640:), as the former Colonial Marines considered themselves British subjects. The Spaniards continued their policy of leaving the fugitive slaves alone. What was different now was that a corps had had some military training, and was well armed, and had been encouraged by departing abolitionist Nicolls to get others to run away from their owners and join them. The number and ethnicity of men, and in some cases their families, at the Negro Fort was not fixed; they came and went as the unstable political situation evolved. Yet the existence of a fortified, armed sanctuary for fugitive slaves became widely known in the southern United States.
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684:, a tributary of the Apalachicola. Supplying the fort was challenging because transporting materials overland would have required traveling through unsettled wilderness. The obvious route to supply the Fort was the river. Although technically this was Spanish territory, Spain had neither the resources nor the inclination to defend this remote area. Supplies going to or from the newly-built Fort Scott would have to pass directly in front of the Negro Fort. The boats carrying supplies for the new fort, the
732:, who called Negro Fort "a seat of banditti and the receptacle for runaway slaves," later justified the attack and subsequent seizure of Spanish Florida by Andrew Jackson as national "self-defense", a response to Spanish helplessness and British involvement in fomenting the "Indian and Negro War". Adams produced a letter from a Georgia planter complaining about "brigand Negroes" who made "this neighborhood extremely dangerous to a population like ours". Southern leaders worried that the
841:. The ensuing explosion was massive, and destroyed the entire Fort. Almost every source states that all but about 60 of the 334 occupants of the Fort were instantly killed, and others died of their wounds shortly after, including many women and children. A more recent scholar says the number killed was "probably no more than forty", the remainder having fled before the attack. The explosion was heard more than 100 miles (160 km) away in
56:
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923:, was angered by the death of some of his people at Negro Fort (African Fort) so he issued a warning to General Gaines that if any of his forces crossed the Flint River, they would be attacked and defeated. The threat provoked the general to send 250 men to arrest the chief in November 1817 but a battle arose and it became an opening engagement of the
858:
Garçon, the black commander, and the
Choctaw chief, among the few who survived, were handed over to the Creeks, who shot Garçon and scalped the chief. African-American survivors were returned to slavery. There were no white casualties from the explosion. The Creek salvaged 2,500 muskets, 50 carbines,
784:
of 1812. As the U.S. expedition drew near the fort on July 27, 1816, black militiamen had already been deployed and began skirmishing with the column before regrouping back at their base. At the same time the gunboats under Master Loomis moved upriver to a position for a siege bombardment. Negro Fort
599:
had under his command, at
Prospect Bluff, or living up the river, some 3,500 men eager to attack the Americans. Most of the Africans/Blacks did not want to return to be slaves of the Spanish in Pensacola, some of them adopting English names and claiming to be fugitives from the United States so that
594:
To attract recruits, the
British visited the Creek, Seminole, and "negro settlements" along the river and its tributaries, distributing guns, uniforms, and other goods. The Creeks were enthusiastic about this opportunity to attack the United States, whose settlers had taken their land. At the request
671:
Escaped slaves came from as far as
Virginia. The Apalachicola, as was true of other rivers of north Florida, was a base for raiders who attacked Georgia plantations, stealing livestock and helping the enslaved workers escape. Other slaves escaped from the militia units near the border, in which they
780:, who had received wages and an officer's commission from the British in Pensacola; and Cyrus, 26, also a carpenter, and literate. Prince may have been the military commander of the same name at the head of 90 free blacks brought from Havana to assist the Spanish defense in St. Augustine during the
658:
It was not to be expected that an establishment so pernicious to the
Southern states, holding out to a part of their population temptations to insubordination, would have been suffered to exist after the close of the war . In the course of last winter, several slaves from this neighborhood fled to
832:
gunboats were ordered to start the bombardment. Then the defenders opened fire with their cannons, but they had not been trained in using artillery, and were thus unable to utilise it effectively. It was daytime when Master Jarius Loomis ordered his gunners to open fire. After five to nine rounds
617:
Fugitive slaves continued to arrive, seeking in
Florida their freedom; they set up a network of farms along the river to keep them supplied. The Seminoles knew how to do this because the former African slaves, who had learned on plantations how to farm and care for domestic animals, either taught
912:
Garçon was executed by firing squad because of his responsibility for the earlier killing of the watering party, and the
Choctaw Chief was handed over to the Creeks, who scalped him. Some survivors were taken prisoner and placed into slavery under the claim that Georgia slaveowners had owned the
849:
The explosion was awful and the scene horrible beyond description. You cannot conceive, nor I describe the horrors of the scene. In an instant lifeless bodies were stretched upon the plain, buried in sand or rubbish, or suspended from the tops of the surrounding pines. Here lay an innocent babe,
736:
or a parcel of
Florida land occupied by a few hundred blacks could threaten the institution of slavery. On July 20, Clinch and the Creek allies left Fort Scott to assault Negro Fort (African Fort) but stopped short of firing range, realising that artillery (gunboats) would be needed.
