203:(it can be reversibly adjusted within individuals), with, for example, lower temperatures generally resulting in higher basal metabolic rates for both birds and rodents. There are two models to explain how BMR changes in response to temperature: the variable maximum model (VMM) and variable fraction model (VFM). The VMM states that the summit metabolism (or the maximum metabolic rate in response to the cold) increases during the winter, and that the sustained metabolism (or the metabolic rate that can be indefinitely sustained) remains a constant fraction of the former. The VFM says that the summit metabolism does not change, but that the sustained metabolism is a larger fraction of it. The VMM is supported in mammals, and, when using whole-body rates, passerine birds. The VFM is supported in studies of passerine birds using mass-specific metabolic rates (or metabolic rates per unit of mass). This latter measurement has been criticized by Eric Liknes, Sarah Scott, and David Swanson, who say that mass-specific metabolic rates are inconsistent seasonally.
2213:
lean mass are a concern. Resistance training causes injuries at a much higher rate than aerobic training. Compared to resistance training, it was found that aerobic training resulted in a significantly more pronounced reduction of body weight by enhancing the cardiovascular system which is what is the principal factor in metabolic utilization of fat substrates. Resistance training if time is available is also helpful in post-exercise metabolism, but it is an adjunctive factor because the body needs to heal sufficiently between resistance training episodes, whereas with aerobic training, the body can accept this every day. RMR and BMR are measurements of daily consumption of calories. The majority of studies that are published on this topic look at aerobic exercise because of its efficacy for health and weight management.
1420:(ATP) is the intermediate molecule that drives the exergonic transfer of energy to switch to endergonic anabolic reactions used in muscle contraction. This is what causes muscles to work which can require a breakdown, and also to build in the rest period, which occurs during the strengthening phase associated with muscular contraction. ATP is composed of adenine, a nitrogen containing base, ribose, a five carbon sugar (collectively called adenosine), and three phosphate groups. ATP is a high energy molecule because it stores large amounts of energy in the chemical bonds of the two terminal phosphate groups. The breaking of these chemical bonds in the Krebs Cycle provides the energy needed for muscular contraction.
238:
increase and a luteal phase BMR increase by up to 12%. A study by the
American Society of Clinical Nutrition found that an experimental group of female volunteers had an 11.5% average increase in 24 hour energy expenditure in the two weeks following ovulation, with a range of 8% to 16%. This group was measured via simultaneously direct and indirect calorimetry and had standardized daily meals and sedentary schedule in order to prevent the increase from being manipulated by change in food intake or activity level. A 2011 study conducted by the Mandya Institute of Medical Sciences found that during a woman's
149:
2223:, builds additional muscle mass. Muscle contributes to the fat-free mass of an individual and therefore effective results from anaerobic exercise will increase BMR. However, the actual effect on BMR is controversial and difficult to enumerate. Various studies suggest that the resting metabolic rate of trained muscle is around 55 kJ/kg per day. Even a substantial increase in muscle mass, say 5 kg, would make only a minor impact on BMR.
1675:. From a basal metabolic or resting metabolic perspective, more energy is needed to burn a saturated fatty acid than an unsaturated fatty acid. The fatty acid molecule is broken down and categorized based on the number of carbon atoms in its molecular structure. The chemical equation for metabolism of the twelve to sixteen carbon atoms in a saturated fatty acid molecule shows the difference between metabolism of carbohydrates and fatty acids.
1900:. Unlike fat the body has no storage deposits of protein. All of it is contained in the body as important parts of tissues, blood hormones, and enzymes. The structural components of the body that contain these amino acids are continually undergoing a process of breakdown and replacement. The respiratory quotient for protein metabolism can be demonstrated by the chemical equation for oxidation of albumin:
2184:(greater than 90 minutes.) At rest approximately 70% of the ATP produced is derived from fats and 30% from carbohydrates. Following the onset of activity, as the intensity of the exercise increases, there is a shift in substrate preference from fats to carbohydrates. During high intensity aerobic exercise, almost 100% of the energy is derived from carbohydrates, if an adequate supply is available.
2385:. During exercise that achieves the anaerobic threshold, it is possible to deliver substrates that are desired for optimal energy utilization. The anaerobic threshold is defined as the energy utilization level of heart rate exertion that occurs without oxygen during a standardized test with a specific protocol for accuracy of measurement, such as the Bruce Treadmill protocol (see
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muscles. Protein catabolism (breakdown) has been estimated to supply 10% to 15% of the total energy requirement during a two-hour aerobic training session. This process could severely degrade the protein structures needed to maintain survival such as contractile properties of proteins in the heart, cellular mitochondria, myoglobin storage, and metabolic enzymes within muscles.
109:. Basal metabolic rate affects the rate that a person burns calories and ultimately whether that individual maintains, gains, or loses weight. The basal metabolic rate accounts for about 70% of the daily calorie expenditure by individuals. It is influenced by several factors. In humans, BMR typically declines by 1–2% per decade after age 20, mostly due to loss of
2389:). With four to six weeks of targeted training the body systems can adapt to a higher perfusion of mitochondrial density for increased oxygen availability for the Krebs cycle, or tricarboxylic cycle, or the glycolytic cycle. This in turn leads to a lower resting heart rate, lower blood pressure, and increased resting or basal metabolic rate.
85:) applies. It follows the same criteria as BMR, but requires the documentation of the temperature at which the metabolic rate was measured. This makes BMR a variant of standard metabolic rate measurement that excludes the temperature data, a practice that has led to problems in defining "standard" rates of metabolism for many mammals.
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representation of the anaerobic threshold. This can be confirmed by blood tests and gas analysis using either direct or indirect calorimetry to show the effect of substrate utilization. The measures of basal metabolic rate and resting metabolic rate are becoming essential tools for maintaining a healthy body weight.
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528:
947:
812:
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on body mass and fat mass in overweight adults (STRRIDE AT/RT). When you consider time commitments against health benefits, aerobic training is the optimal mode of exercise for reducing fat mass and body mass as a primary consideration, resistance training is good as a secondary factor when aging and
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and stays at its highest until this phase ends. There are different findings in research how much of an increase usually occurs. Small sample, early studies, found various figures, such as; a 6% higher postovulatory sleep metabolism, a 7% to 15% higher 24 hour expenditure following ovulation, and an
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The reason this is important in the process of understanding protein metabolism is that the body can blend the three macronutrients and based on the mitochondrial density, a preferred ratio can be established which determines how much fuel is utilized in which packets for work accomplished by the
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What enables the Krebs cycle to perform metabolic changes to fats, carbohydrates, and proteins is energy, which can be defined as the ability or capacity to do work. The breakdown of large molecules into smaller molecules—associated with release of energy—is catabolism. The building up process is
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The oxidative system (aerobic) is the primary source of ATP supplied to the body at rest and during low intensity activities and uses primarily carbohydrates and fats as substrates. Protein is not normally metabolized significantly, except during long term starvation and long bouts of exercise
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By measuring heart rate we can then derive estimations of what level of substrate utilization is actually causing biochemical metabolism in our bodies at rest or in activity. This in turn can help a person to maintain an appropriate level of consumption and utilization by studying a graphical
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The basic metabolic rate varies between individuals. One study of 150 adults representative of the population in
Scotland reported basal metabolic rates from as low as 1,027 kilocalories (4,300 kJ) per day to as high as 2,499 kilocalories (10,460 kJ); with a mean BMR of 1,500
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One problem with understanding the associations of lifespan and metabolism is that changes in metabolism are often confounded by other factors that may affect lifespan. For example under calorie restriction whole body metabolic rate goes down with increasing levels of restriction, but body
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1654:
The chemical composition for fats differs from that of carbohydrates in that fats contain considerably fewer oxygen atoms in proportion to atoms of carbon and hydrogen. When listed on nutritional information tables, fats are generally divided into six categories: total fats,
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Because the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms in all carbohydrates is always the same as that in water—that is, 2 to 1—all of the oxygen consumed by the cells is used to oxidize the carbon in the carbohydrate molecule to form carbon dioxide. Consequently, during the complete
225:. In other words, the more lean body mass a person has, the higher their BMR; but BMR is also affected by acute illnesses and increases with conditions like burns, fractures, infections, fevers, etc. In menstruating females, BMR varies to some extent with the phases of their
214:) increases its BMR by about 40% before migrating northward. This is because of the energetic demand of long-distance flights. The increase is likely primarily due to increased mass in organs related to flight. The end destination of migrants affects their BMR:
2257:. Additionally, the life span of houseflies can be extended by preventing physical activity. This theory has been bolstered by several new studies linking lower basal metabolic rate to increased life expectancy, across the animal kingdom—including humans.
