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commune's trial constitution and wrote: "this constitution seemed to be sent to every province and prefecture for reference." It defined the people's commune as a social grassroots organization, which aimed to consolidate socialist system, create conditions and prepare for transitioning to the communist system. In Mao's conclusion, people's communes were based on "socialist system plus communist ideology." People's communes with socialist nature would eradicate the bourgeoisie vestiges, for instance, private plot and private livestock, step by step, and realize communist society within a few years. Mao also suggested a specific approach to organize communes. It was put forward by the people's commune in Xushui
Prefecture. The slogan is "organize along military lines, working as if fighting a battle, live in a disciplined way (Chinese: 组织军事化、行动战斗化、生产纪律化)." Mao was conspicuously satisfied with the slogan, though he did not force nationwide prefectures to imitate it. He said that the slogan was virtually about the issue of organization and democracy in people's communes.
133:(鼓足干劲，力争上游，多快好省地建设社会主义的总路线)." Zhou Enlai, Chen Yun, Bo Yibo and Li Xiannian criticized themselves because of their errors on Anti-Rash Advance. Half month after the conference, on June 7, Ministry of Metallurgical Industry reported to the Central Committee that the steel production target had been raised to 8.2 million tons in 1958 and 60 million in 1962. In mid-June, Li Fuchun, the leader of State Planning Commission, put forward the key points of the second Five-year Plan, which set the steel production target in 1958 to 8.5-9 million tons. The first plan of grain output in 1959 came to 300 million tons, which was an increase of 65 thousand tons over the expected output of 1958. At that period, Ke Qingshi, the top leader of southeast China and Shanghai, arrived in Beijing. His enthusiasm for local steel production apparently influenced Mao.
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State
Planning Commission, State Economic and Trade Commission and central ministries were correct, which meant everybody was making plans, rather than focusing on producing. The problems in the industrial sector included omitting the production in 1958 and low output of peasants' backyard furnaces. Meanwhile, the Central Committee could not transfer raw materials efficiently among areas and sectors, because local governments did not adjust the country's newest production objective. They thought they had finished the task and begun to stock raw materials. After reporting to Mao, Chen listed out eight solutions. The principal one was that State Economic and Trade Commission should mainly focus on production, and the secretary of the party and the director in each factory should take the production output of 1958 as the core.
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agriculture had found the approach leading to the Great Leap
Forward, which was called "take grain as the key link and achieve overall development (Chinese: 以粮为纲，全面发展)." Mao asked Bo what the people in industry was doing. Bo answered that the industry would "take steel as the key link and drive everything (Chinese: 以钢为纲，带动一切)," which earned Mao's approving "correct, very correct!" The next day, Mao again asked Wang Heshou why they could not double the steel production target. Wang, while indicating this would be difficult, could only reply "it should be alright." Thus the steel target of 1958 was set at 11 million tons.
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notes of Mao's thoughts on bourgeois right. Later Zhang wrote the article named "Eradicate the
Ideology of Bourgeois Right" (also translated as "Do Away with the Ideology of Bourgeois Right"; Chinese: 破除资产阶级法权思想) which was highly regarded by Mao. On October 13, the People's Daily republished the article under Mao's order and added an "editor's note" written by Mao. Mao's address in Beidaihe Conference, by and large, reflected the origin bourgeois right in the context of the Great Leap Forward. From then on, the term "bourgeois rights," which originated from Marx's
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problems of cadres-masses relationship. For instance, after the CCP succeeded in revolution and entered the cities, they replaced the communist supply system with wage system. The cadres began to wear woolen clothes and shave beards. All of these were learned from the bourgeoisie and connected with the bureaucratic work style. Mao repeatedly underscored that the CCP should bring back the rural work style and guerrilla practices, which could prevent the party from being detached from the masses.
125:
109:." Mao revised it as "three production plans": two are central plans - the one which must be fulfilled would be published, and the other which was expected to be fulfilled would not be published. Meanwhile, two are local plans - the first local plan was the second central plan which from the local view must be fulfilled. The second central plan was the basis of comparison. On Nanning Conference, Mao was irritated with "Anti-Rash-Advance" (Chinese:
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steel exemplified that they dispersed the energy and should be stopped or canceled. Second, local government did not effectively implement the central policy. Mao emphasized that iron and steel could not be transferred out of localities because of "hundreds of thousands of governments" in local areas. In this part, Mao described his solutions in many ways: Qin
Shihuang, autocracy, proletarian dictatorship and socialist order.