724:, who were induced to join by the promise that they would get salvage rights to the fort if they helped in its capture. On July 27, 1816, following a series of skirmishes, the U.S. forces and their Creek allies launched an all-out attack under the command of Lieutenant Colonel
613:
are here. The
Spaniards wanted their own Pensacola slaves back, but as far as American slaves they did not much care. In any event, they lacked the resources to find and "recover" them, at one point inviting the American slaveowners to catch the fugitives themselves.
618:
them or did their farming for them, or both. The Creeks knew nothing of farming and were impoverished; even
Nicolls commented on the number of starving, resourceless Creeks who were arriving, and the challenge of feeding them. The Creeks had a champion,
854:. Piles of bodies, large heaps of sand, broken glass, accoutrements, etc., covered the site of the fort... Our first care, on arriving at the scene of the destruction, was to rescue and relieve the unfortunate beings who survived the explosion.
845:. Just afterward, the U.S. troops and the Creeks charged and captured the surviving defenders. Only three escaped injury; two of the three, an Indian and a Black person, were executed at Jackson's orders. General Gaines later reported that:
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This is the only time in its history in which the United States destroyed a community of escaped formerly enslaved Black Americans in another country. However, the area continued to attract escaped Africans until the U.S. construction of
595:
of the British, they started inviting Blacks to join them. Enslaved Africans of the Spanish in Pensacola were also invited, and came by the hundreds. As a result, the British Post was a "beehive of activity" in 1814. Commander
625:, who tried to help them recover their lands. They had never been enslaved and thus did not have to worry about being returned to slavery. They wanted to return to their lands, which were taken or threatened by white settlers.
863:, were conversely weakened by the loss of their allies. The Creek participation in the attack increased tension between the two tribes. Seminole anger at the U.S. for the fort's destruction contributed to the breakout of the
575:
the length of the moat, with bastions at its eastern corners. There was a stone building containing soldiers' barracks and a large warehouse, 48 feet (15 m) by 24 feet (7.3 m). Several hundred feet inland was the
2217:
768:'s conquest of Florida. Three leaders of the fort were former Colonial Marines who had come with Nicolls (since departed) from Pensacola. They were: Garçon ("Servant"), 30, a carpenter and former slave in Spanish
608:
Fugitive slaves had been seeking refuge in Florida for generations, and they were well received by the Seminoles and treated as free by the Spaniards if they converted to Catholicism; the origins of the future
2117:
520:, the attacking commander, reported salvaging approximately "2,500 muskets, 50 carbines, 400 pistols" from the ruins; as well as inflicting nearly 300 casualties to the fort's occupants. The salvaged
439:. It was intended to support a never-realized British attack on the U.S. via its southwest border, by means of which they could "free all these Southern Countries from the Yoke of the Americans".
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712:, seen as the person most capable of doing so. Jackson requested permission to attack, and started preparations. Ten days later, without having received a reply, he ordered Brigadier General
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first requested a surrender. Garçon, the leader of the fort, refused. Garçon told Gaines that he had orders from the British military to hold the post, and at the same time raised the
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The fort also had "dozens of axes, carts, harnesses, hoes, shovels, and saws," along with many uniforms, belts, and shoes. The British left all these behind. There were over a dozen
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The fort was destroyed in 1816 when a "hot cannon ball" landed in the magazine, leading to a huge explosion. This action is also sometimes referred to as the
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696:. The defenders of the fort ambushed sailors gathering fresh water, killing three and capturing one (who was subsequently burned alive); only one escaped.