668:
The difference in BMR for men and women is mainly due to differences in body mass. For example, a 55-year-old woman weighing 130 pounds (59 kg) and 66 inches (168 cm) tall would have a BMR of 1,272 kilocalories (5,320 kJ) per day.
535:
400:
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are energy-releasing reactions and are generally catabolic. Endergonic reactions require energy and include anabolic reactions and the contraction of muscle. Metabolism is the total of all catabolic, exergonic, anabolic, endergonic reactions.
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684:
1285:
A cross-sectional study of more than 1400 subjects in Europe and the US showed that once adjusted for differences in body composition (lean and fat mass) and age, BMR has fallen over the past 35 years. The decline was also observed in a
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The Katch–McArdle formula is used to predict resting daily energy expenditure (RDEE). The
Cunningham formula is commonly cited to predict RMR instead of BMR; however, the formulas provided by Katch–McArdle and Cunningham are the same.
2095:
965:
1388:). All of these processes require an intake of oxygen along with coenzymes to provide energy for survival (usually from macronutrients like carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) and expel carbon dioxide, due to processing by the
2292:
temperature also follows the same pattern. By manipulating the ambient temperature and exposure to wind it was shown in mice and hamsters that body temperature is a more important modulator of lifespan than metabolic rate.
1379:
About 70% of a human's total energy expenditure is due to the basal life processes taking place in the organs of the body (see table). About 20% of one's energy expenditure comes from physical activity and another 10% from
2196:
fitness of an individual does not have any correlation with the level of resting metabolism. Both studies find that aerobic fitness levels do not improve the predictive power of fat free mass for resting metabolic rate.
2174:
1886:
263:(computed from height and weight), age, and sex, along with the oxygen and carbon dioxide measures taken from calorimetry. Studies also showed that by eliminating the sex differences that occur with the accumulation of
1281:
including within-subject difference (2%). The rest of the variation (27%) was unexplained. This remaining difference was not explained by sex nor by differing tissue size of highly energetic organs such as the brain.
88:
Metabolism comprises the processes that the body needs to function. Basal metabolic rate is the amount of energy per unit of time that a person needs to keep the body functioning at rest. Some of those processes are
2249:(large animals do have higher total metabolic rates, but the metabolic rate at the cellular level is much lower, and the breathing rate and heartbeat are slower in larger animals) and the fact that the longevity of
1644:
4528:"Clinical guidelines on the identification, evaluation, and treatment of overweight and obesity in adults: Executive summary. Expert Panel on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight in Adults"
53:/min or joule per hour per kg body mass J/(h·kg). Proper measurement requires a strict set of criteria to be met. These criteria include being in a physically and psychologically undisturbed state and being in a
4246:
Zhao Z, Cao, J., Niu, C.Q., Bao, M.H., Xu, J.Q., Huo, D.L., Liao, S.S., Liu, W., Speakman, J.R. (2022). "Body temperature is a more important modulator of lifespan than metabolic rate in two small mammals".
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is no significant difference in BMR, however the calories burned per hour is significantly higher, up to 18%, during the luteal phase. Increased state anxiety (stress level) also temporarily increased BMR.
1804:
3919:
Pratley R, Nicklas B, Rubin M, Miller J, Smith A, Smith M, Hurley B, Goldberg A (1994). "Strength training increases resting metabolic rate and norepinephrine levels in healthy 50- to 65-year-old men".
1558:
1238:
2381:, two organs located inferior to the hypothalamus on the brain stem. Heart rate is important for basal metabolic rate and resting metabolic rate because it drives the blood supply, stimulating the
312:
Through the ANS, the hypothalamus is the main regulator of visceral activities, such as heart rate, movement of food through the gastrointestinal tract, and contraction of the urinary bladder.
3303:
1105:
According to this formula, the woman in the example above has a BMR of 1,204 kilocalories (5,040 kJ) per day. During the last 100 years, lifestyles have changed, and
Frankenfield
1167:
2308:, but there are no known mathematical formulas that can exactly predict the length and duration of a raised metabolism from trophic changes with anabolic neuromuscular training.
658:{\displaystyle P=\left({\frac {9.5634m}{1~{\text{kg}}}}+{\frac {1.8496h}{1~{\text{cm}}}}-{\frac {4.6756a}{1~{\text{year}}}}+655.0955\right){\frac {\text{kcal}}{\text{day}}}.}
523:{\displaystyle P=\left({\frac {13.7516m}{1~{\text{kg}}}}+{\frac {5.0033h}{1~{\text{cm}}}}-{\frac {6.7550a}{1~{\text{year}}}}+66.4730\right){\frac {\text{kcal}}{\text{day}}},}
3412:
Frankenfield D, Roth-Yousey L, Compher C (2005). "Comparison of predictive equations for resting metabolic rate in healthy, nonobese and obese adults: A systematic review".
2245:
varies inversely with basal metabolic rate (the "rate of living hypothesis"). Support for this hypothesis comes from the fact that mammals with larger body size have longer
3501:"Factors influencing variation in basal metabolic rate include fat-free mass, fat mass, age, and circulating thyroxine but not sex, circulating leptin, or triiodothyronine"
677:
In 1984, the original Harris–Benedict equations were revised using new data. In comparisons with actual expenditure, the revised equations were found to be more accurate:
942:{\displaystyle P=\left({\frac {9.247m}{1~{\text{kg}}}}+{\frac {3.098h}{1~{\text{cm}}}}-{\frac {4.330a}{1~{\text{year}}}}+447.593\right){\frac {\text{kcal}}{\text{day}}}.}
807:{\displaystyle P=\left({\frac {13.397m}{1~{\text{kg}}}}+{\frac {4.799h}{1~{\text{cm}}}}-{\frac {5.677a}{1~{\text{year}}}}+88.362\right){\frac {\text{kcal}}{\text{day}}},}
3702:
Smith DA, Dollman J, Withers RT, Brinkman M, Keeves JP, Clark DG (1997). "Relationship between maximum aerobic power and resting metabolic rate in young adult women".
3752:"Impact of different training modalities on anthropometric and metabolic characteristics in overweight/obese subjects: a systematic review and network meta-analysis"
145:"). Illness, previously consumed food and beverages, environmental temperature, and stress levels can affect one's overall energy expenditure as well as one's BMR.
1407:
termed anabolism. The breakdown of proteins into amino acids is an example of catabolism, while the formation of proteins from amino acids is an anabolic process.
4349:
1088:{\displaystyle P=\left({\frac {10.0m}{1~{\text{kg}}}}+{\frac {6.25h}{1~{\text{cm}}}}-{\frac {5.0a}{1~{\text{year}}}}+s\right){\frac {\text{kcal}}{\text{day}}},}
2644:
4729:
Vanhelder WP, Radomski MW, Goode RC, Casey K (1985). "Hormonal and metabolic response to three types of exercise of equal duration and external work output".
355:
Several equations to predict the number of calories required by humans have been published from the early 20th–21st centuries. In each of the formulas below:
3414:
1906:
326:
The feeding center or hunger center is responsible for the sensations that cause us to seek food. When sufficient food or substrates have been received and
3375:
Mifflin MD, St Jeor ST, Hill LA, Scott BJ, Daugherty SA, Koh YO (1990). "A new predictive equation for resting energy expenditure in healthy individuals".
3377:
3311:
3069:
Curtis V, Henry CJ, Birch E, Ghusain-Choueiri A (1996). "Intraindividual variation in the basal metabolic rate of women: Effect of the menstrual cycle".
1260:
of 30%, her resting daily energy expenditure (the authors use the term of basal and resting metabolism interchangeably) would be 1262 kcal per day.
330:
is high, then the satiety center is stimulated and sends impulses that inhibit the feeding center. When insufficient food is present in the stomach and
4636:
Saltin B, Gollnick PD (1983). "Skeletal muscle adaptability: Significance for metabolism and performance". In
Peachey LD, Adrian RH, Geiger SR (eds.).
4053:
Hulbert AJ, Pamplona R, Buffenstein R, Buttemer WA (October 2007). "Life and death: metabolic rate, membrane composition, and life span of animals".
2690:
137:, while previously thought to have effect on BMR, has been shown in the 1990s not to correlate with BMR when adjusted for fat-free body mass. But
3050:
Bisdee JT. James WPT. Whole body calorimetry studies in the menstrual cycle. New York: Fourth
International Conference on Obesity 1983;52(abstr).