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consciousness. Peasants in rural areas would combine small cooperatives with big cooperatives, and transit to communes simultaneously. The
Resolution also suggested the party and the masses make good use of people's communes as a concrete way to communism. Besides, the resolution warned against communalizing cooperatives compulsively and insisted on the socialist rather than the communist character of people's communes.
251:; Second, some Sino-Soviet shared military facilities in the PRC aroused contention and disagreement Shen Zhihua argues that Mao did not discuss the impending bombardment with Khrushchev on purpose. But Mao insisted that Khrushchev should publicly return to the Soviet Union and gave a speech. Mao intended to create an impression to the U.S. that the military operation was the result of Sino-Soviet negotiations.
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the mass movement in industrial construction and production in 1958, during which
Beidaihe Conference was convened. The mushrooming of small units using indigenous methods of production also contributed to the growth of rate in the latter part of 1958. However, the industrial production using indigenous methods was, in most cases, not up to the quality standards and resulted in an uneconomic use of labor.
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him, agriculture was the "green leaves," and industry was the "red flowers." The Soviet Union developed agriculture and industry at the same time, but China would take a different approach; Chinese developed the green leaves first then the red flowers. In another speech, he also said: "we used agriculture to repress industry, checked industry's king." In all, it was time for the industry to take off.
547:, the commander of the bombardment, whether the shells could avoid hitting the U.S. military facilities. On 23 August, the People's Liberation Army started to bombard Kinmen Island. Harold Hinton holds that the date was chosen deliberately because it was the anniversary of the Nazi-Soviet pact. Mao used it to remind Khrushchev of the danger of compromising with imperialism.
858:. Royal Institute of International Affairs., Columbia University. East Asian Institute., Columbia University. Research Institute on Communist Affairs. New York: Published for the Royal Institute of International Affairs, the East Asian Institute of Columbia University, and the Research Institute on Communist Affairs of Columbia University by Columbia University Press.
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1958, in
Liaoning Province, 9,297 agricultural cooperatives merged into 1,461 larger cooperatives. Every cooperative had 1,995 households averagely. Henan Province merged 38,286 cooperatives into more than 2700 larger cooperatives. The average number of households was about 4,000 per cooperative. However, Henan Province also put an illustration of the resistance.
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production. Mao kept the balance between the peasants' independence and the party's rule. From the discourse level, peasants should be under the party's commander, because they produced grain for the country, but for themselves after all. From the policy level, the CCP decided to launch a socialist and communist education campaign from the winter of 1958.
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During the summit, Mao allowed building the radar station in China, whose ownership belonged to China and half right of use belonged to the Soviet Union. Khrushchev repeatedly said the Soviet Union could provide loan on building the radar station. However, Mao rejected resolutely and said China would not build it if the Soviet Union offered the money.
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was a supplement to
Chengdu Conference. At that time, Mao had some pragmatic aspects. He asked local governments to be down-to-earth. They should not drive peasants intensively, but alternate work with rest. The policy of local industry was "serve the agricultural, serve the large-scale industry and serve the consumers (Chinese: 为农业服务，为大工业服务，为消费者服务)."
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better than the Soviet Union and
Eastern European countries. The "another way" - the Great Leap Forward and the people's communes - caused a "theoretical vacuum," which meant Lenin's New Economic Policy was not suitable to current situations and China's development needed new theoretical basis. Specifically, it included following points:
234:"I can go to Moscow to talk with Comrade Khrushchev or invite him to Beijing. ... The Soviet Union can be the counselor and help us to build the nuclear submarine, but why do you raise the issue of half the ownership? ... You can tell Comrade Khrushchev that we do not have to talk if he has additional conditions."