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591:, and canoes, one 45 feet (14 m) long, along with sails, anchors, and other equipment, and "a number of experienced sailors and shipwrights".
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The fugitive slave situation became more serious as news of a Negro Fort (African Fort) with weaponry spread through the southern United States.
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would be given. The Americans considered the Negro Fort to be heavily defended; after they formed positions around one side of the post, the
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400 pistols, and 500 swords from the ruins of the fort, increasing their power in the region. The Seminole, who had fought alongside the
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Casualties: U. S. Navy and Marine Corps Personnel Killed and Wounded in Wars, Conflicts, Terrorist Acts, and Other Hostile Incidents
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The largest number of survivors, including blacks from the surrounding plantations who were not at the Fort, moved east to the
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905:. Also, a very large group "more than 800" of former British Colonial Marines were evacuated from the Apalachicola to
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474:, used their experience of farming and animal husbandry to set up farms stretching for miles along the river.
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891:'s (Bowlegs) "Old Town." Some took refuge further south in the Tampa Bay area while other refugees founded
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in the United States expressed outrage at the existence of Negro Fort. This concern was published in the
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When the U.S. boats attempted to pass the fort on April 27 they were fired upon. This event provided a
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The Fort at Prospect Bluff, the British Post on the Apalachicola & the Battle of the Negro Fort
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had been serving. To correct this situation, seen by Southerners as intolerable, in April 1816 the
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The Fort at Prospect Bluff, The British Post on the Apalachicola and the Battle of Negro Fort.
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A New Order of Things. Property, Power, and the Transformation of the Creek Indians, 1733–1816
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hostile to the United States, had existed since the late eighteenth century there and at the
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1675:"'República de Bandidos': The Prospect Bluff Fort's Challenge to the Spanish Slave System"
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450:, it was the largest structure between St. Augustine and Pensacola. Trading posts of
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there a helpless mother; on the one side a sturdy warrior, on the other a bleeding
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Anger over the destruction of the fort stimulated continued resistance during the
60:
Map of Fort Gadsden, inside the breastwork that surrounded the original Negro Fort
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375:
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The Maroons of Prospect Bluff and Their Quest for Freedom in the Atlantic World
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990:
The Battle of Negro Fort : the rise and fall of a fugitive slave community
667:. How long shall this evil, requiring immediate remedy, be permitted to exist?
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was occupied by about 330 people at the time of the battle. At least 200 were
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The Battle of Negro Fort (African Fort) was the first major engagement of the
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97:
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813:. The remaining were women and children, the families of the black militia.
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1821:
Tragedy and Survival: Virtual Landscapes of 19th-Century Gulf Coast Maroon
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The Battle of Negro Fort: The Rise and Fall of a Fugitive Slave Community
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in which armed fugitive Africans (they were no longer enslaved) resisted
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Construction of the fort began in May 1814, when the British seized the
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When withdrawing in 1815, at the end of the war, the British commander
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The fugitive slave and Choctaw casualties include women and children.
1703:
Rebels and Runaways: Slave Resistance in Nineteenth-Century Florida
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851:
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at Fort Scott to destroy Negro Fort. The U.S. expedition included
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who sought to return them to slavery. (A much smaller example was
1701:
1890:
1753:
The Merikens: Free Black American Settlers in Trinidad 181–1816.
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protested the violation of its soil, but according to historian
777:
773:
580:, in which stands of arms and 73 kegs of gunpowder were stored.
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564:
293:
1829:
1729:
Millett, Nathaniel (Fall 2012). "Slavery and the War of 1812".
1232:"Events at Prospect Bluff on the Apalachicola River, 1808–1818"
297:
897:
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cannonball, fired by Navy Gunboat No. 154, entered the Fort's
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1328:
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valley and settled Nero's Town, near Alachua Seminole leader
2218:
Populated places in Florida established by African Americans
1912:
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The Negro Fort (African Fort) flew the British Union flag (
485:." It is the largest and best-known instance before the
2118:
Naval battles and operations of the American Indian Wars
1650:
Hughes, Christine F.; Brodine, Charles E., eds. (2023).