2106:
1818:
2311:
A decrease in food intake will typically lower the metabolic rate as the body tries to conserve energy. Researcher Gary Foster estimates that a
4700:
Thorstensson A, Sjödin B, Tesch P, Karlsson J (1977). "Actomyosin ATPase, Myokinase, CPK and LDH in Human Fast and Slow Twitch Muscle Fibres".
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1116:
and body fat. Other formulas exist which take into account lean body mass, two of which are the Katch–McArdle formula and
Cunningham formula.
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4669:
3645:
3483:
3458:
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3035:
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kilocalories (6,300 kJ) per day. Statistically, the researchers calculated that 62% of this variation was explained by differences in
1433:
of a glucose molecule, six molecules of carbon dioxide and six molecules of water are produced and six molecules of oxygen are consumed.
2775:
McKechnie AE (2008). "Phenotypic flexibility in basal metabolic rate and the changing view of avian physiological diversity: a review".
2261:
and reduced thyroid hormone levels, both of which decrease the metabolic rate, have been associated with higher longevity in animals.
4766:
Wells JG, Balke B, Van Fossan DD (1957). "Lactic acid accumulation during work; a suggested standardization of work classification".
3605:
156:
BMR is measured under very restrictive circumstances when a person is awake. An accurate BMR measurement requires that the person's
4498:
Gustafson D, Rothenberg E, Blennow K, Steen B, Skoog I (2003). "An 18-Year Follow-up of
Overweight and Risk of Alzheimer Disease".
3082:
2938:"Basal metabolic rate and the mass of tissues differing in metabolic scope: Migration-related covariation between individual knots
1688:
3547:"Total daily energy expenditure has declined over the last 3 decades due to declining basal expenditure, not activity expenditure"
275:
textbooks have tables to show the conversion of height and body surface area as they relate to weight and basal metabolic values.
347:
All of these functions taken together form a survival mechanism that causes us to sustain the body processes that BMR measures.
4898:
1442:
125:
and it can be measured to determine the amount of energy expended. BMR generally decreases with age, and with the decrease in
4461:
Tsai AG, Wadden TA (2005). "Systematic review: An evaluation of major commercial weight loss programs in the United States".
2741:
1896:
Proteins are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen arranged in a variety of ways to form a large combination of
1290:
of more than 150 studies dating back to the early 1920s, translating into a decline in total energy expenditure of about 6%.
1188:
3809:
160:
not be stimulated, a condition which requires complete rest. A more common measurement, which uses less strict criteria, is
2438:
2201:
148:
2408:
390:
4888:
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2386:
2281:
1563:(30–32 ATP molecules produced depending on type of mitochondrial shuttle, 5–5.33 ATP molecules per molecule of oxygen.)
309:, along with secretions of many endocrine organs such as the thyroid gland (associated with many metabolic disorders).
171:, though a rough estimation can be acquired through an equation using age, sex, height, and weight. Studies of energy
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1112:
These formulas are based on body mass, which does not take into account the difference in metabolic activity between
2338:. Some research has focused on developing antiobesity drugs to raise the metabolic rate, such as drugs to stimulate
2506:
1660:
157:
2889:"Seasonal acclimatization in the American goldfinch revisited: To what extent do metabolic rates vary seasonally?"
2691:"The role of diet and exercise for the maintenance of fat-free mass and resting metabolic rate during weight loss"
4292:"Addressing weight loss recidivism: a clinical focus on metabolic rate and the psychological aspects of obesity"
4010:
Ragland S, Sohal R (1975). "Ambient temperature, physical activity and aging in the housefly, Musca domestica".
3635:
3346:
Müller B, Merk S, Bürgi U, Diem P (2001). "Calculating the basal metabolic rate and severe and morbid obesity".
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2350:
299:
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134:
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Saltin B, Gollnick PD (2011). "Skeletal Muscle
Adaptability: Significance for Metabolism and Performance".
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1417:
161:
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The thirst center operates similarly when certain cells in the hypothalamus are stimulated by the rising
3880:"Increased energy requirements and changes in body composition with resistance training in older adults"
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54:
3831:"Determinants of 24-hour energy expenditure in man. Methods and results using a respiratory chamber"
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increases in basal metabolic rate occur at different degrees depending on consumed food composition.
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2827:
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272:
130:
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206:
In addition to adjusting to temperature, BMR also may adjust before annual migration cycles. The
106:
4158:"Genetic Predisposition to Elevated Serum Thyrotropin is Associated with Exceptional Longevity"
2937:
2469:
McNab BK (1997). "On the
Utility of Uniformity in the Definition of Basal Rate of Metabolism".
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3304:"The Harris Benedict equation reevaluated: resting energy requirements and the body cell mass"
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Webb P. levels of energy exchange in women after ovulation. The Physiologist 1981;24:43(abstr)
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110:
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58:
4088:
Olshansky SJ, Rattan SI (2005). "What determines longevity: Metabolic rate or stability?".
2832:"Climatic adaptation and the evolution of basal and maximum rates of metabolism in rodents"
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For the BMR, most of the energy is consumed in maintaining fluid levels in tissues through
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2698:
2343:
2323:
2315:
of fewer than 800 calories a day would reduce the metabolic rate by more than 10 percent.
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1664:
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1326:
279:
226:
66:
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Sahlin K, Tonkonogi M, Soderlund K (1998). "Energy supply and muscle fatigue in humans".
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3767:
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218:
migrating northward were found to have a 31% higher BMR than those migrating southward.
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as they are converted to energy substrate units that can be used by the body as energy.
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2640:"Examining variations of resting metabolic rate of adults: a public health perspective"
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2413:
2090:{\displaystyle {\ce {C72H112N18O22S + 77 O2 -> 63 CO2 + 38 H2O + SO3 + 9 CO(NH2)2}}}
1400:
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1113:
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268:
264:
222:
126:
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expenditure to resting metabolic rate can vary between 1.6 and 8.0 between species of
259:
and Francis G. Benedict showed that approximate values for BMR could be derived using
4882:
4797:
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4023:
3980:
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2418:
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2238:
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129:(as may happen with aging). Increasing muscle mass has the effect of increasing BMR.
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243:
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Thorstensson (1976). "Muscle strength, fibre types and enzyme activities in man".
4365:
Carr MC (June 1, 2003). "The emergence of the metabolic syndrome with menopause".
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and forms the floor and part of the lateral walls of the third ventricle of the
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38:
17:
4832:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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of the extracellular fluid. If thirst is satisfied, osmotic pressure decreases.
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172:
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Miquel J, Lundgren PR, Bensch KG, Atlan H (1976). "Effects of temperature on
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2505:. In other words it is the energy required by body organs to perform normally
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4527:
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3500:
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2242:
2169:{\displaystyle {\text{R.Q.}}={\frac {{\ce {63 CO2}}}{{\ce {77 O2}}}}=0.818.}
1881:{\displaystyle {\text{R.Q.}}={\frac {{\ce {16 CO2}}}{{\ce {23 O2}}}}=0.696.}
1430:
334:
levels are high, receptors in the hypothalamus initiate the sense of hunger.
90:
62:
42:
4871:
4787:
4519:
4482:
4443:
4386:
4378:
4327:
4268:
4232:
4191:
4142:
4101:
4074:
3795:
3597:
3582:
3528:
3499:
Johnstone AM, Murison SD, Duncan JS, Rance KA, Speakman JR, Koh YO (2005).
3435:
3361:
3288:
3120:
Aschoff J, Pohl H (July 1970). "Rhythmic variations in energy metabolism".
3098:
2865:
2804:
2719:
2675:
2624:
2573:
4852:
4750:
4661:
4628:
4553:
4308:
4031:
3941:
3905:
3864:
3723:
3688:
3398:
3332:
3269:
3183:
3141:
2492:
271:, the values between sexes for basal metabolism are essentially the same.
4721:
4692:
4173:
3988:
2300:
A person's metabolism varies with their physical condition and activity.
1809:(106 ATP molecules produced, 4.61 ATP molecules per molecule of oxygen.)
1274:
291:
207:
74:
4133:
4116:
2518:
Ballesteros FJ, Martinez VJ, Luque B, Lacasa L, Valor E, Moya A (2018).