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establishing people's communes. It means that people's communes should be multifunctional, including producing both means of production and consumption, educating youth and maintaining social order. As Mao put it, it was the integration of government (administration) and commune (management) (Chinese:
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In Beidaihe Conference, Mao talked about the problems in industry and his solutions. First, the current industrial production was lack of priority projects. Mao said that the projects impinging on priorities must be centralized. The Agricultural Production Cooperatives which participated in producing
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On April 8, the Central Committee approved a document, which underscored that it was necessary to systematically and adequately integrate small-scale agricultural cooperatives into large cooperatives. The purpose was to "meet the demands of agricultural production and cultural revolution." As of July
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After Chengdu Conference, Mao went to Chongqing and Wuhan in April to inspect the countryside and factories. In Wuhan, he called all the leaders of provinces and municipalities who had not attended Chengdu Conference to report their work. Tian Jiaying, the secretary of Mao, said that Wuhan Conference
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Second, after Beidaihe conference, the nationwide rural areas became communalized no more than one month. The high tide of establishing people's communes caused severe tensions within the state administrative apparatuses and between cadres and peasants. The sign was the state's decreasing ability to
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First, from the economic view, Table 1 shows the gross industrial output of mainland China from 1957 to 1959. The annual rate of growth varied between 7.8 and 31.7 percent during 1953-57. The substantially higher rates of growth reported for 1958 and the first half of 1959 have resulted chiefly from
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According to Wu Lengxi, the Chief Editor of People's Daily, Mao mentioned the purpose of the bombardment in the Politburo meeting on 23rd. It was that the U.S. withdrew forces from the Taiwan Strait, Chiang Kai-shek retreated from Kinmen and Matsu. Mao believed the military operation would shock the
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Second, the interrelationship among the masses was the premise of the Great Leap Forward. Mao attributed the success of revolution to the war communism including rustic and guerrilla work style. He believed that military tradition had worked so efficiently in the war that it could also function well
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Second, Mao, to some extent moderately, considered the supply system as the alternative of the wage system. The bourgeois right in the distribution had not been wiped out, which included eight-grade wage system and the difference between mental work and manual work. These remnants resulted in severe
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During the conference, Mao Zedong gave many speeches on the issue of people's communes, including how to define, organize and benefit from people's communes. In April 1958, the first people's commune, Chayashan Sputnik Commune, was built in Henan Province. During the conference, Mao read the sputnik
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Second, the first secretaries of all provinces and districts must pay attention to leading the industrial development. To be specific, Mao urged local leaders to take steel production as the crucial task, and when they returned home, they should "establish the proletarian dictatorship with effective
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Mao did not accept the term until he inspected rural areas on the spot in August 1958. On his tour, Mao permitted communes ahead of any formal documents adopted by the Central Committee. On 9 August in Shandong Province, Mao conspicuously gave his preference to people's communes. He said that it was
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At last, eradication of bourgeois right was part of the strategy to demarcate China from the Soviet Union. The inharmonious relationship between the cadres and the masses, the children of leading cadres and the wage system within material incentives, represented how the leading socialist country in
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First, eradicating bourgeois right was one of the effective political mobilization slogans of people's communes. In people's communes, the masses cooperated with each other and did not earn piece wage, which represented precisely the germ of communism and the disruption of bourgeois right. In Mao's
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The connection between the bourgeois right and the principal issue of the conference referred to Mao's concern behind his speeches. In the Second Session of 8th National Party Congress, Mao said that the practice of the CCP had surpassed Marx, so he hoped to create another way to develop faster and
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The relations of production in agriculture and industry included the system of ownership, the interrelationship among the people and the distribution. According to Mao, Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin "have heard about these ideas but have not begun to understand them." In the conference, he further
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According to Mao, re-centralization of industrial production would stop the backyard steel furnaces built by cooperatives and communes, which could dampen the masses in rural areas. Hence, when dealing with this problem, he used two different narratives in the mass media and the secret speeches. In
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On August 29, the conference adopted the Resolution of Establishing People's Communes in Rural Areas. The Resolution considered people's communes as a natural trend. It said that the people's commune was mainly based on continuously developing agricultural production and peasants' growing political
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When the Politburo convened a meeting on June 17 (Mao did not attend), Bo Yibo said the steel production was expected to be 9 million tons. However, when he met with Mao on June 18, he agreed with Mao to further raise the steel production to 10 million tons. After the meeting, Mao told Bo that the