1561:
National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior,
27:
Fort built by the British in 1814 in Spanish Florida, US
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at the site of Negro Fort marking the location of the
1365:
The Slaves' Gamble: Choosing Sides in the War of 1812
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The Battle of Negro Fort was the first battle of the
1652:
The Naval War of 1812: A Documentary History, Vol. 4
2183:
Former populated places in Franklin County, Florida
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1986:
1946:
1923:
1889:
708:Hawkins and other white settlers made contact with
833:were fired to check the range, the first round of
2198:African-American military monuments and memorials
2158:19th-century establishments in the Spanish Empire
1815:"North America's Largest Act of Slave Resistance"
776:; Prince, 26, a master carpenter valued at 1,500
470:. The latter, runaway or freed black slaves from
1440:, New York: Oxford University Press, p. 489
571:in size. There was a 4 feet (1.2 m) wooden
2223:African-American tourist attractions in Florida
2133:Tourist attractions in Franklin County, Florida
1048:(Revised Edition), University of Florida Press.
847:
40:
2163:Demolished buildings and structures in Florida
1841:
1368:(1st ed.). New York. pp. 157, 181.
1080:
1058:
1056:
1054:
427:was a short-lived fortification built by the
309:
8:
1407:. exploresouthernhistory.com. Archived from
1405:"The Fort at Prospect Bluff (July 11, 1816)"
1046:History of the Second Seminole War 1835–1842
764:period, and marked the beginning of General
1339:. exloresouthernhistory.com. Archived from
524:were given to Colonel Clinch's allies, the
435:, in a remote part of what was at the time
1848:
1834:
1826:
1506:
1504:
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1438:Florida. A Guide to the Southernmost State
1428:
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1388:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1189:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1012:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
316:
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294:
37:
2108:Pre-emancipation African-American history
466:fort, serving local Native Americans and
1449:
1447:
801:. They were accompanied by thirty or so
659:that fort; others have lately gone from
1654:. Washington: Naval Historical Center (
1297:Williams Jr., Edwin L. (October 1949).
980:
1623:Old Kitchen Media. ISBN 978-0578634623
1597:
1596:
1585:
1381:
1337:"Attack on the Fort at Prospect Bluff"
1211:from the original on February 14, 2018
1182:
1005:
692:, were escorted by gunboats sent from
446:, about 15 miles north of present-day
2188:Slave rebellions in the United States
2168:Native Americans of the Seminole Wars
1817:, a 2015 lecture by Nathaniel Millett
138:All captured slaves forced back into
7:
875:, it "lacked the power to do more".
2138:African-American history of Florida
1167:Forts of Florida : a guidebook
563:. By September, there was a square
532:for their help in taking the fort.
2103:Native American history of Florida
1856:Municipalities and communities of
741:Battle of Negro Fort (Indian Fort)
271:
25:
1575:from the original on May 14, 2017
824:and a red flag to symbolize that
472:plantations in the American South
2123:Pre-statehood history of Florida
1764:Black Society in Spanish Florida
567:enclosing a large field several
442:Built on a site overlooking the
361:Arbuthnot and Ambrister incident
270:
263:
249:334 killed, wounded and captured
201:
190:
158:
54:
2024:World's Smallest Police Station
1569:Aboard the Underground Railroad
1515:. University Press of Florida.
1146:Clavin, 2021, pp. 60–61, 72, 86
816:Before beginning an engagement
2153:Underground Railroad locations
1732:Tennessee Historical Quarterly
1458:. Cambridge University Press.
919:, a leader of the Seminole at
1:
2014:Prospect Bluff Historic Sites
1700:Rivers, Larry Eugene (2012).
1673:Nuño, John Paul (Fall 2015).
1044:Mahon, John K. (1967) p. 22.
959:Fort Mose Historic State Park
32:Prospect Bluff Historic Sites
2233:Anti-black racism in Florida
2208:Landmarks of the War of 1812
2098:Battles of the Seminole Wars
1994:Apalachicola National Forest
1796:USDA Forest Service (2011).