1639:{\displaystyle {\text{R.Q.}}={\frac {{\ce {6 CO2}}}{{\ce {6 O2}}}}=1.0.}
4742:
4582:
2976:
2354:
1682:
The overall equation for the substrate utilization of palmitic acid is
1336:
331:
188:
175:
using both methods provide convincing evidence for the validity of the
3846:
3213:"Basal metabolic rate, stress and different phases of menstrual cycle"
3083:
10.1002/(SICI)1520-6300(1996)8:5<631::AID-AJHB8>3.0.CO;2-Y
3187:
2269:
2265:
327:
152:
Indirect calorimetry laboratory with canopy hood (dilution technique)
4574:
4410:"Analysis of energy metabolism in humans: A review of methodologies"
2960:
1679:
is a commonly studied example of the saturated fatty acid molecule.
3829:
Ravussin E, Lillioja S, Christin L, Bogardus C, Bogardus C (1986).
2484:
45:
at rest. It is reported in energy units per unit time ranging from
4731:
European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology
2538:
1367:
1346:
1316:
1306:
147:
179:(RQ), which measures the inherent composition and utilization of
4207:"Living fast, dying when? The link between aging and energetics"
3453:(3rd ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 266.
3247:
2378:
70:
46:
3967:
span, vitality and fine structure of Drosophila melanogaster".
2192:
Studies published in 1992 and 1997 indicate that the level of
1799:{\displaystyle {\ce {C16H32O2 + 23 O2 -> 16 CO2 + 16 H2O}}}
184:
4799:
Exercise Physiology: Energy, Nutrition, and Human Performance
2274:
coupling between oxidative phosphorylation and ATP production
1256:
According to this formula, if the woman in the example has a
952:
It was the best prediction equation until 1990, when Mifflin
167:
BMR may be measured by gas analysis through either direct or
3637:
Hospitality Industry Handbook on Nutrition and Menu Planning
1120:
The Katch–McArdle formula (resting daily energy expenditure)
317:
production and regulation of feelings of rage and aggression
2906:
10.1650/0010-5422(2002)104[0548:SAITAG]2.0.CO;2
3663:"The effects of aerobic fitness on resting metabolic rate"
2318:
The metabolic rate can be affected by some drugs, such as
1553:{\displaystyle {\ce {C6H12O6 + 6 O2 -> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O}}}
2154:
2135:
2083:
2070:
2042:
2023:
2003:
1983:
1960:
1947:
1934:
1921:
1866:
1847:
1789:
1769:
1749:
1729:
1716:
1703:
1624:
1605:
1543:
1523:
1503:
1483:
1470:
1457:
3750:
Schwingshackl L, Dias S, Strasser B, Hoffmann G (2013).
3661:
Broeder CE, Burrhus KA, Svanevik LS, Wilmore JH (1992).
2742:"Calculating BMR and RMR: Diet and Weight Loss Tutorial"
2288:, and many other factors that affect maximum life span.
1566:
Because the gas exchange in this reaction is equal, the
113:, although the variability between individuals is high.
2638:
McMurray RG, Soares J, Caspersen CJ, McCurdy T (2014).
1233:{\displaystyle \ell =m\left(1-{\frac {f}{100}}\right),}
267:
by expressing metabolic rate per unit of "fat-free" or
4640:. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. pp. 540–55.
4367:
The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
2334:, bring the metabolic rate down to normal and restore
221:
In humans, BMR is directly proportional to a person's
4205:
Speakman JR, Selman C, McLaren JS, Harper EJ (2002).
3030:. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier, Inc. pp. 336–345.
2109:
1909:
1821:
1691:
1579:
1445:
1191:
1134:
968:
822:
687:
538:
403:
4156:Atzmon G, Barzilai N, Surks MI, Gabriely I (2009).
305:The ANS regulates contraction of smooth muscle and
142:
4796:
4162:Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
3002:. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier. pp. 1458–1466.
2520:"On the thermodynamic origin of metabolic scaling"
2168:
2089:
1880:
1798:
1638:
1552:
1273:. Other factors explaining the variation included
1232:
1161:
1087:
941:
806:
657:
522:
27:Rate of energy expenditure by an endotherm at rest
4117:"Metabolism, ubiquinone synthesis, and longevity"
3623:(2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Lea & Febigier.
3157:"24-hour energy expenditure and menstrual cycle"
323:regulation of food intake, through two centers:
2770:
2768:
2766:
2645:Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise
1403:, such as digestion, heartbeat, and breathing.
389:Historically, the most notable formula was the
294:. The chief functions of the hypothalamus are:
141:does increase resting energy consumption (see "
4828:"A Biometric Study of Human Basal Metabolism"
3878:Campbell W, Crim M, Young V, Evans W (1994).
3243:"A Biometric Study of Human Basal Metabolism"
3236:
3234:
298:control and integration of activities of the
282:responsible for regulating metabolism is the
8:
4681:Acta Physiologica Scandinavica. Supplementum
3415:Journal of the American Dietetic Association
3000:Goldman-Cecil Medicine, Twenty-Fifth Edition
2304:can have a longer impact on metabolism than
4290:Grattan BJ Jr, Connolly-Schoonen J (2012).
2464:
2462:
2460:
1399:, and only about one-tenth is consumed for
4532:The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
3667:The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
3378:The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
3312:The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
1812:Thus the R.Q. for palmitic acid is 0.696:
1436:The overall equation for this reaction is
362:is total heat production at complete rest,
121:The body's generation of heat is known as
4861:
4851:
4543:
4433:
4317:
4307:
4222:
4181:
4132:
3895:
3854:
3785:
3775:
3678:
3572:
3518:
3278:
3268:
3211:Shashikala L, Hemalatha NR (April 2011).
2904:
2847:
2665:
2614:
2563:
2537:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2120:
2118:
2110:
2108:
2082:
2077:
2069:
2064:
2056:
2051:
2041:
2036:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1982:
1977:
1972:
1959:
1954:
1946:
1941:
1933:
1928:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1908:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1836:
1832:
1830:
1822:
1820:
1788:
1783:
1778:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1748:
1743:
1738:
1728:
1723:
1715:
1710:
1702:
1697:
1692:
1690:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1609:
1604:
1599:
1594:
1590:
1588:
1580:
1578:
1570:(R.Q.) for carbohydrate is unity or 1.0:
1542:
1537:
1532:
1522:
1517:
1512:
1502:
1497:
1492:
1482:
1477:
1469:
1464:
1456:
1451:
1446:
1444:
1264:Research on individual differences in BMR
1212:
1190:
1133:
1072:
1053:
1036:
1025:
1008:
997:
980:
967:
926:
907:
890:
879:
862:
851:
834:
821:
791:
772:
755:
744:
727:
716:
699:
686:
642:
623:
606:
595:
578:
567:
550:
537:
507:
488:
471:
460:
443:
432:
415:
402:
3540:
3538:
2887:Liknes ET, Scott SM, Swanson DL (2002).
1297:
1109:showed it to be about 5% more accurate.
4795:McArdle WD, Katch FI, Katch VL (1986).
4475:10.7326/0003-4819-142-1-200501040-00012
3810:"How much exercise do you really need?"
2456:
4561:Segal AC (1987). "Linear Diet Model".
3884:American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
3506:American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
3164:American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
3021:
3019:
2349:The metabolic rate may be elevated in
1162:{\displaystyle P=370+21.6\cdot \ell ,}
1102:is +5 for males and −161 for females.
3835:The Journal of Clinical Investigation
3640:. Juta and Company Ltd. p. 112.
2272:. Animals also vary in the degree of
385:The original Harris–Benedict equation
286:. The hypothalamus is located on the
7:
3969:Mechanisms of Ageing and Development
3026:Kellerman RD, Bope ET, eds. (2018).
673:The revised Harris–Benedict equation
4803:. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.
2777:Journal of Comparative Physiology B
4714:10.1111/j.1748-1716.1977.tb10373.x
2849:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2004.tb01714.x
2264:However, the ratio of total daily
2200:However, recent research from the
25:
4594:(2nd ed.). New York: Wiley.
4592:Nutrition: An Integrated Approach
3545:Speakman JR, et al. (2023).
3451:Essentials of exercise physiology
3071:American Journal of Human Biology
255:The early work of the scientists
4621:10.1046/j.1365-201X.1998.0298f.x
3476:Nutrition for Sport and Exercise
2712:10.2165/00007256-200636030-00005
2373:Heart rate is determined by the
233:, BMR rises at the start of the
105:, brain and nerve function, and
4826:Harris JA, Benedict FG (1918).
2689:Stiegler P, Cunliffe A (2006).
2100:The R.Q. for albumin is 0.818:
393:, which was published in 1919:
4702:Acta Physiologica Scandinavica
4609:Acta Physiologica Scandinavica
3217:RGUHS Journal Medical Sciences
2998:Goldman L, Schafer AI (2016).
