1034:) recognized that it would be difficult for a lay person to do so, and advised the petitioner to trust their sense of the mufti's piety and ideally follow the advice of a single scholar known for exemplary morals. The mufti was often a well-known figure in his neighborhood. Some petitioners could choose among several local muftis, while others had to or chose to travel to receive a fatwa. Judges commonly sent letters to solicit fatwas from prominent jurists in another town or even country. Sunni legal theory generally permits the petioner to obtain a fatwa from multiple jurists on the same query, provided that it addresses a real and not hypothetical situation. Some petitioners sought out a second fatwa because they were unsatisfied with the first, and the two sides in a legal dispute generally each sought to obtain a fatwa that would support their position. Muftis often consulted another mufti on difficult cases, though this practice was not foreseen by legal theory, which saw
1730:
1554:
1026:
reasoning behind the decision. Queries to muftis were supposed to address real and not hypothetical situations and be formulated in general terms, leaving out names of places and people. Since a mufti was not supposed to inquire into the situation beyond the information included in the query, queries regarding contentious matters were often carefully constructed to elicit the desired response. A mufti's understanding of the query commonly depended on their familiarity with local customs and colloquialisms. In theory, if the query was unclear or not sufficiently detailed for a ruling, the mufti was supposed to state these caveats in their response.
1430:
1836:, a group of Middle Eastern Islamic scholars issued a fatwa permitting Muslims serving in the U.S. army to participate in military action against Muslim countries, in response to a query from a U.S. Army Muslim chaplain. This fatwa illustrated two increasingly widespread practices. First, it drew directly on the Quran and hadith without referencing the body of jurisprudence from any of the traditional schools of Islamic law. Secondly, questions from Western Muslims directed to muftis in Muslim-majority countries have become increasingly common, as about one-third of Muslims now live in Muslim-minority countries.
1792:. Khomeini himself did not call this proclamation a fatwa, and some scholars have argued that it did not qualify as one, since in Islamic legal theory only a court can decide whether an accused is guilty. However, after the proclamation was presented as a fatwa in Western press, this characterization was widely accepted by both its critics and its supporters, and the Rushdie Affair is credited with bringing the institution of fatwa to world attention. Together with later militant fatwas, it has contributed to the popular misconception of the fatwa as a religious death warrant.
1001:
1176:
judged to be more convincing. If a party in a dispute was not able to obtain a fatwa supporting their position, they would be unlikely to pursue their case in court, opting for informal mediation instead, or abandoning their claim altogether. Sometimes muftis could be petitioned for a fatwa relating to a court judgment that has already been passed, acting as an informal appeals process, but the extent of this practice and its mechanism varied across history. While in most of the
Islamic world judges were not required to consult muftis by any political authority, in
1851:, and the prevention of harm, to derive fatwas suitable for life in Europe. For example, a 2001 ECRF ruling allowed a woman who had converted to Islam to remain married without requiring her husband's conversion, based in part on the existence of European laws and customs under which women are guaranteed the freedom of religion. Rulings of this kind have been welcomed by some, but also criticized by others as being overly eclectic in legal methodology and having potential to negatively impact the interpretation of sharia in Muslim-majority countries.
1261:), evaluating the reliability of hadith and applying or even developing the appropriate legal methodologies. Starting from around 1200 CE, legal theorists began to accept that muftis of their time may not possess the knowledge and legal skill to perform this activity. In addition, it was felt that the major question of jurisprudence had already been addressed by master jurists of earlier times, so that later muftis only had to follow the legal opinions established within their legal school (
1637:, founded in 1895, which has served to articulate a national vision of Islam through fatwas issued in response to government and private queries. National governments in Muslim-majority countries also instituted councils of senior religious scholars to advise the government on religious matters and issue fatwas. These councils generally form part of the ministry for religious affairs, rather than the justice department, which may have a more assertive attitude toward the executive branch.
1847:(ECFR, founded in 1997). These organizations aim to provide fatwas that address the concerns of Muslim minorities, helping them to comply with sharia, while stressing compatibility of Islam with diverse modern contexts. The FCNA was founded with the goal of developing legal methodologies for adopting Islamic law to life in the West. The ECRF draws on all major schools of Sunni law as well as other traditional legal principles, such as concern for the public good,
1753:. In it Hurgronje denounced his German colleagues, who he felt instigated the jihad proclamation in an irresponsible appeal to an antiquated concept that threatened the project of modernizing the Muslim world. The article was widely circulated in an English translation and its accuracy continues to be debated by historians, who acknowledge both the German influence and the internal political calculations of the Ottoman government underlying the proclamation.
1908:. Networks of muftis are commonly engaged by fatwa websites, so that queries are distributed among the muftis in the network, who still act as individual jurisconsults. In other cases, Islamic jurists of different nationalities, schools of law, and sometimes even denominations (Sunni and Shia), coordinate to issue a joint fatwa, which is expected to command greater authority with the public than individual fatwas. The collective fatwa (sometimes called
871:
of clarifying and elaborating the laws applied in courts. Instead, modern fatwas have increasingly served to advise the general public on other aspects of sharia, particularly questions regarding religious rituals and everyday life. Modern public fatwas have addressed and sometimes sparked controversies in the Muslim world, and some fatwas in recent decades have gained worldwide notoriety. The legal methodology of modern
1333:, which is reserved for men in the classical sharia system, fatwas could be issued by qualified women as well as men. In practice, the vast majority of jurists who completed the lengthy curriculum in linguistic and religious sciences required to obtain the qualification to issue fatwas were men. Slaves and persons who were blind or mute were likewise theoretically barred from the post of a judge, but not that of mufti.
1745:. The proclamation was supported by a fatwa issued by the Shaykh al-Islam. Contrary to the German hopes that the proclamation would trigger Muslim revolts in British and French colonies, it was either rejected or quietly ignored by their Muslim authorities. It also quickly gave rise to a heated academic debate in Europe. The controversy was sparked by a 1915 article by the prominent Dutch orientalist
1540:). In both political and scholarly sphere, doctrinal controversies between different states, denominations or centers of learning were accompanied by dueling fatwas. Muftis also acted to counteract the influence of judges and secular functionaries. By articulating grievances and legal rights of the population, public fatwas often prompted an otherwise unresponsive court system to provide redress.
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1930:
now also increasingly likely to be female, and in the modern world Muslim women tend to address muftis directly rather than conveying their query through a male relative as in the past. Since women now represent a significant proportion of students studying
Islamic law and qualifying as muftiyas, their prominence in its interpretation is likely to rise. A fatwa hotline in the
644:
845:, privately issued fatwas historically served to inform Muslim populations about Islam, advise courts on difficult points of Islamic law, and elaborate substantive law. In later times, public and political fatwas were issued to take a stand on doctrinal controversies, legitimize government policies or articulate grievances of the population. During the era of
1046:
of paper containing the query, leaving no documentary trace. However, large collections of ordinary fatwas are preserved in
Ottoman and Indian archives. Mufti manuals contained a number of regulations about the standard format of a fatwa, such as avoiding blank space that could be used for a spurious addition and concluding the fatwa with an expression like
53:
1164:
considered a requirement for qualified jurists to communicate their knowledge through teaching or issuing fatwas. The ideal mufti was conceived as an individual of scholarly accomplishments and exemplary morals, and muftis were generally approached with the respect and deference corresponding to these expectations.
1201:
During the early centuries of Islam, the roles of mufti, author-jurist and judge were not mutually exclusive. A jurist could lead a teaching circle, conduct a fatwa session, and adjudicate court cases in a single day, devoting his night hours to writing a legal treatise. Those who were able to act in
1045:
In theory, fatwas could be delivered orally or in writing, but it is not clear how common oral fatwas were, aside from those issued by an
Ottoman office established specifically for the purpose of issuing oral fatwas. Many routine, written fatwas were delivered directly to the petitioner on the piece
1029:
Fatwas were solicited by men and women from all social classes. A mufti could be an obscure scholar, who occasionally replied to queries from people in his neighborhood, or, at the other extreme, a famous jurist or a powerful state official. The level of technical detail supplied in a fatwa, such as
971:
According to
Islamic doctrine, with Muhammad's death in 632, God ceased to communicate with mankind through revelation and prophets. At that point, the rapidly expanding Muslim community turned to Muhammad's Companions, as the most authoritative voices among them, for religious guidance, and some of
870:
In the modern era, fatwas have reflected changing economic, social and political circumstances, and addressed concerns arising in varied Muslim communities. The spread of codified state laws and
Western-style legal education in the modern Muslim world has displaced muftis from their traditional role
1929:
The social profile of the fatwa petitioner has also undergone considerable changes. Owing to the rise of universal education, those who solicit fatwas have become increasingly educated, which has transformed the traditional mufti–mustafti relationship based on restricted literacy. The questioner is
1921:
other topics, including insurance, sex-change operations, moon exploration, beer drinking, abortion in the case of fatal foetal abnormalities, or males and females sharing workplaces. Public "fatwa wars" have reflected political controversies in the Muslim world, from anti-colonial struggles to the
1896:
publishes an archive of "live fatwa" sessions, whose number approached a thousand by 2007, along with biographies of the muftis. Together with satellite television programs, radio shows and fatwa hotlines offering call-in fatwas, these sites have contributed to the rise of new forms of contemporary
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According to legal theory, it was up to each mufti to decide when he was ready to practice. In practice, an aspiring jurist would normally study for several years with one or several recognized scholars, following a curriculum that included Arabic grammar, hadith, law and other religious sciences.
1175:
Judges generally sought an opinion from a mufti with higher scholarly authority than themselves for difficult cases or potentially controversial verdicts. Fatwas were routinely upheld in courts, and if a fatwa was disregarded, it was usually because another fatwa supporting a different position was
1920:
As the role of fatwas on strictly legal issues has declined in modern times, there has been a relative increase in the proportion of fatwas dealing with rituals and further expansion in purely religious areas like
Quranic exegesis, creed, and Sufism. Modern fatwas also deal with a wide variety of
1816:
groups to justify jihad against rulers of Muslim-majority countries. The Amman
Message recognized eight legitimate schools of Islamic law and prohibited declarations of apostasy against them. The statement also asserted that fatwas can be issued only by properly trained muftis, thereby seeking to
1925:
of the 1990s, when muftis in some countries issued fatwas supporting collaboration with the US-led coalition, while muftis from other countries endorsed the Iraqi call for jihad against the US and its collaborators. In the private sphere, some muftis have begun to resemble social workers, giving
1644:
Although some early theorists argued that muftis should not respond to questions on certain subjects, such as theology, muftis have in practice handled queries relating to a wide range of subjects. This trend continued in modern times, and contemporary state-appointed muftis and institutions for
1640:
While chief muftis of earlier times oversaw a hierarchy of muftis and judges applying traditional jurisprudence, most modern states have adopted
European-influenced legal codes and no longer employ traditional judicial procedures or traditionally trained judges. State muftis generally promote a
1608:
On many other occasions, fatwas served as an effective tool for influencing the political process. For example, in 1904 a fatwa by
Moroccan ulema achieved the dismissal of European experts hired by the Moroccan government, while in 1907 another Moroccan fatwa succeeded in deposing the sultan on
1041:
In theory, a mufti was expected to issue fatwas free of charge. In practice, muftis commonly received support from the public treasury, public endowments or private donations. Taking of bribes was forbidden. Until the 11th or 12th century, the vast majority of jurists held other jobs to support
1870:
Advances in communication technology and the rise of the internet have changed the reception and role of fatwas in modern society. In the pre-modern era, most fatwas issued in response to private queries were read only by the petitioner. Early in the 20th century, the reformist Islamic scholar
1025:
Fatwas are issued in response to a query. They can range from a simple yes/no answer to a book-length treatise. A short fatwa may state a well-known point of law in response to a question from a lay person, while a "major" fatwa may give a judgment on an unprecedented case, detailing the legal
1937:
The vast amount of fatwas produced in the modern world attests to the importance of Islamic authenticity to many Muslims. However, there is little research available to indicate to what extent Muslims acknowledge the authority of various fatwas and heed their rulings in real life. Rather than
1163:
Before the rise of modern education, the study of law was a centerpiece of advanced education in the Islamic world. A relatively small class of legal scholars controlled the interpretation of sharia on a wide range of questions essential to the society, ranging from ritual to finance. It was
1511:
While most fatwas were delivered to an individual or a judge, some fatwas that were public or political in nature played an important role in religious legitimation, doctrinal disputes, political criticism, or political mobilization. As muftis were progressively incorporated into government
1632:
was established in a number of madrasas (law colleges) as a centralized place for issuing of fatwas, and these organizations to a considerable extent replaced independent muftis as religious guides for the general population. Following independence, most Muslim states established national
1237:
manuals, a mufti must be an adult, Muslim, trusted and reliable, of good character and sound mind, an alert and rigorous thinker, trained as a jurist, and not a sinner. On a practical level, the stature of muftis derived from their reputation for scholarly expertise and upright character.