1772:University of Illinois Press
1708:University of Illinois Press
1680:Florida Historical Quarterly
1304:Florida Historical Quarterly
1165:Carlisle, Rodney P. (2012).
913:ancestors of the prisoners.
604:A refuge for fugitive slaves
600:they would not be returned.
131:United States-Creek victory
1999:Camp Gordon Johnston Museum
1755:McNish & Weiss, London.
1751:Weiss, John McNish (2008).
1627:Clavin, Matthew J. (2019).
1511:Millett, Nathaniel (2013).
1205:"Fort Negro (Fort Gadsden)"
1169:. Gainesville. p. 49.
988:Clavin, Matthew J. (2021).
705:for destroying Negro Fort.
2249:
1299:"Negro Slavery in Florida"
1236:Florida Historical Society
452:Panton, Leslie and Company
29:
2143:Colonial forts in Florida
2093:1816 in the United States
2048:
1910:
1870:
1633:New York University Press
1081:Hughes & Brodine 2023
333:
258:
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238:
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45:
2228:Fugitive American slaves
2004:John Gorrie State Museum
1859:Franklin County, Florida
1802:. The Archeology Channel
1434:Federal Writers' Project
992:. New York. p. 22.
551:Construction of the fort
510:Battle of Prospect Bluff
1454:Saunt, Claudio (1999).
1362:Smith, Gene A. (2013).
1281:Naval Historical Center
1137:Clavin, 2021, pp. 61–63
1119:Clavin, 2021, pp. 23–24
1110:Clavin, 2021, pp. 93–94
1101:Clavin, 2021, pp. 81–82
561:John Forbes and Company
456:John Forbes and Company
284:Location within Florida
1917:
1230:Boyd, Mark F. (1937).
856:
757:
669:
514:Battle of African Fort
341:Watering Hole Massacre
184:Commanders and leaders
2178:American rebel slaves
1916:
1799:Historic Fort Gadsden
1540:. Old Kitchen Media.
1275:June 5, 2007, at the
1260:Boyd, 1937. pp. 78–79
748:
665:Mississippi Territory
656:
448:Apalachicola, Florida
239:Casualties and losses
111:29.93824°N 85.01127°W
2061:United States portal
611:Underground Railroad
506:Battle of Negro Fort
431:in 1814, during the
346:Battle of Negro Fort
281:class=notpageimage|
135:Negro Fort destroyed
41:Battle of Negro Fort
18:Battle of Negro Fort
2033:Archaeological site
1987:Tourist attractions
1128:Clavin, 2021, p. 58
1092:Clavin, 2021, p. 23
1083:, pp. 859–860.
1071:Clavin, 2021, p. 14
1035:Clavin, 2021, p. 47
1026:Clavin, 2021, p. 40
909:between 1815-1816.
797:. Some were former
386:San Felasco Hammock
369:Second Seminole War
116:29.93824; -85.01127
107: /
86:Apalachicola Forest
2113:History of Florida
1918:
1619:Cox, Dale (2020).
1536:Cox, Dale (2020).
1403:Cox, Dale (2018).
1335:Cox, Dale (2014).
1285:United States Navy
1155:Clavin, 2021, p. 8
932:First Seminole War
925:First Seminole War
865:First Seminole War
758:
734:Haitian Revolution
491:European Americans
487:American Civil War
444:Apalachicola River
336:First Seminole War
2213:War of 1812 forts
2088:Conflicts in 1816
2070:
2069:
2019:St. George Island
1938:St. George Island
1717:978-0-252-03691-0
1665:978-1-943604-36-4
1595:External link in
1496:Mahon, pp. 23–24.