2589:"Energy expenditure and aging"
2253:varies inversely with ambient
2204:, published in 2012, compared
2188:Aerobic vs. anaerobic exercise
2073:
2057:
1986:
1752:
1506:
320:regulation of body temperature
143:aerobic vs. anaerobic exercise
1:
4768:Journal of Applied Physiology
4500:Archives of Internal Medicine
3922:Journal of Applied Physiology
3704:Journal of Applied Physiology
3598:"Basal metabolic rate in man"
3241:Harris J, Benedict F (1918).
2439:Abnormal basal metabolic rate
2202:Journal of Applied Physiology
1301:Energy expenditure breakdown
55:thermally neutral environment
41:expenditure per unit time by
4512:10.1001/archinte.163.13.1524
4426:10.1016/j.molmet.2016.09.005
4024:10.1016/0531-5565(75)90005-4
3981:10.1016/0047-6374(76)90034-8
3777:10.1371/journal.pone.0082853
3474:Dunford M, Doyle JA (2007).
3302:Roza AM, Shizgal HM (1984).
2936:Weber TP, Piersma T (1996).
2658:10.1249/MSS.0000000000000232
2387:metabolic equivalent of task
2365:may also affect metabolism.
960:The Mifflin St Jeor equation
162:resting metabolic rate (RMR)
133:fitness level, a product of
4563:College Mathematics Journal
4463:Annals of Internal Medicine
3934:10.1152/jappl.1994.76.1.133
3716:10.1152/jappl.1997.82.1.156
3478:. Brooks/Cole. p. 57.
3028:Conn's Current Therapy 2018
2369:Cardiovascular implications
4920:
4780:10.1152/jappl.1957.10.1.51
4590:Pike RL, Brown ML (1975).
4342:The Truth about Metabolism
4261:10.1038/s42255-022-00545-5
4067:10.1152/physrev.00047.2006
3634:Lisa Gordon-Davis (2004).
3565:10.1038/s42255-023-00782-2
3428:10.1016/j.jada.2005.02.005
2556:10.1038/s41598-018-19853-6
2230:
1665:monounsaturated fatty acid
1661:polyunsaturated fatty acid
1386:postprandial thermogenesis
1373:Postprandial thermogenesis
158:sympathetic nervous system
2789:10.1007/s00360-007-0218-8
2607:10.1016/j.arr.2009.08.002
1300:
956:introduced the equation:
229:. Due to the increase in
4654:Comprehensive Physiology
4408:Lam YY (November 2016).
4217:(6 Suppl 2): 1583S–97S.
4211:The Journal of Nutrition
4012:Experimental Gerontology
2949:Journal of Avian Biology
2409:Harris–Benedict equation
1384:, or digestion of food (
391:Harris–Benedict equation
300:autonomic nervous system
4121:Genes & Development
2830:, Garland T Jr (2004).
2594:Ageing Research Reviews
1178:is the lean body mass (
351:BMR estimation formulas
135:cardiovascular exercise
79:standard metabolic rate
4899:Nutritional physiology
4638:Handbook of Physiology
4379:10.1210/jc.2003-030242
4224:10.1093/jn/132.6.1583S
3602:Report to FAO/ WHO/UNU
3122:Federation Proceedings
2434:Thermic effect of food
2322:, drugs used to treat
2296:Medical considerations
2170:
2091:
1882:
1800:
1640:
1554:
1418:Adenosine triphosphate
1376:
1234:
1163:
1089:
943:
808:
659:
524:
216:yellow-rumped warblers
195:Phenotypic flexibility
153:
107:contraction of muscles
77:, the equivalent term
49:(joule/second) to ml O
4853:10.1073/pnas.4.12.370
4662:10.1002/cphy.cp100119
4545:10.1093/ajcn/68.4.899
3897:10.1093/ajcn/60.2.167
3680:10.1093/ajcn/55.4.795
3520:10.1093/ajcn/82.5.941
3391:10.1093/ajcn/51.2.241
3325:10.1093/ajcn/40.1.168
3270:10.1073/pnas.4.12.370
3176:10.1093/ajcn/44.5.614
2532:(1): 1448:1–1448:10.
2472:Physiological Zoology
2313:very low calorie diet
2171:
2092:
1883:
1801:
1641:
1555:
1371:
1235:
1164:
1090:
944:
809:
660:
525:
151:
4538:(4): 899–917. 1998.
4414:Molecular Metabolism
4174:10.1210/jc.2009-0808
4115:Aguilaniu H (2005).
2404:Field metabolic rate
2233:Heartbeat hypothesis
2107:
1907:
1819:
1689:
1657:saturated fatty acid
1577:
1568:respiratory quotient
1443:
1277:(7%), age (2%), and
1189:
1132:
966:
820:
685:
536:
401:
177:respiratory quotient
169:indirect calorimetry
131:Aerobic (resistance)
61:(i.e., not actively
31:Basal metabolic rate
4889:Exercise physiology
4844:1918PNAS....4..370H
4309:10.5402/2012/567530
4134:10.1101/gad.1366505
3768:2013PLoSO...882853S
3621:Exercise Physiology
3619:McArdle WD (1986).
3261:1918PNAS....4..370H
3227:on August 20, 2019.
3223:(2). Archived from
2746:CaloriesPerHour.com
2548:2018NatSR...8.1448B
2444:Human-body emission
2259:Calorie restriction
2206:resistance training
2156:
2137:
2085:
2072:
2044:
2025:
2005:
1985:
1962:
1949:
1936:
1923:
1868:
1849:
1791:
1771:
1751:
1731:
1718:
1705:
1626:
1607:
1545:
1525:
1505:
1485:
1472:
1459:
1411:Exergonic reactions
1258:body fat percentage
1251:body fat percentage
273:Exercise physiology
43:endothermic animals
4743:10.1007/BF02337175
4352:2011-04-23 at the
4348:. September 2003.
4090:Discovery Medicine
3449:McArdle W (2006).
2587:Manini TM (2010).
2525:Scientific Reports
2429:Schofield equation
2424:Metabolic syndrome
2320:antithyroid agents
2247:maximum life spans
2217:Anaerobic exercise
2166:
2144:
2125:
2087:
2060:
2055:
2032:
2013:
1993:
1973:
1950:
1937:
1924:
1911:
1878:
1856:
1837:
1796:
1779:
1759:
1739:
1719:
1706:
1693:
1636:
1614:
1595:
1550:
1533:
1513:
1493:
1473:
1460:
1447:
1377:
1279:experimental error
1230:
1159:
1085:
939:
804:
655:
520:
154:
139:anaerobic exercise
57:while in the post-
4810:978-0-8121-0991-7
4671:978-0-470-65071-4
4420:(11): 1057–1071.
4249:Nature Metabolism
3847:10.1172/JCI112749
3647:978-0-7021-5578-9
3596:Durnin J (1981).
3552:Nature Metabolism
3485:978-0-495-01483-6
3460:978-0-7817-4991-6
3200:– via AJCN.
3037:978-0-323-52769-9
3009:978-1-4557-5017-7
2375:medulla oblongata
2280:in mitochondrial
2158:
2147:
2128:
2113:
2063:
2054:
2035:
2028:
2016:
1996:
1976:
1965:
1953:
1940:
1927:
1914:
1870:
1859:
1840:
1825:
1794:
1782:
1762:
1742:
1722:
1709:
1696:
1628:
1617:
1598:
1583:
1548:
1536:
1516:
1496:
1476:
1463:
1450:
1366:
1365:
1220:
1080:
1079:
1076:
1059:
1056:
1052:
1031:
1028:
1024:
1003:
1000:
996:
934:
933:
930:
913:
910:
906:
885:
882:
878:
857:
854:
850:
799:
798:
795:
778:
775:
771:
750:
747:
743:
722:
719:
715:
650:
649:
646:
629:
626:
622:
601:
598:
594:
573:
570:
566:
515:
514:
511:
494:
491:
487:
466:
463:
459:
438:
435:
431:
261:body surface area
95:blood circulation
69:animals, such as
37:) is the rate of
16:(Redirected from
4911:
4875:
4865:
4855:
4822:
4802:
4791:
4762:
4725:
4696:
4675:
4650:Republished as:
4649:
4632:
4603:
4586:
4557:
4547:
4523:
4494:
4448:
4447:
4437:
4405:
4399:
4398:
4373:(6): 2404–2411.