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More importantly, the education campaign initiated another movement in communes named "Pull down the White Flag and Hoist the Red Flag (Chinese: 拔白旗，插红旗)." Socialist and communist thinking that followed the Party's line and the cadres' orders was rewarded with a "red flag," whereas individualistic
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In the Directive on Launching Socialist and Communist Education Campaign, the education campaign first aimed to ensure the agricultural harvest of the 1959 summer and the whole year. It would popularize the experience of agricultural production, for instance, how to use water, fertilizer, and soil
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Bo Yibo included more details about Mao's misgivings in his memoir. In early 1958, Mao believed that excessive centralization had restrained economic development. In April, the CCP made provisions on decentralizing enterprises. Two months later, the party adopted the decision to decentralize heavy
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Moreover, Mao was rather zealous in comparing supply system with wage system, promoting the benefits of the former. Mao thought that supply system was related to his health. He said that his body was not well and easy to catch a cold after he moved to Beijing, though he got the salary monthly and
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First, the interrelationship among laboring people was the principal element of productive relations. On the one hand, Mao thought that the bourgeois right had been almost eradicated after the rectification, which manifested that the leading cadres served the people humbly. On the other hand, Mao
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Bourgeois right appeared in most of Mao's speeches during Beidaihe Conference, but much of his thinking was summarized in Zhang Chunqiao's article. Ke Qingshi, who was present at the conference, had read out to Zhang, the propaganda minister of Shanghai Municipal Committee, over the telephone his
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Bourgeois right was a notion discussed by Marx and Lenin, which referred to the capitalist remnants in the socialist society. It was represented as the sale of commodities in a market, and the distribution to work, which would produce inequalities because of the unequal distribution of skills and
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Ironically, it was Chen Yun, one of the two leading architects of Anti-Rash Advance, who assured the doubled steel target could be met, devised methods to that end and invoked Party discipline to guarantee it. On 21 August 1958, Chen Yun said that Chairman Mao's critique on Central Finance Group,
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First, the previous success in agriculture laid the foundation for the industry. Mao was ambitious since the CCP transferred the ownership in rural areas peacefully; meanwhile, the agricultural outputs would be promising due to the surprisingly good weather in the first half of 1958. According to
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had four formal meetings with Mao in Beijing. In the first meeting, Khrushchev said Yudin to some extent mistakenly conveyed their position. The CPSU had not discussed the idea of combine fleets. It was only raised by the Ministry of National Defense and Malinovsky (then Soviet Defense Minister).
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On March 8, the CCP called up Chengdu Conference. This conference changed the production target of Nanning Conference to the first production plan, and set up a higher target as the second production plan. The steel production of 1958 would be 7 million tons, and the grain would be 251.8 million
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after the conference, the slogan remained as "the whole party and the whole people running industry." The editorial also highly appreciated peasants' creativity and enthusiasm. In his secret speeches, however, Mao said that the Agricultural Production Cooperatives' main task was expanding grain
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Xushui Prefecture became the pilot project of communism in May due to merging cooperatives in the water conservancy movement. In mid-July, the prefecture was communalized by establishing 1,777 mess halls. Mao inspected Xushui Prefecture during his tour in rural areas in August 1958. He told the
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During the 8th National Party Congress in 1956, Zhou Enlai gave the speech about the second Five-year Plan. He suggested that by 1962, the annual steel production should reach 10.5 million tons to 12 million tons. Meanwhile, the annual grain output should reach 250 million tons. In 1957, steel
64:
In the conference, the CCP raised the 1958 steel production target to 10.7 million tons and the grain target to 350 million tons. By 1959, they planned to produce 30 million tons of steel and 500 million tons of grain. Meanwhile, the conference called for a mass movement to increase industrial
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The seeds of the communes sprouted during the water conservancy campaign of winter 1957-1958. In the certain areas threatened by floods in summer, some of the small collectives merged into larger units. In Chengdu Conference, Mao Zedong put forward the idea of merging agricultural production
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production had been 5.35 million tons. In December, the 6th National Planning Meeting was convened to draw up the economic plan of 1958. According to the goal of catching up with the U.K. in fifteen years, China would produce 6.1 million tons of steel and 196 million tons of grain annually.
60:
The major topics of the Beidaihe Conference in 1958 were the national economic plan in 1959, current problems of industrial and agricultural production, and rural work. The conference adopted a whole series of critical documents, including the Communique of the conference, the Resolution of
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According to Mao, the benefits of people's communes were based on the highly unified planning and management. When Mao was on his ten-day tour in early August, he told the cadres (leaders of Shandong provinces) that they could combine workers, peasants, merchants, students, and soldiers by
445:; Chinese: 一大二公)." In Mao's opinion, "big" (largeness) means the communes had a large population and covered huge areas, and "public" (publicness) referred to the socialist nature, manifesting as public mess halls, wage system in combination of the supply system and high labor efficiency.