809:warriors under a
789:, armed with ten
730:John Quincy Adams
676:decided to build
508:(also called the
419:
418:
406:Pine Island Ridge
351:Battle of Suwanee
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772:, valued at 750
714:Edmund P. Gaines
652:Savannah Journal
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818:General Gaines
793:and dozens of
766:Andrew Jackson
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694:Pass Christian
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48:Seminole Wars
44:
39:
33:
19:
2008:
1899:Apalachicola
1881:Apalachicola
1878:
1806:February 22,
1804:. Retrieved
1798:
1763:
1752:
1736:
1730:
1722:Project MUSE
1720:– via
1702:
1684:
1678:
1651:
1631:. New York:
1628:
1620:
1579:December 22,
1577:, retrieved
1564:British Fort
1563:
1556:
1537:
1531:
1512:
1492:
1483:
1474:
1455:
1437:
1415:February 22,
1413:. Retrieved
1409:the original
1398:
1364:
1357:
1347:December 25,
1345:. Retrieved
1341:the original
1308:
1302:
1292:
1265:
1256:
1244:. Retrieved
1239:
1235:
1225:
1215:February 10,
1213:. Retrieved
1199:
1166:
1160:
1151:
1142:
1133:
1124:
1115:
1106:
1097:
1088:
1076:
1067:
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989:
983:
929:
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911:
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857:
848:
815:
759:
707:
700:
698:
690:General Pike
689:
685:
670:
657:
651:
642:
635:
627:
620:Indian Agent
616:
607:
593:
582:
557:trading post
554:
542:
538:Fort Gadsden
534:
513:
509:
505:
503:
476:
441:
424:
423:
367:
366:
345:
335:
215:
212:Garçon
152:Belligerents
130:
46:Part of the
1950:communities
1874:County seat
1062:Mahon p. 23
782:Patriot War
702:casus belli
682:Flint River
645:pro-slavery
516:). Colonel
433:War of 1812
391:Wahoo Swamp
376:Dade battle
114: /
2083:Negro Fort
2077:Categories
2040:Yent Mound
2009:Negro Fort
1978:St. Teresa
1968:Dog Island
1963:Bald Point
1904:Carrabelle
1781:025202446X
1465:0521660432
975:References
964:Fort Scott
895: [
826:no quarter
822:Union Jack
678:Fort Scott
638:Union Jack
632:Negro Fort
464:San Marcos
425:Negro Fort
246:1 captured
231:2 gunboats
102:85°00′41″W
99:29°56′18″N
82:Negro Fort
30:See also:
1933:Eastpoint
1384:cite book
1185:cite book
1008:cite book
917:Neamathla
879:Aftermath
843:Pensacola
770:Pensacola
686:Semelante
674:U.S. Army
661:Tennessee
585:schooners
540:in 1818.
530:war booty
495:Fort Mose
460:loyalists
454:and then
244:3 killed
1762:(1999).
1745:42628263
1693:24769178
1588:citation
1573:archived
1436:(1939),
1317:30138779
1273:Archived
1209:Archived
1207:. 2008.
969:Quilombo
944:Merikins
938:See also
921:Fowltown
907:Trinidad
835:hot shot
803:Seminole
688:and the
663:and the
578:magazine
573:stockade
224:Strength
77:Location
1242:(2): 77
903:Bahamas
807:Choctaw
795:muskets
791:cannons
787:maroons
680:on the
597:Nicolls
589:barques
512:or the
497:, near
483:Negroes
429:British
216:†
178:Choctaw
140:slavery
90:Florida
1891:Cities
1778:
1743:
1714:
1691:
1662:
1639:
1544:
1519:
1462:
1372:
1315:
1246:3 June
1173:
996:
861:blacks
751:plaque
722:Coweta
526:Creeks
127:Result
1741:JSTOR
1689:JSTOR
1313:JSTOR
889:Bolek
869:Spain
852:squaw
811:chief
778:pesos
774:pesos
720:from
648:press
569:acres
528:, as
169:Creek
1925:CDPs
1808:2018
1776:ISBN
1712:ISBN
1660:ISBN
1637:ISBN
1603:help
1581:2017
1542:ISBN
1517:ISBN
1460:ISBN
1417:2018
1390:link
1370:ISBN
1349:2017
1248:2022
1217:2018
1191:link
1171:ISBN
1014:link
994:ISBN
830:Navy
805:and
643:The
565:moat
522:arms
229:267
69:Date
1658:).
1656:GPO
898:sic
559:of
501:.)
234:334
2079::
1877::
1862:,
1774:.
1770::
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1002:.
654::
317:e
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20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