4362:
4356:
4340:Whitman, Stacy "
4338:
4332:
4331:
4321:
4311:
4287:
4281:
4280:
4243:
4237:
4236:
4226:
4202:
4196:
4195:
4185:
4153:
4147:
4146:
4136:
4127:(20): 2399–406.
4112:
4106:
4105:
4085:
4079:
4078:
4050:
4044:
4043:
4007:
4001:
4000:
3960:
3954:
3953:
3916:
3910:
3909:
3899:
3875:
3869:
3868:
3858:
3841:(6): 1568–1578.
3826:
3820:
3819:
3806:
3800:
3799:
3789:
3779:
3747:
3736:
3735:
3699:
3693:
3692:
3682:
3658:
3652:
3651:
3631:
3625:
3624:
3616:
3610:
3609:
3593:
3587:
3586:
3576:
3542:
3533:
3532:
3522:
3496:
3490:
3489:
3471:
3465:
3464:
3446:
3440:
3439:
3409:
3403:
3402:
3372:
3366:
3365:
3343:
3337:
3336:
3308:
3299:
3293:
3292:
3282:
3272:
3238:
3229:
3228:
3208:
3202:
3201:
3199:
3198:
3192:
3186:. Archived from
3161:
3152:
3146:
3145:
3128:(4): 1541–1552.
3117:
3111:
3110:
3066:
3060:
3057:
3051:
3048:
3042:
3041:
3023:
3014:
3013:
2995:
2989:
2988:
2946:
2940:Calidris canutus
2933:
2927:
2926:
2908:
2884:
2878:
2877:
2851:
2842:(6): 1361–1374.
2823:
2817:
2816:
2772:
2761:
2760:
2758:
2757:
2748:. Archived from
2738:
2732:
2731:
2695:
2686:
2680:
2679:
2669:
2652:(7): 1352–1358.
2635:
2629:
2628:
2618:
2584:
2578:
2577:
2567:
2541:
2515:
2509:
2504:
2466:
2377:and part of the
2328:propylthiouracil
2306:aerobic training
2284:, the amount of
2276:, the amount of
2210:aerobic training
2175:
2173:
2172:
2167:
2159:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2145:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2126:
2119:
2114:
2111:
2096:
2094:
2093:
2088:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2076:
2071:
2068:
2061:
2052:
2043:
2040:
2033:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2014:
2004:
2001:
1994:
1984:
1981:
1974:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1951:
1948:
1945:
1938:
1935:
1932:
1925:
1922:
1919:
1912:
1887:
1885:
1884:
1879:
1871:
1869:
1867:
1864:
1857:
1850:
1848:
1845:
1838:
1831:
1826:
1823:
1805:
1803:
1802:
1797:
1795:
1792:
1790:
1787:
1780:
1770:
1767:
1760:
1750:
1747:
1740:
1730:
1727:
1720:
1717:
1714:
1707:
1704:
1701:
1694:
1673:trans fatty acid
1645:
1643:
1642:
1637:
1629:
1627:
1625:
1622:
1615:
1608:
1606:
1603:
1596:
1589:
1584:
1581:
1559:
1557:
1556:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1541:
1534:
1524:
1521:
1514:
1504:
1501:
1494:
1484:
1481:
1474:
1471:
1468:
1461:
1458:
1455:
1448:
1298:
1239:
1237:
1236:
1231:
1226:
1222:
1221:
1213:
1168:
1166:
1165:
1160:
1094:
1092:
1091:
1086:
1081:
1077:
1074:
1073:
1071:
1067:
1060:
1058:
1057:
1054:
1050:
1045:
1037:
1032:
1030:
1029:
1026:
1022:
1017:
1009:
1004:
1002:
1001:
998:
994:
989:
981:
948:
946:
945:
940:
935:
931:
928:
927:
925:
921:
914:
912:
911:
908:
904:
899:
891:
886:
884:
883:
880:
876:
871:
863:
858:
856:
855:
852:
848:
843:
835:
813:
811:
810:
805:
800:
796:
793:
792:
790:
786:
779:
777:
776:
773:
769:
764:
756:
751:
749:
748:
745:
741:
736:
728:
723:
721:
720:
717:
713:
708:
700:
664:
662:
661:
656:
651:
647:
644:
643:
641:
637:
630:
628:
627:
624:
620:
615:
607:
602:
600:
599:
596:
592:
587:
579:
574:
572:
571:
568:
564:
559:
551:
529:
527:
526:
521:
516:
512:
509:
508:
506:
502:
495:
493:
492:
489:
485:
480:
472:
467:
465:
464:
461:
457:
452:
444:
439:
437:
436:
433:
429:
424:
416:
339:osmotic pressure
257:J. Arthur Harris
240:follicular phase
99:body temperature
59:absorptive state
21:
18:Basal metabolism
4919:
4918:
4914:
4913:
4912:
4910:
4909:
4908:
4879:
4878:
4825:
4811:
4794:
4765:
4728:
4699:
4678:
4672:
4651:
4635:
4606:
4589:
4575:10.2307/2686315
4560:
4526:
4497:
4460:
4457:
4455:Further reading
4452:
4451:
4407:
4406:
4402:
4364:
4363:
4359:
4354:Wayback Machine
4339:
4335:
4289:
4288:
4284:
4245:
4244:
4240:
4204:
4203:
4199:
4168:(12): 4768–75.
4155:
4154:
4150:
4114:
4113:
4109:
4087:
4086:
4082:
4061:(4): 1175–213.
4052:
4051:
4047:
4009:
4008:
4004:
3962:
3961:
3957:
3918:
3917:
3913:
3877:
3876:
3872:
3828:
3827:
3823:
3808:
3807:
3803:
3749:
3748:
3739:
3701:
3700:
3696:
3660:
3659:
3655:
3648:
3633:
3632:
3628:
3618:
3617:
3613:
3595:
3594:
3590:
3544:
3543:
3536:
3498:
3497:
3493:
3486:
3473:
3472:
3468:
3461:
3448:
3447:
3443:
3411:
3410:
3406:
3374:
3373:
3369:
3356:(45): 1955–63.
3345:
3344:
3340:
3306:
3301:
3300:
3296:
3255:(12): 370–373.
3240:
3239:
3232:
3210:
3209:
3205:
3196:
3194:
3190:
3159:
3155:Webb P (1986).
3154:
3153:
3149:
3119:
3118:
3114:
3068:
3067:
3063:
3058:
3054:
3049:
3045:
3038:
3025:
3024:
3017:
3010:
2997:
2996:
2992:
2961:10.2307/3677225
2944:
2935:
2934:
2930:
2886:
2885:
2881:
2825:
2824:
2820:
2774:
2773:
2764:
2755:
2753:
2740:
2739:
2735:
2699:Sports Medicine
2693:
2688:
2687:
2683:
2637:
2636:
2632:
2586:
2585:
2581:
2517:
2516:
2512:
2468:
2467:
2458:
2453:
2448:
2399:
2371:
2344:skeletal muscle
2324:hyperthyroidism
2302:Weight training
2298:
2235:
2229:
2190:
2105:
2104:
1905:
1904:
1894:
1817:
1816:
1687:
1686:
1652:
1575:
1574:
1441:
1440:
1426:
1401:mechanical work
1327:Skeletal muscle
1296:
1266:
1205:
1201:
1187:
1186:
1130:
1129:
1046:
1038:
1018:
1010:
990:
982:
979:
975:
964:
963:
900:
892:
872:
864:
844:
836:
833:
829:
818:
817:
765:
757:
737:
729:
709:
701:
698:
694:
683:
682:
616:
608:
588:
580:
560:
552:
549:
545:
534:
533:
481:
473:
453:
445:
425:
417:
414:
410:
399:
398:
380:is age (years).
374:is height (cm),
353:
253:
244:menstrual cycle
227:menstrual cycle
197:
119:
52:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4917:
4915:
4907:
4906:
4904:Temporal rates
4901:
4896:
4891:
4881:
4880:
4877:
4876:
4823:
4809:
4792:
4763:
4726:
4697:
4676:
4670:
4633:
4604:
4587:
4558:
4524:
4506:(13): 1524–8.
4495:
4456:
4453:
4450:
4449:
4400:
4357:
4333:
4282:
4238:
4197:
4148:
4107:
4096:(28): 359–62.
4080:
4045:
4002:
3955:
3928:(1): 133–137.
3911:
3890:(2): 167–175.
3870:
3821:
3801:
3762:(12): e82853.
3737:
3694:
3673:(4): 795–801.
3653:
3646:
3626:
3611:
3588:
3559:(4): 579–585.
3534:
3513:(5): 941–948.