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Prior to this, Mao Zedong added a passage on the draft resolution. He emphasized that local areas should not be rash in changing the collective ownership of people's communes to the ownership by the whole people, aiming to "stave off unnecessary troubles in the transition of ownership."
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Without being discussed by the Central Committee, the article claimed that China had found its way to communism, and first mentioned the term "people's commune." On the same day, in his speech to students at Peking University, Chen quoted Mao and said that people needed to gradually and
132:
Things changed rapidly in summer. From May 5 to 23, the CCP held the Second Session of 8th National Party Congress, which formally adopted the General Line - which was suggested by Mao - "go all out, aim high, and build socialism with greater, faster, better, and more economical results
73:
230:, the Soviet Union Ambassador to China. Mao described the combined fleets as "navy cooperatives" and directly repudiated the suggestion. He told Yudin that the Soviet Union tried to control the atomic energy because they did not believe that China could make it. He also said,
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On Nanning Conference held in January 1958, the CCP confirmed to produce 6.2 million tons of steel and 196 million tons of grain in 1958. Besides, Bo Yibo, Chairman of State Economic Commission, proposed a new method of economic planning called "Two Plans" (Chinese:
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Before Beidaihe Conference, the relations between China and the Soviet Union had been strained. The reasons included whether China should manufacture atomic bombs and whether to build longwave broadcasting stations and combined fleets together. On 22 July, Mao met with
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In October 1958, Mao was receiving feedback on the situation and became aware of the significant problems in the Great Leap Forward. On first Zhengzhou Conference in November 1958, Mao addressed the issues of the excessive leap and called for more calmness.
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After an increase of the divergence between the two socialist countries, including the revisionism of Yugoslavia and the landing of U.S. Marines in Lebanon, the supreme leaders of the two sides met in the summer of 1958 secretly. From 31 July to 3 August,
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and light industry. However, fast decentralization immediately disordered industry in regional areas. Many capital construction projects (Chinese: 基本建设项目) were set up, which dispersed the limited iron and later hindered the national industrial objective.
38:) was an enlarged meeting held by the Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party Central Committee from August 17 to 30 1958. It also involved a conference of provincial industrial secretaries and other relevant local leaders from the 25th to the 31st.
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tons. The document adopted in Chengdu Conference said "if we implement Chairman Mao's directives, our speed of socialist industrialization might be faster than the Soviet Union, and overtake the United Kingdom in less than fifteen years."
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Mao designated industry as the principal topic of the conference, with both the 1959 plan and the Second Five-year Plan. Moreover, he repeatedly demanded priority attention to the doubled steel target and feared it might not be met.
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177:, the first secretary of the Party's Provincial Committee, was against the rapid amalgamation of cooperatives and said that the peasants would revolt and reject the leadership of the Communist Party. But he was purged in May 1958.
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thinking or "unhealthy ideas" were denounced and given a "white flag," "gray flag," or "black flag." The purpose of this movement was to clear the ideological and organizational obstacle for the Great Leap Forward.
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procure grain. By the end of October 1958, the amount of state grain reserves had been reduced by some 7 million tons. Some peasants in Guangdong Province hid the grain production to avoid great procurement.
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efficiently and how to plant close and plow deeply. Second, through airing their views fully, the peasants would be aware of the greater superiority of people's communes over agricultural cooperatives.
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lived in bigger houses. Another benefit of supply system hinged on its communist spirit. Mao unequivocally upheld the utopian socialism and said that living without communist spirit would be boring.
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and argued that one mu (= 0.0667 hectares) producing 5 tons of grain was possible. In July, the editorial of People's Daily said "how much grain we need, how much grain we can produce." The
2523:
2347:. Pang, Xianzhi., Jin, Chongji, 1930-, 逄先知., 金冲及, 1930-, Zhong gong zhong yang wen xian yan jiu shi., 中共中央文献硏究室. (Di 1 ban ed.). Beijing: Zhong yang wen xian chu ban she. 2003.