1721:(minority jurisprudence), a recently developed branch of Islamic jurisprudence that aims to address the needs of Muslims living in countries with a non-Muslim majority. Its opponents object that sharia is supposed to determine the interests of Muslims, and not the other way around.
1587:). These fatwas classified countries under European domination as lands of war or unbelief and invoked the legal theory obliging Muslims to wage war against the rulers of these lands or emigrate. A number of such fatwas were issued during the 19th century, including in 1803 by
1520:
and Safavid Iran. Fatwas by the Ottoman chief mufti were also solicited by the rulers to lend religious legitimacy to new social and economic practices, such as financial and penal laws enacted outside of sharia, printing of nonreligious books (1727) and vaccination (1845).
1800:
and four of his associates, proclaiming "jihad against Jews and Crusaders" and calling for killing of American civilians. In addition to denouncing its content, many Islamic jurists stressed that bin Laden was not qualified to either issue a fatwa or declare a jihad.
1694:
New forms of ijtihad have also given rise to fatwas that support such notions as gender equality and banking interest, which are at variance with classical jurisprudence. This is commonly accomplished by application of various traditional legal doctrines such as the
1604:
differed in their technical detail, while the French authorities obtained fatwas from local muftis, stating that Muslims living under the rule of unbelievers were not obligated to fight or emigrate as long as they were granted religious freedom by the authorities.
1472:
While the office of the mufti was gradually subsumed into the state bureaucracy in much of the Sunni Muslim world, Shia religious establishment followed a different path in Iran starting from the early modern era. During Safavid rule, independent Islamic jurists
1099:, and he rarely talked about a subject without quoting the four schools of the imams. Yet, he contradicted the four schools in well-known matters about which he wrote and for which provided arguments from the Koran and the Sunna. He has compiled a work entitled
1451:(religious scholars). Madrasas, which were primarily devoted to the study of law, soon multiplied throughout the Islamic world, helping to spread Islamic learning beyond urban centers and to unite diverse Islamic communities in a shared cultural project.
951:
how to respond to questions from his followers regarding religious and social practices. Several of these verses begin with the phrase "When they ask you concerning ..., say ..." In two cases (4:127, 4:176) this is expressed with verbal forms of the root
879:
in various ways. While the proliferation of contemporary fatwas attests to the importance of Islamic authenticity to many Muslims, little research has been done to determine how much these fatwas affect the beliefs or behavior of the Muslim public.
1524:
At other times muftis wielded their influence independently of the ruler, and several sultans in Morocco and the Ottoman Empire were dethroned as a result of fatwas issued by influential jurists. This happened, for example, to the Ottoman sultan
729:
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bureaucracies in the course of Islamic history, they were often expected to support government policies. Ottoman sultans regularly sought fatwas from the chief mufti for administrative and military initiatives, including fatwas sanctioning
1386:
Before the 11th century CE, anyone who possessed scholarly recognition as an Islamic jurist could issue fatwas. Starting around that time, however, the public office of mufti began to appear alongside the private issuing of fatwas. In
1599:
of northern India issued fatwas stating that Indian Muslims were not obliged to rebel or emigrate. A similar doctrinal controversy occurred in French-ruled Algeria. The fatwas solicited by the Algerian anti-colonial leader
1030:
citations of sources or specification of legal methodologies employed, depended on the technical level of the petitioner. In theory, a petitioner was supposed to verify the mufti's scholarly reputation, but mufti manuals (
1440:
For the first few centuries of Islam, muftis were educated in informal study circles, but beginning in the 11th and 12th centuries, the ruling elites began to establish institutions of higher religious learning known as
1862:, then the chairman of FCNA, which encouraged Muslim citizens to participate in American politics. This branch of jurisprudence has since been developed primarily, but not exclusively for Muslim minorities in the West.
1795:
Many militant and reform movements in modern times have disseminated fatwas issued by individuals who do not possess the qualifications traditionally required of a mufti. A famous example is the fatwa issued in 1998 by
1373:
While both muftis and judges were interpreters of sharia, judicial interpretation centered on evaluating evidence such as testimony and oath, while a mufti investigated textual sources of law (scripture and legal
1183:
Author-jurists collected fatwas by muftis of high scholarly reputation and abstracted them into concise formulations of legal norms that could be used by judges, giving a summary of jurisprudence for a particular
1529:
on the grounds of his insanity. Public fatwas were also used to dispute doctrinal matters, and in some case to proclaim that certain groups or individuals who professed to be Muslim were to be excluded from the
1401:
appointed four muftis, one for each of the four Sunni madhhabs, to appellate courts in provincial capitals. The Ottomans organized muftis into a hierarchical bureaucracy with a chief mufti of the empire called
980:). The concept of fatwa thus developed in Islamic communities under a question-and-answer format for communicating religious knowledge, and took on its definitive form with development of the classical
1711:(necessity), in place of adhering to the letter of scriptural sources. The main argument for this approach is that Islamic law is meant to serve the interest of Muslims and make their lives easier (
1760:
issued a fatwa calling for boycott of Israeli and American products, arguing that buying these goods would strengthen the "enemy" fighting against Muslims in the struggle over Palestine.
1159:
elaborating substantive Islamic law, particularly though a genre of legal literature developed by author-jurists who collected fatwas of prominent muftis and integrated them into books.
1820:
Erroneous and sometimes bizarre fatwas issued by unqualified or eccentric individuals in recent times have sometimes given rise to complaints about a "chaos" in the modern practice of
1763:
Some muftis in the modern era, like the mufti of the Lebanese republic in the mid-20th century and the Grand Mufti of the Sultanate of Oman, were important political leaders. In Iran,
1912:, "collective legal interpretation") is a new historical development, and it is found in such settings as boards of Islamic financial institutions and international fatwa councils.
960:
literature, this three-way relationship between God, Muhammad, and believers, is typically replaced by a two-way consultation, in which Muhammad replies directly to queries from his
1649:
respond to government and private queries on varied issues, including political conflicts, Islamic finance, and medical ethics, contributing to shaping a national Islamic identity.
1729:
1358:
A fatwa may deal with rituals, ethical questions, religious doctrines and sometimes even philosophical issues, while court cases dealt with legal matters in the narrow sense.
1687:
who have interpreted the Quran and hadith as supporting suicide bombings, indiscriminate killing of bystanders, and declaration of self-professed Muslims as unbelievers (
1367:
A judge evaluates rival claims of two parties in a dispute in order to reach a verdict, while a fatwa is made on the basis of information provided by a single petitioner.
875:
often diverges from pre-modern practice, particularly so in the West. Emergence of modern media and universal education has transformed the traditional institution of
1370:
Fatwas by prominent jurists were collected in books as sources of precedent, while court decisions were recorded in court registers, but not otherwise disseminated.
1901:. Unlike the concise or technical pre-modern fatwas, fatwas delivered through modern mass media often seek to be more expansive and accessible to the wide public.
972:
them are reported to have issued pronouncements on a wide range of subjects. The generation of Companions was in turn replaced in that role by the generation of
1568:
1553:
1489:
further claimed to act collectively as deputies of the imam. According to this doctrine, every Muslim is supposed to choose and follow a high-ranking living
3029:
1756:
Several boycott fatwas were issued in modern times, such as the one issued by Iraqi ulema in 1933, calling on Muslims to boycott Zionist products. In 2004
1653:
1414:), was among the most powerful state officials. Scribes reviewed queries directed to Ottoman muftis and rewrote them to facilitate issuing of fatwas. In
1854:
The needs of Western Muslims have given rise to a new branch of Islamic jurisprudence which has been termed the jurisprudence of (Muslim) minorities (
1938:
reflecting the actual conduct or opinions of Muslims, these fatwas may instead represent a collection of opinions on what Muslims "ought to think".
1889:
issued a fatwa allowing interest banking, the ruling was vigorously debated in the Egyptian press by both religious scholars and lay intellectuals.
1844:
427:
1808:
was a statement, signed in 2005 in Jordan by nearly 200 prominent Islamic jurists, which served as a "counter-fatwa" against a widespread use of
1377:
In the classical legal system, judges were civil servants appointed by the ruler, while muftis were private scholars and not appointed officials.
1361:
The authority of a court judgment applies only to the specific court case, while a fatwa applies to all cases that fit the premises of the query.
3039:
2423:
314:
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and Baber Johansen has shown that fatwa compilations could, and sometimes did, have a significant impact on the development of Islamic law.
1153:
managing information about Islam by providing legal advice to Muslim populations as well as counseling them in matters of ritual and ethics;
2631:
1657:
981:
2997:
2980:
2923:
2863:
2819:
2802:
2791:
2766:
2755:
2734:
2667:
1672:, i.e. deriving legal rulings based on an independent analysis rather than conformity with the opinions of earlier legal authorities (
1190:(legal school). Author-jurists sought out fatwas that reflected the social conditions of their time and place, often opting for later
1111:(legal opinions) according to a specific school, rather he bases these on the proof he has ascertained himself. He supported the pure
2892:
2414:
G. Rabil, Robert (2014). "1: The Creed, Ideology, and Manhaj (Methodology) of Salafism: A Historical and Contemporaneous Framework".
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The mufti and the judge play different roles in the classical sharia system, with corresponding differences between a fatwa and a
92:
2684:
1572:
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A fatwa is made on the basis of information provided in the request, while a judge actively investigates the facts of the case.
1233:
The basic prerequisite for issuing fatwas under the classical legal theory was religious knowledge and piety. According to the
674:
2973:
Jihad and Islam in World War I: Studies on the Ottoman Jihad on the Centenary of Snouck Hurgronje's "Holy War Made in Germany"
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Powers, David S. (2017). "Fatwā, premodern". In Kate Fleet; Gudrun Krämer; Denis Matringe; John Nawas; Everett Rowson (eds.).
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Gräf, Bettina (2017). "Fatwā, modern media". In Kate Fleet; Gudrun Krämer; Denis Matringe; John Nawas; Everett Rowson (eds.).
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In some states, such as Muslim Spain, muftis were assigned to courts in advisory roles. In Muslim Spain jurists also sat on a
1255:, i.e., a jurist who is capable of deriving legal rulings directly from the scriptural sources through independent reasoning (
1213:(piety, fear of God), particularly in Sufi literature. Fatwas may allow a choice between lenient and strict interpretation of
1180:
this practice was mandatory, so that a judicial decision was considered invalid without prior approval by a legal specialist.
3024:
2961:
2656:
839:
619:
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Messick, Brinkley (2017). "Fatwā, modern". In Kate Fleet; Gudrun Krämer; Denis Matringe; John Nawas; Everett Rowson (eds.).
1429:
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responded to thousands of queries from around the Muslim world on a variety of social and political topics in the regular
1840:
363:
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Tyan, E.; Walsh, J.R. (2012). "Fatwā". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.).
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themselves. These were generally lower- and middle-class professions such as tanning, manuscript copying or small trade.
1839:
Institutions devoted specifically to issuing fatwas to Western Muslims have been established in the West, including the
1433:
395:
1892:
In the internet age, a large number of websites has appeared offering fatwas to readers around the world. For example,
1934:
provides access to either male or female muftis, allowing women to request fatwas from female Islamic legal scholars.
442:
269:
815:) in response to a question posed by a private individual, judge or government. A jurist issuing fatwas is called a
482:
1741:
On November 14, 1914 the Ottoman sultan proclaimed a jihad to mark the official entry of the Ottoman Empire into
1680:), in the 20th century many muftis began to assert their independence from traditional schools of jurisprudence.
1092:
577:
289:
2750:. Vol. 4: Islamic Cultures and Societies to the End of the Eighteenth Century. Cambridge University Press.
1286:
school of jurisprudence, which was predominant for a time during the early modern era, hold a different view on
1634:
1517:
1398:
509:
309:
1221:) to circumvent a stricter interpretation, while such strategies may not be acceptable from the standpoint of
1499:, whose fatwas are considered binding, unlike fatwas in Sunni Islam. Thus, in contrast to Sunni muftis, Shia
1886:
1717:
104:
1652:
There exists no international Islamic authority to settle differences in interpretation of Islamic law. An
1620:, which prohibited smoking as long as the British tobacco monopoly was in effect, also achieved its goals.
1000:
827:. Fatwas have played an important role throughout Islamic history, taking on new forms in the modern era.
780:
558:
324:
553:
378:
162:
117:
1050:(God knows best). Nonetheless, fatwas took on a variety of forms depending on the local legal culture.
1014:(principles of jurisprudence), while more practical guidelines for muftis were found in manuals called
1275:
became distinguished, and legal theorists classified jurists into three or more levels of competence.
2327:
1931:
1833:
896:, whose meanings include 'youth, newness, clarification, explanation'. A number of terms related to
846:
1460:(council) advising the ruler. Muftis were additionally appointed to other public functions, such as
1881:
1859:
1746:
1343:
864:
667:
563:
197:
97:
1767:
used proclamations and fatwas to introduce and legitimize a number of institutions, including the
1788:
1772:
1764:
1242:
The teacher would decide when the student was ready to issue fatwas by giving him a certificate (
587:
544:
514:
497:
472:
417:
373:
85:
1733:
Fatwa supporting the Ottoman proclamation of jihad in 1914, read by the Custodian Of The Fatwa (
1481:. Under the Usuli doctrine that prevailed among Twelver Shias in the 18th century and under the
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2951:
2919:
2859:
2787:
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2652:
2419:
2340:
2336:
1757:
1684:
1478:
628:
592:
539:
452:
412:
274:
24:
20:
2639:
2938:
2909:
2901:
2878:
2840:
2708:
1319:
744:
738:
700:
437:
432:
383:
368:
353:
262:
141:
2905:
2827:
2810:
2774:
2675:
1595:
in West Africa. The unrealistic nature of these fatwas was soon recognized and in 1870 the
3034:
3019:
2744:
Hallaq, Wael B. (2010). "Islamic Law: History and Transformation". In Robert Irwin (ed.).
1797:
1610:
1601:
1592:
1588:
1557:
1393:
1156:
advising courts of law on finer points of Islamic law, in response to queries from judges;
771:
694:
572:
388:
348:
337:
319:
222:
167:
80:
1947:
1783:
1779:
928:
660:
532:
519:
477:
422:
36:
3013:
2942:
1805:
1617:
1561:
1482:
1352:
1191:
1054:
597:
502:
462:
2882:
2844:
2712:
1683:
The most notorious result of disregarding classical jurisprudence are the fatwas of
1419:
1415:
1279:
1010:
648:
604:
341:
73:
62:
1167:
1101:
Politics According to Divine Law for Establishing Order for Sovereign and Subjects
973:
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2782:
Hendrickson, Jocelyn (2013). "Fatwa". In Gerhard Böwering, Patricia Crone (ed.).
2745:
2724:
1609:
accusation that he failed to mount a defense against French aggression. The 1891
855:
acted as independent scholars in the classical legal system. Over the centuries,
2720:
1893:
1872:
1742:
1195:
1038:
as a transaction between one qualified jurist and one "unqualified" petitioner.
400:
358:
282:
1817:
delegitimize fatwas issued by militants who lack the requisite qualifications.
1177:
1143:
1096:
1084:
405:
1676:). While in the past muftis were associated with a particular school of law (
1133:
849:, fatwas played a part in mobilizing resistance against foreign aggressors.
835:
304:
1958:
1495:
1194:
which were at variance with the doctrine of early authorities. Research by
947:. On a number of occasions, the Quranic text instructs the Islamic prophet
1668:
Modern fatwas have been marked by an increased reliance on the process of
1294:
school. According to the Usulis, fatwas can be based on valid conjecture (
1922:
1813:
1461:
1388:
1138:
1116:
948:
614:
582:
296:
230:
2914:
1171:
Page from a compilation of fatwas from Safavid Persia, late 17th century
1149:
Fatwas have played three important roles in the classical legal system:
1952:
1703:
1697:
1526:
1442:
1283:
1257:
1251:
During the first centuries of Islam, it was assumed that a mufti was a
1186:
1075:
1008:
The legal theory of the fatwa was formulated in the classical texts of
447:
124:
1536:
1263:
1112:
1069:
961:
957:
956:, which signify asking for or giving an authoritative answer. In the
806:
467:
457:
246:
214:
206:
191:
185:
69:
1641:
vision of Islam that is compatible with state law of their country.
1202:
all four capacities were regarded as the most accomplished jurists.
1205:
From the standpoint of morality and religious obligation, the term
863:
jurists in Iran asserted an autonomous authority starting from the
859:
muftis were gradually incorporated into state bureaucracies, while
2647:
Berkey, Jonathan (2004). "Education". In Richard C. Martin (ed.).
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1513:
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1447:
1428:
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902:
856:
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817:
811:
609:
487:
178:
136:
129:
52:
44:
1351:
A fatwa is nonbinding (unless issued by a government judge in an
1322:, and that fatwas should reflect only knowledge that is certain (
2418:. Washington, DC, USA: Georgetown University Press. p. 27.
2260:
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2256:
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advice on various personal issues encountered in everyday life.
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2416:
Salafism in Lebanon: From Apoliticism to Transnational Jihadism
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1858:). The term is believed to have been coined in a 1994 fatwa by
1217:
on a certain matter, or they may employ legalistic stratagems (
900:
derive from the same root. A jurist issuing fatwas is called a
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1079:(legal schools). Explaining Ibn Taymiyya's approach to issue
762:
753:
718:
1633:
organizations devoted to issuing fatwas. One example is the
1503:
gradually achieved increasing independence from the state.
1314:. In contrast, Akhbaris hold that all Shia Muslims must be
2826:. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Archived from
2809:. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Archived from
2576:
2574:
2572:
2570:
2568:
2566:
2023:
2021:
2019:
2017:
2015:
2013:
2011:
2009:
2007:
2005:
2003:
2001:
1999:
1885:. In the late 20th century, when the Grand Mufti of Egypt
2439:
2437:
2435:
1997:
1995:
1993:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1985:
1983:
1981:
1979:
1391:, the rulers appointed a head of the local ulama, called
709:
1904:
Modern media have also facilitated cooperative forms to
2784:
The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought
2553:
2551:
2454:
2452:
2397:
2395:
2040:
2038:
2036:
1073:, rather than being restrained by the mechanism of the
2898:
The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Legal History
2801:
Masud, Muhammad Khalid; Kéchichian, Joseph A. (2009).
2597:
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in an effort to secure support and cooperation of the
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2073:
1715:). This form of ijtihad is particularly prominent in
1355:), while a court decision is binding and enforceable.
759:
750:
715:
706:
2953:
Between God and the Sultan: A History of Islamic Law
2071:
2069:
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2065:
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2061:
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2057:
2055:
2053:
800:
785:
756:
712:
747:
703:
2891:
1128:The classical institution of fatwa is similar to
2818:Messick, Brinkley; Kéchichian, Joseph A. (2009).
2773:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
2674:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
2264:
2201:
1628:Under European colonial rule, the institution of
1091:"He was well informed of the legal views of the
1302:, and every Muslim who is not qualified to be a
2685:"The fatwa hotline: 'We have heard everything'"
2666:Dallal, Ahmad S.; Hendrickson, Jocelyn (2009).
2122:
805:) is a legal ruling on a point of Islamic law (
1397:, who also functioned as the chief mufti. The
906:. The person who asks for a fatwa is known as
2636:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics
921:In older English language works the spelling
668:
8:
3004:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
2900:. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
2824:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
2807:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
2771:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
2672:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
1571:, several fatwas were issued drawing on the
1326:) and based on the traditions of the Imams.
1105:Removing the Reproach from the Learned Imams
794:
2580:
2027:
2858:(Kindle ed.). Oneworld Publications.
2649:Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World
1660:, but its legal opinions are not binding.
1107:.... For some years now he has not issued
821:, and the act of issuing fatwas is called
675:
661:
31:
2913:
2638:. Oxford University Press. Archived from
2044:
1778:Khomeini's most publicized fatwa was the
1477:) claimed the authority to represent the
1057:was known for his methodology of issuing
927:, from Turkish, is used, relating to the
918:refers to soliciting and issuing fatwas.
2509:, pp. 1856–1881 (Kindle locations).
2601:
2542:
2530:
2297:
1975:
1845:European Council for Fatwa and Research
809:) given by a qualified Islamic jurist (
43:
16:Nonbinding legal opinion in Islamic law
2518:
2482:
2470:
2443:
2401:
2374:
2362:
2077:
910:. The act of issuing fatwas is called
2557:
2506:
2494:
2458:
2386:
2312:
7:
2906:10.1093/acref/9780195134056.001.0001
2613:
1879:section of his Cairo-based journal
1658:Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
795:
791:
775:
3030:Arabic words and phrases in Sharia
2747:The New Cambridge History of Islam
2683:Ghafour, Hamida (20 August 2016).
1725:Political fatwas and controversies
1654:International Islamic Fiqh Academy
1575:between lands under Islamic rule (
14:
1769:Council of the Islamic Revolution
1422:the chief mufti had the title of
1267:). At that point, the notions of
847:mass European/Christian invasions
2943:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0219
1953:Schools of Islamic jurisprudence
1843:(FCNA, founded in 1986) and the
1022:(etiquette of the mufti/fatwa).
743:
699:
642:
51:
2883:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27048
2855:Shi'I Islam: A Beginner's Guide
2845:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27049
2713:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27050
2634:. In Emad El-Din Shahin (ed.).
1751:Heilige Oorlog Made in Germany
1290:from the currently predominant
1061:through direct research of the
2786:. Princeton University Press.
2729:. Cambridge University Press.
2726:An Introduction to Islamic Law
1004:Turkish mufti (1687 engraving)
1:
2822:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
2820:"Fatwā. Process and Function"
2805:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
2769:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
2767:"Law. Minority Jurisprudence"
2765:Hendrickson, Jocelyn (2009).
2670:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
2265:Messick & Kéchichian 2009
2202:Dallal & Hendrickson 2009
1841:Fiqh Council of North America
3040:Islamic courts and tribunals
3006:, via Oxford Islamic Studies
2896:. In Stanley N. Katz (ed.).
1434:Ulugh Beg Madrasa, Samarkand
2975:. Leiden University Press.
2956:. Oxford University Press.
2651:. MacMillan Reference USA.
2630:Berger, Maurits S. (2014).
2123:Masud & Kéchichian 2009
1834:September 11, 2001, attacks
1573:classical legal distinction
1507:Public and political fatwas
892:comes from the Arabic root
801:
786:
226:("Stories of the Prophets")
3056:
3002:– multi-part article from
2971:Zürcher, Erik Jan (2016).
2803:"Fatwā. Concepts of Fatwā"
2325:"Corps de Droit Ottoman".
1306:should become a follower (
943:can be traced back to the
18:
1229:Qualifications of a mufti
1209:has been contrasted with
1832:In the aftermath of the
1701:(objectives) of sharia,
1591:in India and in 1804 by
1406:at the top. The Ottoman
1337:Fatwa vs. court judgment
1055:Taqi al-Din Ibn Taymiyya
1053:The 14th century jurist
315:Medieval Islamic science
2950:Vikør, Knut S. (2005).
2937:(2nd ed.). Brill.
2890:Swartz, Merlin (2009).
2877:(3rd ed.). Brill.
2839:(3rd ed.). Brill.
2707:(3rd ed.). Brill.
1786:to death for his novel
2935:Encyclopaedia of Islam
2875:Encyclopaedia of Islam
2852:Momen, Moojan (2015).
2837:Encyclopaedia of Islam
2705:Encyclopaedia of Islam
1738:
1707:(public interest) and
1564:
1437:
1172:
1121:
1005:
325:Succession to Muhammad
3025:Islamic jurisprudence
2830:on November 20, 2015.
2813:on November 20, 2015.
2678:on November 20, 2015.
2668:"Fatwā. Modern usage"
2045:Tyan & Walsh 2012
1916:Social role of fatwas
1812:(excommunication) by
1732:
1613:fatwa by the Iranian
1556:
1534:(a practice known as
1493:bearing the title of
1432:
1170:
1089:
1003:
982:theory of Islamic law
2335:. Stevens and Sons:
2328:Law Quarterly Review
1932:United Arab Emirates
1866:Role of modern media
1635:Egyptian Dar al-Ifta
1579:) and lands of war (
1567:Early in the era of
1549:Anti-colonial fatwas
364:Association football
2497:, pp. 152–154.
1860:Taha Jabir Alalwani
1747:C. Snouck Hurgronje
1685:militant extremists
1656:was created by the
1624:Modern institutions
1569:Western colonialism
1329:Unlike the post of
988:In pre-modern Islam
939:The origins of the
125:Profession of Faith
98:Day of Resurrection
19:For the films, see
2777:on March 26, 2016.
2642:on April 17, 2019.
1828:Fatwas in the West
1789:The Satanic Verses
1773:Iranian Parliament
1765:Ayatollah Khomeini
1739:
1565:
1438:
1347:(court decision):
1298:) arrived through
1173:
1006:
2545:, pp. 14–18.
2425:978-1-62616-116-0
1856:fiqh al-aqallīyāt
1758:Yusuf al-Qaradawi
1718:fiqh al-aqallīyāt
1664:Legal methodology
1544:In the modern era
1532:Islamic community
1462:market inspectors
784:
685:
684:
25:Fatwa (2018 film)
21:Fatwa (2006 film)
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2581:Hendrickson 2009
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2028:Hendrickson 2013
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1798:Osama bin Laden
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1611:tobacco protest
1593:Usman dan Fodio
1589:Shah Abdul Aziz
1583:) or unbelief (
1558:Tobacco protest
1551:
1546:
1509:
1470:
1408:shaykh al-Islam
1404:shaykh al-islam
1394:shaykh al-Islam
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2925:978-0195134056
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1948:List of fatwas
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1124:Role of fatwas
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1083:, his student
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2592:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2577:
2575:
2573:
2571:
2569:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2554:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2539:
2536:
2533:, p. 56.
2532:
2527:
2524:
2520:
2515:
2512:
2508:
2503:
2500:
2496:
2491:
2488:
2484:
2479:
2476:
2472:
2467:
2464:
2460:
2455:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2440:
2438:
2436:
2432:
2427:
2421:
2417:
2410:
2407:
2404:, p. 13.
2403:
2398:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2383:
2380:
2376:
2371:
2368:
2364:
2359:
2357:
2355:
2353:
2351:
2347:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2329:
2321:
2318:
2314:
2309:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2294:
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2255:
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2243:
2241:
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2203:
2198:
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2182:
2180:
2178:
2176:
2174:
2172:
2170:
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2166:
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2158:
2156:
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2140:
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2136:
2134:
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2128:
2124:
2119:
2117:
2115:
2113:
2111:
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2105:
2103:
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2097:
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2037:
2033:
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2024:
2022:
2020:
2018:
2016:
2014:
2012:
2010:
2008:
2006:
2004:
2002:
2000:
1998:
1996:
1994:
1992:
1990:
1988:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1980:
1976:
1970:
1965:
1961:
1960:
1956:
1954:
1951:
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1946:
1945:
1941:
1939:
1935:
1933:
1927:
1924:
1915:
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1907:
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1807:
1806:Amman Message
1802:
1799:
1793:
1791:
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1776:
1774:
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1659:
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1642:
1638:
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1623:
1621:
1619:
1618:Mirza Shirazi
1616:
1612:
1606:
1603:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1563:
1562:Mirza Shirazi
1559:
1555:
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1533:
1528:
1522:
1519:
1515:
1506:
1504:
1502:
1498:
1497:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1483:Qajar dynasty
1480:
1476:
1468:In Shia Islam
1467:
1465:
1463:
1459:
1458:
1452:
1450:
1449:
1444:
1435:
1431:
1427:
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1396:
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1390:
1381:
1376:
1372:
1369:
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1363:
1360:
1357:
1354:
1353:Islamic state
1350:
1349:
1348:
1346:
1345:
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1332:
1327:
1325:
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1266:
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1239:
1236:
1235:adab al-mufti
1228:
1226:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1203:
1199:
1197:
1193:
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1037:
1033:
1032:adab al-mufti
1027:
1023:
1021:
1020:adab al-fatwa
1017:
1016:adab al-mufti
1013:
1012:
1002:
996:
992:
987:
985:
983:
979:
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521:
518:
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491:
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488:Proselytizing
486:
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396:Denominations
394:
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68:
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42:
38:
34:
33:
30:
26:
22:
3003:
2998:
2972:
2952:
2934:
2915:10261/117259
2897:
2874:
2854:
2836:
2828:the original
2823:
2811:the original
2806:
2783:
2775:the original
2770:
2746:
2725:
2704:
2694:15 September
2692:. Retrieved
2689:The Guardian
2688:
2676:the original
2671:
2648:
2640:the original
2635:
2609:
2602:Ghafour 2016
2543:Zürcher 2016
2538:
2531:Zürcher 2016
2526:
2514:
2502:
2490:
2478:
2466:
2415:
2409:
2382:
2377:, p. 9.
2370:
2332:
2326:
2320:
2298:Messick 2017
1957:
1936:
1928:
1919:
1909:
1905:
1903:
1898:
1891:
1880:
1876:
1869:
1855:
1853:
1849:local custom
1838:
1831:
1821:
1819:
1809:
1803:
1794:
1787:
1780:proclamation
1777:
1762:
1755:
1750:
1740:
1734:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1702:
1696:
1693:
1688:
1682:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1667:
1651:
1646:
1643:
1639:
1629:
1627:
1614:
1607:
1602:Abd al-Qadir
1596:
1584:
1580:
1577:dar al-Islam
1576:
1566:
1535:
1523:
1518:Mamluk Egypt
1510:
1500:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1474:
1471:
1455:
1453:
1446:
1439:
1423:
1420:Safavid Iran
1416:Mughal India
1411:
1407:
1403:
1392:
1385:
1382:Institutions
1374:literature).
1342:
1340:
1330:
1328:
1323:
1320:Twelve Imams
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1287:
1280:Twelver Shia
1277:
1272:
1268:
1262:
1256:
1252:
1250:
1243:
1240:
1234:
1232:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1204:
1200:
1185:
1182:
1178:Muslim Spain
1174:
1162:
1148:
1137:
1129:
1127:
1108:
1104:
1103:and a book
1100:
1090:
1080:
1074:
1068:
1062:
1058:
1052:
1048:allahu a'lam
1047:
1044:
1040:
1035:
1031:
1028:
1024:
1019:
1015:
1011:usul al-fiqh
1009:
1007:
994:
977:
970:
965:
953:
940:
938:
923:
922:
920:
915:
911:
907:
901:
897:
893:
889:
887:
876:
872:
869:
851:
841:
831:
829:
823:
822:
816:
810:
688:
686:
605:Islamophobia
384:Demographics
379:Circumcision
295:
288:
281:
247:
239:
223:
215:
207:
196:
190:
184:
177:
29:
2519:Berkey 2004
2483:Swartz 2009
2471:Hallaq 2010
2444:Hallaq 2009
2402:Hallaq 2009
2375:Hallaq 2009
2363:Powers 2017
2078:Berger 2014
1894:IslamOnline
1873:Rashid Rida
1782:condemning
1743:World War I
1735:Fetva Emini
1630:dar al-ifta
1585:dar al-kufr
1581:dar al-harb
1479:hidden imam
1436:(est. 1422)
1412:şeyhülislam
1196:Wael Hallaq
993:Process of
914:. The term
884:Terminology
830:Resembling
620:Laws of war
283:Ahl al-Bayt
168:Foundations
3014:Categories
2963:0195223985
2658:0028662695
2558:Vikør 2005
2507:Momen 2015
2495:Vikør 2005
2459:Vikør 2005
2387:Vikør 2005
2313:Vikør 2005
1966:References
1144:Jewish law
1095:and their
1093:companions
1085:Al-Dhahabi
974:Successors
962:Companions
473:Philosophy
210:(exegesis)
147:Pilgrimage
137:Almsgiving
2614:Gräf 2017
1971:Citations
1749:, titled
1501:mujtahids
1487:mujtahids
1475:mujtahids
1316:muqallids
1134:Roman law
1117:Salafiyah
1097:followers
888:The word
840:rabbinic
836:Roman law
781:romanized
593:terrorism
545:Criticism
498:Sexuality
468:Mysticism
438:Festivals
418:Education
413:Economics
349:Academics
305:Caliphate
118:Practices
2723:(2009).
1942:See also
1923:Gulf War
1882:Al-Manar
1814:jihadist
1771:and the
1615:mujtahid
1516:against
1491:mujtahid
1443:madrasas
1389:Khurasan
1312:mujtahid
1308:muqallid
1304:mujtahid
1273:mujtahid
1253:mujtahid
1139:responsa
1136:and the
1087:writes:
1076:madhhabs
949:Muhammad
908:mustafti
842:responsa
629:Glossary
615:Jihadism
588:Violence
583:Islamism
554:Muhammad
540:Apostasy
483:Politics
433:Feminism
428:Exorcism
389:Diaspora
374:Children
369:Calendar
297:Rashidun
275:Muhammad
270:Timeline
231:Mathnawi
93:Prophets
37:a series
35:Part of
2893:"Mufti"
2632:"Fatwa"
2623:Sources
1704:maslaha
1698:maqasid
1678:madhhab
1670:ijtihad
1527:Murad V
1410:(Turk.
1399:Mamluks
1318:of the
1310:) of a
1300:ijtihad
1284:Akhbari
1258:ijtihad
1187:madhhab
978:tabi'un
935:Origins
783::
510:Slavery
493:Science
448:Madrasa
443:Finance
354:Animals
342:society
338:Culture
310:Imamate
290:Sahabah
263:History
233:(Poems)
218:(creed)
142:Fasting
70:Oneness
63:Beliefs
3035:Fatwas
3020:Sharia
2979:
2960:
2922:
2862:
2790:
2754:
2733:
2655:
2422:
1959:Nāzila
1810:takfir
1713:taysīr
1709:darura
1689:takfir
1674:taqlid
1537:takfir
1485:, the
1282:, the
1278:Among
1264:taqlid
1215:sharia
1109:fatwas
1081:fatwas
1070:Hadith
1064:Qur'an
1059:fatwas
966:sahaba
958:hadith
853:Muftis
807:sharia
802:fatāwā
772:Arabic
564:Hadith
478:Poetry
458:Mosque
423:Ethics
248:Sharia
216:Aqidah
208:Tafsir
192:Hadith
186:Sunnah
130:Prayer
81:Angels
2999:Fatwa
1877:fatwa
1597:ulama
1514:jihad
1457:shura
1448:ulema
1292:Usuli
1269:mufti
1245:ijaza
1223:taqwa
1219:hiyal
1211:taqwa
1207:fatwa
1113:Sunna
1036:futya
995:iftāʾ
954:f-t-y
945:Quran
941:fatwa
924:fetva
916:futyā
912:iftāʾ
903:mufti
898:fatwa
894:f-t-w
890:fatwa
857:Sunni
824:ifta'
818:mufti
812:faqih
796:فتاوى
787:fatwā
725:
689:fatwa
610:Jihad
559:Quran
520:Women
463:Music
401:Sunni
250:(law)
198:Sirah
179:Quran
163:Texts
45:Islam
2977:ISBN
2958:ISBN
2920:ISBN
2860:ISBN
2788:ISBN
2752:ISBN
2731:ISBN
2696:2019
2653:ISBN
2420:ISBN
1906:ifta
1899:ifta
1822:ifta
1804:The
1647:ifta
1424:sadr
1418:and
1344:qada
1331:qadi
1324:qatʿ
1296:zann
1288:ifta
1271:and
1067:and
877:ifta
873:ifta
861:Shia
838:and
776:فتوى
503:LGBT
406:Shia
340:and
240:Fiqh
23:and
2939:doi
2910:hdl
2902:doi
2879:doi
2841:doi
2709:doi
2341:444
2337:443
1691:).
1248:).
1142:in
1132:in
1018:or
968:).
834:in
792:pl.
598:war
359:Art
74:God
72:of
3016::
2918:.
2908:.
2687:.
2588:^
2565:^
2550:^
2451:^
2434:^
2394:^
2349:^
2333:21
2331:.
2305:^
2272:^
2209:^
2130:^
2085:^
2052:^
2035:^
1978:^
1824:.
1775:.
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770:;
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739:US
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687:A
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