3491:
3484:
3466:
3459:
3441:
3422:(5): 775–789.
3404:
3385:(2): 241–247.
3367:
3338:
3319:(1): 168–182.
3294:
3230:
3203:
3170:(5): 614–619.
3147:
3112:
3077:(5): 631–639.
3061:
3052:
3043:
3036:
3015:
3008:
2990:
2928:
2879:
2818:
2783:(3): 235–247.
2762:
2733:
2706:(3): 239–262.
2681:
2630:
2579:
2510:
2485:10.1086/515881
2479:(6): 718–720.
2455:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2416:
2414:Hypothyroidism
2411:
2406:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2370:
2367:
2297:
2294:
2241:proposed that
2228:
2225:
2221:weight lifting
2189:
2186:
2177:
2176:
2165:
2162:
2151:
2142:
2132:
2123:
2117:
2098:
2097:
2080:
2075:
2067:
2059:
2050:
2047:
2039:
2031:
2020:
2011:
2008:
2000:
1991:
1988:
1980:
1971:
1968:
1957:
1944:
1931:
1918:
1893:
1890:
1889:
1888:
1877:
1874:
1863:
1854:
1844:
1835:
1829:
1807:
1806:
1786:
1777:
1774:
1766:
1757:
1754:
1746:
1737:
1734:
1726:
1713:
1700:
1651:
1648:
1647:
1646:
1635:
1632:
1621:
1612:
1602:
1593:
1587:
1561:
1560:
1540:
1531:
1528:
1520:
1511:
1508:
1500:
1491:
1488:
1480:
1467:
1454:
1425:
1422:
1397:osmoregulation
1364:
1363:
1360:
1353:
1352:
1349:
1343:
1342:
1339:
1333:
1332:
1329:
1323:
1322:
1319:
1313:
1312:
1309:
1303:
1302:
1295:
1292:
1265:
1262:
1241:
1240:
1229:
1225:
1219:
1216:
1211:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1197:
1194:
1170:
1169:
1158:
1155:
1152:
1149:
1146:
1143:
1140:
1137:
1122:
1121:
1114:lean body mass
1096:
1095:
1084:
1070:
1066:
1063:
1049:
1044:
1041:
1035:
1021:
1016:
1013:
1007:
993:
988:
985:
978:
974:
971:
961:
950:
949:
938:
924:
920:
917:
903:
898:
895:
889:
875:
870:
867:
861:
847:
842:
839:
832:
828:
825:
814:
803:
789:
785:
782:
768:
763:
760:
754:
740:
735:
732:
726:
712:
707:
704:
697:
693:
690:
675:
674:
666:
665:
654:
640:
636:
633:
619:
614:
611:
605:
591:
586:
583:
577:
563:
558:
555:
548:
544:
541:
530:
519:
505:
501:
498:
484:
479:
476:
470:
456:
451:
448:
442:
428:
423:
420:
413:
409:
406:
387:
386:
382:
381:
375:
369:
363:
352:
349:
345:
344:
343:
342:
335:
321:
318:
315:
314:
313:
310:
307:cardiac muscle
269:lean body mass
265:adipose tissue
252:
249:
223:lean body mass
201:flexible trait
196:
193:
127:lean body mass
118:
115:
97:, controlling
67:bradymetabolic
50:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4916:
4905:
4902:
4900:
4897:
4895:
4892:
4890:
4887:
4886:
4884:
4873:
4869:
4864:
4859:
4854:
4849:
4845:
4841:
4838:(12): 370–3.
4837:
4833:
4829:
4824:
4820:
4816:
4812:
4806:
4801:
4800:
4793:
4789:
4785:
4781:
4777:
4773:
4769:
4764:
4760:
4756:
4752:
4748:
4744:
4740:
4737:(4): 337–42.
4736:
4732:
4727:
4723:
4719:
4715:
4711:
4707:
4703:
4698:
4694:
4690:
4686:
4682:
4677:
4673:
4667:
4663:
4659:
4655:
4647:
4643:
4639:
4634:
4630:
4626:
4622:
4618:
4614:
4610:
4605:
4601:
4597:
4593:
4588:
4584:
4580:
4576:
4572:
4568:
4564:
4559:
4555:
4551:
4546:
4541:
4537:
4533:
4529:
4525:
4521:
4517:
4513:
4509:
4505:
4501:
4496:
4492:
4488:
4484:
4480:
4476:
4472:
4468:
4464:
4459:
4458:
4454:
4445:
4441:
4436:
4431:
4427:
4423:
4419:
4415:
4411:
4404:
4401:
4396:
4392:
4388:
4384:
4380:
4376:
4372:
4368:
4361:
4358:
4355:
4351:
4347:
4343:
4337:
4334:
4329:
4325:
4320:
4315:
4310:
4305:
4301:
4297:
4293:
4286:
4283:
4278:
4274:
4270:
4266:
4262:
4258:
4255:(3): 320–26.
4254:
4250:
4242:
4239:
4234:
4230:
4225:
4220:
4216:
4212:
4208:
4201:
4198:
4193:
4189:
4184:
4179:
4175:
4171:
4167:
4163:
4159:
4152:
4149:
4144:
4140:
4135:
4130:
4126:
4122:
4118:
4111:
4108:
4103:
4099:
4095:
4091:
4084:
4081:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4064:
4060:
4056:
4049:
4046:
4041:
4037:
4033:
4029:
4025:
4021:
4018:(5): 279–89.
4017:
4013:
4006:
4003:
3998:
3994:
3990:
3986:
3982:
3978:
3975:(5): 347–70.
3974:
3970:
3966:
3959:
3956:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3931:
3927:
3923:
3915:
3912:
3907:
3903:
3898:
3893:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3874:
3871:
3866:
3862:
3857:
3852:
3848:
3844:
3840:
3836:
3832:
3825:
3822:
3817:
3816:
3811:
3805:
3802:
3797:
3793:
3788:
3783:
3778:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3761:
3757:
3753:
3746:
3744:
3742:
3738:
3733:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3717:
3713:
3710:(1): 156–63.
3709:
3705:
3698:
3695:
3690:
3686:
3681:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3657:
3654:
3649:
3643:
3639:
3638:
3630:
3627:
3622:
3615:
3612:
3607:
3603:
3599:
3592:
3589:
3584:
3580:
3575:
3570:
3566:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3553:
3548:
3541:
3539:
3535:
3530:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3507:
3502:
3495:
3492:
3487:
3481:
3477:
3470:
3467:
3462:
3456:
3452:
3445:
3442:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3416:
3408:
3405:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3384:
3380:
3379:
3371:
3368:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3350:
3342:
3339:
3334:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3313:
3305:
3298:
3295:
3290:
3286:
3281:
3276:
3271:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3249:
3244:
3237:
3235:
3231:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3207:
3204:
3193:on 2019-08-20
3189:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3158:
3151:
3148:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3116:
3113:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3065:
3062:
3056:
3053:
3047:
3044:
3039:
3033:
3029:
3022:
3020:
3016:
3011:
3005:
3001:
2994:
2991:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2943:
2941:
2932:
2929:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2883:
2880:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2850:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2822:
2819:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2771:
2769:
2767:
2763:
2752:on 2008-01-05
2751:
2747:
2743:
2737:
2734:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2700:
2692:
2685:
2682:
2677:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2646:
2641:
2634:
2631:
2626:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2595:
2590:
2583:
2580:
2575:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2526:
2521:
2514:
2511:
2507:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2473:
2465:
2463:
2461:
2457:
2450:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2419:Metabolic age
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2401:
2396:
2394:
2390:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2368:
2366:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2347:
2345:
2341:
2340:thermogenesis
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2316:
2314:
2309:
2307:
2303:
2295:
2293:
2289:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2278:saturated fat
2275:
2271:
2267:
2262:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2239:Raymond Pearl
2234:
2226:
2224:
2222:
2218:
2214:
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1677:Palmitic acid
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368:is mass (kg),
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123:thermogenesis
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4296:ISRN Obesity
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4058:
4055:Physiol. Rev
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3188:the original
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2750:the original
2745:
2736:
2703:
2697:
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2649:
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1106:
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288:diencephalon
284:hypothalamus
278:The primary
277:
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235:luteal phase
231:progesterone
220:
211:
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198:
166:
155:
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4569:(1): 44–5.
3815:Mayo Clinic
2828:Bozinovic F
2601:(1): 1–11.
2383:Krebs cycle
2332:methimazole
2255:temperature
2251:fruit flies
1898:amino acids
1669:cholesterol
1390:Krebs cycle
816:for women,
532:for women,
117:Description
103:cell growth
4894:Metabolism
4883:Categories
4302:: 567530.