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mind, people's communes were characterized as "big" and "public." The "public" precisely advocated collectivism, rather than individualism, implying the eradication of wage system.
57:). Beidaihe is regarded as the summer capital of China, because almost all the important conferences of the CCP Central Committee in summer were convened here from 1953 to 1965.
543:(the Defense Minister) to prepare to bombard Kinmen. The guideline of the bombardment was directly against Chiang Kai-shek and indirectly against the U.S. On 20th, Mao asked the
539:
During the conference, Mao made the final decision to bombard Kinmen (Quemoy) Island, which was controlled by the Nationalist Government in Taiwan. On 18 August, Mao wrote to
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Most records of the meetings have not been disclosed yet. Allen S. Whiting teases out two main points of the sessions: First, Mao did not tell Khrushchev his plan to bombard
105:). It meant that there would be one plan which must be fulfilled and another plan which was expected to be fulfilled. Later this method was endorsed by Mao and included in "
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At the end of the conference, Bo Yibo called all the provincial secretaries responsible for steel to meet Mao, and one by one they guaranteed fulfillment of their targets.
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systematically form large communes combining agriculture, industry, commerce, culture, and education, and militia. Jack Gary argued that the word "communes" referred to
1744:. Zhu, Jiamu., Liu, Shukai., 朱佳木., 刘书楷., Zhong gong zhong yang wen xian yan jiu shi., 中共中央文献硏究室. (Di 1 ban ed.). Beijing: Zhong yang wen xian chu ban she. 2000.
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On 1 September 1958, People's Daily published the conference communique on the front page. It illustrated the linchpin of developing industry from two perspectives.
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in building communism. The essential point was the equal interrelationship advocated by the party, which could mobilize the masses to pay efforts into production.
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199:, implying that this emerging organization in China was part of the Marxist theory. Also, it was Mao's solution to the problem of the bureaucratic state.
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The rostrum of the Second Session of the 8th National Party Congress. From left: Liu Shaoqi, Deng Xiaoping, Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai and Zhu De.
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the world degenerated into a bureaucratic state. Mao tried to find an alternative to break free of the superstition to Soviet Elder Brother.
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China's road to disaster : Mao, central politicians, and provincial leaders in the unfolding of the great leap forward, 1955-1959
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1705:. From the Hundred Flowers to the Great Leap Forward. Vol. 6 (1 ed.). Harvard University Asia Center. pp. 397–442.
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Establishing People's Communes in Rural Areas, the Directive on Launching Socialist and Communist Education Campaign, and so on.
2474:. Zhong gong zhong yang wen xian yan jiu shi., 中共中央文献研究室. (Di 1 ban ed.). Beijing: Zhong yang wen xian chu ban she. 1992.
1302:. Zhong gong zhong yang wen xian yan jiu shi., 中共中央文献研究室. (Di 1 ban ed.). Beijing: Zhong yang wen xian chu ban she. 1992.
890:. Zhong gong zhong yang wen xian yan jiu shi., 中共中央文献研究室. (Di 1 ban ed.). Beijing: Zhong yang wen xian chu ban she. 1992.
808:
Lieberthal, Kenneth; Oksenberg, Michel (1975). "A Research Guide to Central Party and Government Meetings in China 1949-1975".
765:. Zhong gong zhong yang wen xian yan jiu shi., 中共中央文献研究室. (Di 1 ban ed.). Beijing: Zhong yang wen xian chu ban she. 1992.
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2542:. Huang, Daoxia., Yu, Zhan., Wang, Xiyu., 黄道霞., 徐展., 王西玉. (Di 1 ban ed.). Beijing: Zhonggong dang shi chu ban she. 1992.
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took the children of Soviet Union leaders, for example, implying that the CCP leaders' children should not have privileges.
936:. "Dang dai Zhongguo de ji hua gong zuo" ban gong shi., 《当代中国的计划工作》办公室. (Di 1 ban ed.). : Hong qi chu ban she. 1987.
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1562:. Twitchett, Denis Crispin, 1925-2006., Fairbank, John King, 1907-1991. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. 1978.
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The background of Beidaihe Conference in 1958 was firstly manifested in the continually increasing economic targets.
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1826:. Zhong gong zhong yang wen xian yan jiu shi., 中共中央文献硏究室. (Di 1 ban ed.). : Zhong yang wen xian chu ban she.
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1511:. