358:
64:
107:
214:; the latter was associated with the lower classes. Sourdough bread was made by mixing flour with water, and leaving the mix in the open air, to be colonised by wild, airborne yeasts. If this "starter" was successful, a small amount was retained uncooked, to be added to the next batch. The rest was baked. A good starter was handled with care. It could be re-used indefinitely, and, as much as the flour itself, determined the quality of the bread. Other, less popular leavening agents included soured
378:. Wealthy Romans would purchase domestic slaves and use them as bakers. This was seen as a sign of aristocratic status. Bakers were also associated with servility. Cicero considered baking to be a lowly occupation. In
357:
529:
285:
as a baking mound. This would be encased in a large brick structure used to insulate the mound. Beneath the openings in the baking chambers were located ledges which were likely used to store ashes. The
342:
were sometimes placed on the sides of the vessel and were used to grip onto. It may also have had a central opening or small circular vents in the sides which were used to regulate the heat. The
370:
There is evidence that baking was widespread in ancient Rome. Archaeologists have found over thirty commercial bakeries in
Pompeii. Bakers could be identified through imagery such as
392:. Augustus was mocked for being the descendant of an African baker. The negativity towards bakers was likely influenced by the large quantities of wealth bakers would assume.
27:(171–168 BC). Ancient Roman bakers could make large quantities of money. This may have contributed to receiving a negative reputation. Bakers used tools such as the
298:. Following this, the ashes were removed, hot coals were placed on the dome to maintain the heat, the dome was replaced, and bread was placed upon the hot stone.
63:
754:
354:. The most common decoration was incised concentric circles, wave patterns, rouletted concentric circles of triangles or rectangles, gouges, and slashes.
121:
method, and baking in earthenware vessels. The most basic method of baking was cooking in ashes. The hot ashes and tiles were used to heat the bread. The
334:. Although frequently mentioned in Roman literature, there is little evidence as to its function or role. It is unclear what differentiated it from the
117:
research conducted in
Britain identified five different kinds of Roman baking, including baking in the ashes, baking surrounding hot ashes, the
711:
1014:
979:
952:
925:
895:
868:
842:
815:
731:
694:
667:
640:
613:
586:
509:
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435:
330:
ritual. This type of oven was used by the Roman military to supply food to its soldiers. Another piece of baking equipment was known as the
686:
A Day in a
Working Life: 300 Trades and Professions through History [3 volumes]: 300 Trades and Professions through History
294:
was an earthenware pot used to bake homemade bread. Ancient Roman bakers would heat it by creating a fire underneath the dome on a
389:
226:
was the ancient Roman term for food produced in the ashes of a fire. This type of food may be the ancestor of
Italian
133:
with pie-shaped lids and foot-long sides. Although none of the examples have handles or holes at the top, some have
269:
was developed by the end of the
Republic and spread due to a greater need for baking. It likely evolved from the
995:
Bagnall, Roger S; Brodersen, Kai; Champion, Craige B; Erskine, Andrew; Huebner, Sabine R, eds. (2013-01-21).
23:. Many ancient Roman baking techniques were developed due to Greek bakers who traveled to Rome following the
187:
182:
350:
referred to a wide variety of vessels, possibly including the testum. Decorations were sometimes placed on
106:
1041:
314:
was used as a portable oven and was owned by wealthy families. It was a type of small oven similar to a
290:
was used by the ancient Romans as a portable oven. It was used by wealthier people in ancient Rome. The
191:
114:
917:
Entertaining from
Ancient Rome to the Super Bowl: An Encyclopedia [2 volumes]: An Encyclopedia
83:
24:
338:. It was a rounded pot with a wider bottom than top and heated with a fire located underneath it.
996:
782:
557:
1010:
975:
948:
921:
891:
864:
838:
811:
774:
727:
723:
690:
663:
636:
632:
Handbook of
Ancient Afro-Eurasian Economies: Volume 2: Local, Regional, and Imperial Economies
609:
582:
549:
505:
461:
431:
1002:
766:
719:
541:
401:
327:
211:
137:
on the sides. Bread could also be cooked in earthenware vessels. Pastry cooks were known as
79:
1036:
659:
Daily Life of Women: An
Encyclopedia from Ancient Times to the Present [3 volumes]
178:
166:
834:
A Companion to
Science, Technology, and Medicine in Ancient Greece and Rome, 2 Volume Set
790:
158:
86:, the arrival of Greek bakers established the first professional bakers, known as the
1030:
1006:
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561:
142:
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20:
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322:
found at
Pompeii was made from a square box resting on four decorative legs. The
219:
207:
186:
women were the primary bakers in most families. It was a common practice to use
68:
770:
545:
778:
553:
371:
299:
227:
203:
44:
656:
Boyett, Colleen; Tarver, H. Micheal; Gleason, Mildred Diane (2020-12-07).
110:
Frieze on the Tomb of Eurysaces the Baker, depicting bread being prepared.
384:
230:
223:
75:
379:
315:
282:
274:
130:
157:. These were respected professions in ancient Rome. By the end of the
375:
339:
215:
170:
134:
95:
16:
427:
Trade and Taboo: Disreputable Professions in the Roman Mediterranean
326:
was likely used for convenience rather than as part of an extensive
356:
254:
250:
242:
234:
126:
105:
91:
62:
52:
48:
246:
146:
241:. Leaves were used to flavor the bread. The Romans adopted a
238:
177:
to help ensure the continuous supply of bread. According to
125:
method involved baking bread underneath a hot cover or hot
306:
although it would not heat the bread as quickly. Like the
530:"Testa and Clibani: The Baking Covers of Classical Italy"
501:
A History of British Baking: From Blood Bread to Bake-Off
528:
Cubberley, A. L.; Lloyd, J. A.; Roberts, P. C. (1988).
78:
and baked bread for around six hundred years after the
914:
Adamson, Melitta Weiss; Segan, Francine (2008-10-30).
346:
may have been portable. It is also possible the term
971:
The Roman Navy: Ships, Men and Warfare 350 BC–AD 475
863:. Oxford University Press. 2016-10-25. p. 123.
67:Still life with bread and figs, wall painting from
43:to make bread. Most Roman breads were made using
233:. Many baked goods included large quantities of
47:. The most common way to leaven bread was using
19:was a popular profession and source of food in
430:. University of Michigan Press. p. 154.
8:
202:Ancient Roman bread was typically made from
947:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 111.
890:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 132.
837:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 580–582.
90:, in Rome. It was in ancient Rome where
724:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.8055
504:. Pen and Sword History. pp. 3–8.
413:
635:. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG.
909:
907:
273:, which was a type of corn-dryer. In
7:
810:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 5.
534:Papers of the British School at Rome
523:
521:
493:
491:
489:
487:
485:
483:
481:
479:
477:
460:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 4.
449:
447:
419:
417:
361:A mill and bakery complex at Pompeii
129:. These baking covers are typically
998:The Encyclopedia of Ancient History
14:
98:first began to be mass produced.
1007:10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah30029
887:Cooking in Ancient Civilizations
968:Pitassi, Michael (2012-05-11).
831:Irby, Georgia L. (2016-04-04).
710:Benton, Jared T. (2016-11-22).
629:Reden, Sitta von (2021-12-20).
281:usually use a domed shape or a
941:Alcock, Joan Pilsbury (2006).
860:The Oxford Companion to Cheese
388:bakers were said to work with
173:is said to have established a
1:
804:Gisslen, Wayne (2021-11-23).
683:Westfahl, Gary (2015-04-21).
454:Gisslen, Wayne (2004-04-06).
755:"Home-baking in Roman Italy"
716:Oxford Classical Dictionary
302:were also used to heat the
1058:
884:Kaufman, Cathy K. (2006).
581:. Hodder & Stoughton.
424:Bond, Sarah (2016-10-25).
218:, beer foam, or fermented
944:Food in the Ancient World
920:. ABC-CLIO. p. 252.
771:10.1017/S0003598X00051176
689:. ABC-CLIO. p. 318.
662:. ABC-CLIO. p. 199.
546:10.1017/S0068246200009570
575:Lane, Amy (2011-03-15).
498:Kay, Emma (2020-11-23).
194:as workers in bakeries.
161:private bakers known as
82:. In 171 BC, during the
753:Frayn, Joan M. (1978).
605:Ancient Food Technology
578:The Baking Pocket Bible
169:to mass produce bread.
608:. BRILL. p. 370.
362:
111:
71:
1001:(1 ed.). Wiley.
602:Curtis (2021-11-15).
360:
109:
74:The Romans had eaten
66:
245:technique of adding
84:Third Macedonian War
25:Third Macedonian War
807:Professional Baking
457:Professional Baking
210:was preferred over
363:
208:White raised bread
175:collegium pistorum
112:
72:
1016:978-1-4051-7935-5
981:978-1-4738-1775-3
974:. Pen and Sword.
954:978-0-313-33003-2
927:978-0-313-08689-2
897:978-0-313-33204-3
870:978-0-19-933089-8
844:978-1-118-37267-8
817:978-1-119-74499-3
733:978-0-19-938113-5
696:978-1-61069-403-2
669:978-1-4408-4693-9
642:978-3-11-060493-1
615:978-90-04-47503-8
588:978-1-907087-47-9
511:978-1-5267-5751-7
467:978-0-471-46427-3
437:978-0-472-12225-7
179:Pliny the Elder's
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765:(204): 28–33.
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253:to make light
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141:and bakers of
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216:barley cakes
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155:crustularius
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149:were termed
139:pastillarium
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40:
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21:ancient Rome
15:
390:prostitutes
251:bread dough
220:grape juice
198:Ingredients
69:Herculaneum
51:mixed with
1031:Categories
739:2023-01-01
540:: 98–119.
408:References
372:millstones
366:Reputation
300:Sheet pans
151:dulciarius
143:sweetmeats
39:, and the
787:163333841
779:0003-598X
759:Antiquity
562:162321943
554:2045-239X
261:Equipment
228:flatbread
204:sourdough
192:criminals
123:sub testu
119:sub testu
45:sourdough
396:See also
385:Poenulus
348:clibanus
344:clibanus
332:clibanus
231:focaccia
224:Ash cake
163:pistores
159:Republic
131:ceramics
96:pastries
88:pistores
76:porridge
41:clibanus
380:Plautus
376:donkeys
352:clibani
340:Flanges
316:brazier
283:beehive
275:Pompeii
135:flanges
102:Process
59:History
1037:Baking
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336:testum
318:. One
310:, the
308:testum
304:testum
292:testum
288:testum
271:fornax
267:furnus
243:Gaulic
188:slaves
171:Trajan
33:testum
29:fornax
17:Baking
783:S2CID
558:S2CID
279:furni
247:froth
235:honey
167:mills
165:used
147:cakes
127:coals
92:bread
53:grain
49:flour
1011:ISBN
976:ISBN
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922:ISBN
892:ISBN
865:ISBN
839:ISBN
812:ISBN
775:ISSN
728:ISBN
691:ISBN
664:ISBN
637:ISBN
610:ISBN
583:ISBN
550:ISSN
506:ISBN
462:ISBN
432:ISBN
277:the
265:The
237:and
145:and
94:and
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374:or
249:to
239:oil
190:or
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
