
698:the original
688:
679:
669:
651:
645:
630:
619:. Retrieved
615:the original
606:
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589:the original
584:How it works
583:
577:
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512:
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341:(0.005
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252:Health risks
243:
238:
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213:The Guardian
211:
209:
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190:
182:
161:
130:
123:
119:
110:
103:
97:, a form of
88:
80:
68:
48:
27:
26:
3428:Radiography
3053:Synchrotron
2098:(1): 75–9.
2092:Mutagenesis
1925:. UK: HPA.
1682:December 3,
1478:November 7,
504:cosmic rays
116:Large scale
3417:Categories
3312:Scattering
3177:Helical CT
3043:X-ray tube
2870:2013-09-03
2850:2013-09-03
2824:August 16,
2798:August 16,
2772:August 16,
2766:"Chapters"
2750:August 16,
2729:2013-09-03
2683:2013-09-02
2677:Healthland
2657:2013-09-02
2636:2013-09-02
2603:2013-09-02
2578:2013-09-02
2464:2011-03-31
2439:2011-03-31
2410:2011-03-31
2331:2013-09-03
2206:2010-09-26
2173:August 16,
2135:Commentary
2072:2013-09-03
1955:2013-09-02
1839:2010-09-26
1594:(report),
1499:The snitch
1181:. New York
1150:. Newser.
1131:August 16,
1080:August 16,
1053:August 16,
1027:January 6,
1019:. London.
905:August 16,
866:2014-03-23
842:2013-09-03
749:August 16,
621:2013-09-03
570:References
510:standard.
151:See also:
93:effect of
85:Technology
2903:USA Today
2371:0003-9926
2305:16 August
1047:USA Today
417:are not:
300:errors".
126:gamma-ray
3048:Betatron
2792:Archived
2744:"Status"
2389:21444831
2139:Archived
1927:Archived
1909:13301920
1901:12852466
1545:Archived
1518:Archived
1472:Archived
1439:Archived
1406:Archived
1366:21444831
1311:cite web
1295:Archived
1230:10610131
1222:19629073
1152:Archived
1125:Archived
1074:Fox News
1021:Archived
954:Archived
937:18 March
777:Archived
527:See also
469:Efficacy
195:and the
158:Legality
147:Concerns
76:Rapiscan
44:reflects
3391:History
3145:Imaging
2380:3936792
2114:9491398
2034:7881337
1620:3578722
1600:Bibcode
1470:. NPR.
1468:NPR.org
1404:. FDA.
1357:3936792
1293:. HPS.
607:Reuters
171:Privacy
3379:Others
3340:GISAXS
3012:L-edge
3007:K-edge
2679:. Time
2653:. EPIC
2502:PC mag
2406:. UCSF
2387:
2377:
2369:
2270:N43.17
2169:. NCRP
2112:
2032:
1907:
1899:
1641:. CNET
1618:
1364:
1354:
1228:
1220:
817:31 May
726:
455:body.
240:parts.
95:X-rays
3370:EDXRD
3292:XANES
3287:EXAFS
3277:ARPES
3224:3DXRD
2982:X-ray
2710:(PDF)
2703:(PDF)
2299:(PDF)
2288:(PDF)
2167:(PDF)
2003:(PDF)
1996:(PDF)
1973:(PDF)
1951:. NRC
1905:S2CID
1866:(PDF)
1859:(PDF)
1772:(PDF)
1765:(PDF)
1740:(PDF)
1733:(PDF)
1708:(PDF)
1701:(PDF)
1676:(PDF)
1669:C net
1665:(PDF)
1616:JSTOR
1442:(PDF)
1435:(PDF)
1271:(PDF)
1249:(PDF)
1226:S2CID
976:Slate
836:(PDF)
811:(PDF)
804:(PDF)
233:fatwa
40:x-ray
3355:RIXS
3345:WAXS
3335:SAXS
3246:DFXM
3214:XDCT
3199:STXM
3194:XPCI
3182:XACT
2826:2010
2800:2010
2774:2010
2752:2010
2385:PMID
2367:ISSN
2307:2010
2256:2010
2175:2010
2147:2010
2110:PMID
2030:PMID
1935:2010
1897:PMID
1812:help
1780:2010
1748:2010
1716:2010
1684:2010
1647:2010
1639:News
1553:2010
1526:2010
1480:2010
1450:2010
1414:2010
1388:2011
1362:PMID
1317:link
1303:2010
1218:PMID
1187:2010
1160:2010
1133:2010
1082:2010
1055:2010
1029:2010
939:2007
907:2010
861:Epic
819:2011
785:2010
751:2010
706:2009
660:log)
446:The
343:mrem
333:The
294:NCRP
227:The
193:ACLU
191:The
3360:XRS
3302:XFH
3297:EDS
3282:AES
3272:XPS
3267:XAS
3251:DXA
3219:DCT
3167:CDI
2622:BMI
2459:CNN
2429:CNN
2375:PMC
2359:doi
2355:171
2225:CNN
2100:doi
2064:PPT
2052:ENG
1889:doi
1855:AIT
1608:doi
1596:137
1352:PMC
1344:doi
1340:171
1210:doi
773:NPR
339:μSv
3419::
3365:XS
3172:CT
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359:5
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