3197:2019-08-20
2955:(3): 215.
2899:(3): 548.
2893:The Condor
2756:2008-01-26
2451:References
2326:, such as
2286:DNA repair
2231:See also:
2219:, such as
1667:, dietary
251:Physiology
173:metabolism
65:food). In
4819:646595478
4646:314567389
4600:474842663
4277:247451455
3134:0014-9446
3091:1520-6300
2969:0908-8857
2915:0010-5422
2858:0014-3820
2836:Evolution
2797:0174-1578
2539:1407.3659
2363:Menopause
2282:membranes
2243:longevity
2237:In 1926,
2227:Longevity
1987:⟶
1753:⟶
1507:⟶
1431:oxidation
1210:−
1193:ℓ
1154:ℓ
1151:⋅
1034:−
888:−
753:−
681:for men,
604:−
469:−
397:for men,
212:islandica
199:BMR is a
91:breathing
63:digesting
4872:16576330
4788:13405829
4759:39715173
4687:: 1–45.
4520:12860573
4483:15630109
4444:27818932
4395:12047475
4387:12788835
4350:Archived
4328:24527265
4269:35288719
4233:12042467
4192:19837933
4143:16230529
4102:20704872
4075:17928583
4040:36903433
3965:the life
3796:24358230
3756:PLOS ONE
3732:39769617
3604:. Rome:
3583:37100994
3574:10445668
3529:16280423
3436:15883556
3362:11817239
3289:16576330
3107:22936847
3099:28561339
2985:73611179
2923:85701170
2874:15234056
2866:15266984
2813:28481792
2805:17957373
2728:44212103
2720:16526835
2676:24300125
2625:19698803
2574:29362491
2501:34996894
2397:See also
2359:diabetes
1892:Proteins
1275:fat mass
1182:in kg):
635:655.0955
292:cerebrum
208:red knot
189:proteins
75:reptiles
4863:1091498
4840:Bibcode
4751:3905393
4629:9578371
4583:2686315
4554:9771869
4491:2589699
4435:5081410
4319:3914266
4183:2795660
4032:1204688
3997:1744552
3950:2231943
3942:8175496
3906:8030593
3865:3782471
3787:3866267
3764:Bibcode
3724:9029211
3689:1550061
3399:2305711
3333:6741850
3280:1091498
3257:Bibcode
3184:3766447
3142:5459903
2977:3677225
2667:4535334
2616:2818133
2565:5780499
2544:Bibcode
2493:9361146
2355:illness
2270:mammals
2194:aerobic
1424:Glucose
1337:Kidneys
1249:is the
919:447.593
500:66.4730
419:13.7516
332:ghrelin
4870:
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2357:, and
2351:stress
2266:energy
2164:0.818.
1876:0.696.
1671:, and
1358:organs
1356:Other
1243:where
1172:where
1107:et al.
1098:where
1051:
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703:13.397
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610:4.6756
593:
582:1.8496
565:
554:9.5634
486:
475:6.7550
458:
447:5.0033
430:
328:leptin
302:(ANS)
210:(ssp.
39:energy
4755:S2CID
4579:JSTOR
4487:S2CID
4391:S2CID
4346:Shape
4273:S2CID
4036:S2CID
3993:S2CID
3946:S2CID
3728:S2CID
3307:(PDF)
3191:(PDF)
3160:(PDF)
3103:S2CID
2981:S2CID
2973:JSTOR
2945:(PDF)
2919:S2CID
2870:S2CID
2809:S2CID
2724:S2CID
2694:(PDF)
2534:arXiv
2497:S2CID
1347:Heart
1317:Brain
1307:Liver
894:4.330
866:3.098
838:9.247
759:5.677
731:4.799
280:organ
4868:PMID
4815:OCLC
4805:ISBN
4784:PMID
4747:PMID
4718:PMID
4689:PMID
4666:ISBN
4642:OCLC
4625:PMID
4596:OCLC
4550:PMID
4516:PMID
4479:PMID
4440:PMID
4383:PMID
4324:PMID
4300:2012
4265:PMID
4229:PMID
4188:PMID
4139:PMID
4098:PMID
4071:PMID
4028:PMID
3985:PMID
3938:PMID
3902:PMID
3861:PMID
3792:PMID
3720:PMID
3685:PMID
3642:ISBN
3579:PMID
3525:PMID
3480:ISBN
3455:ISBN
3432:PMID
3395:PMID
3358:PMID
3329:PMID
3285:PMID
3248:PNAS
3180:PMID
3138:PMID
3130:ISSN
3095:PMID
3087:ISSN
3032:ISBN
3004:ISBN
2965:ISSN
2911:ISSN
2862:PMID
2854:ISSN
2801:PMID
2793:ISSN
2716:PMID
2672:PMID
2621:PMID
2570:PMID
2489:PMID
2379:pons
2330:and
2208:and
2112:R.Q.
1824:R.Q.
1650:Fats
1634:1.0.
1582:R.Q.
1362:19%
1341:10%
1331:18%
1321:19%
1311:27%
1148:21.6
1075:kcal
1055:year
1012:6.25
984:10.0
929:kcal
909:year
794:kcal
774:year
645:kcal
625:year
510:kcal
490:year
242:and
187:and
185:fats
73:and
71:fish
47:watt
4858:PMC
4848:doi
4776:doi
4739:doi
4710:doi
4685:443
4658:doi
4617:doi
4613:162
4571:doi
4540:doi
4508:doi
4504:163
4471:doi
4467:142
4430:PMC
4422:doi
4375:doi
4344:."
4314:PMC
4304:doi
4257:doi
4219:doi
4215:132
4178:PMC
4170:doi
4129:doi
4063:doi
4020:doi
3977:doi
3930:doi
3892:doi
3851:PMC
3843:doi
3782:PMC
3772:doi
3712:doi
3675:doi
3606:FAO
3569:PMC
3561:doi
3515:doi
3424:doi
3420:105
3387:doi
3321:doi
3275:PMC
3265:doi
3172:doi
3079:doi
2957:doi
2901:doi
2897:104
2844:doi
2785:doi
2781:178
2708:doi
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2654:doi
2611:PMC
2603:doi
2560:PMC
2552:doi
2481:doi
2342:in
1930:112
1351:7%
1218:100
1180:LBM
1142:370
1078:day
1040:5.0
932:day
797:day
648:day
513:day
83:SMR
35:BMR
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3012:.
2987:.
2959::
2942:"
2925:.
2903::
2876:.
2846::
2815:.
2787::
2759:.
2730:.
2710::
2678:.
2656::
2627:.
2605::
2599:9
2576:.
2554::
2546::
2536::
2530:8
2508:.
2503:.
2483::
2161:=
2150:2
2146:O
2131:2
2116:=
2079:2
2074:)
2066:2
2058:(
2049:9
2046:+
2038:3
2030:+
2027:O
2019:2
2015:H
2007:+
1999:2
1979:2
1975:O
1967:+
1964:S
1952:O
1939:N
1926:H
1913:C
1873:=
1862:2
1858:O
1843:2
1828:=
1793:O
1785:2
1781:H
1773:+
1765:2
1745:2
1741:O
1733:+
1725:2
1721:O
1708:H
1695:C
1631:=
1620:2
1616:O
1611:6
1601:2
1592:6
1586:=
1547:O
1539:2
1535:H
1530:6
1527:+
1519:2
1510:6
1499:2
1495:O
1490:6
1487:+
1479:6
1475:O
1462:H
1453:6
1449:C
1246:f
1228:,
1224:)
1215:f
1207:1
1203:(
1199:m
1196:=
1175:ℓ
1157:,
1145:+
1139:=
1136:P
1100:s
1083:,
1069:)
1065:s
1062:+
1048:1
1043:a
1020:1
1015:h
1006:+
992:1
987:m
977:(
973:=
970:P
937:.
923:)
916:+
902:1
897:a
874:1
869:h
860:+
846:1
841:m
831:(
827:=
824:P
802:,
788:)
781:+
767:1
762:a
739:1
734:h
725:+
711:1
706:m
696:(
692:=
689:P
653:.
639:)
632:+
618:1
613:a
590:1
585:h
576:+
562:1
557:m
547:(
543:=
540:P
518:,
504:)
497:+
483:1
478:a
455:1
450:h
441:+
427:1
422:m
412:(
408:=
405:P
378:a
372:h
366:m
360:P
81:(
51:2
33:(
20:)
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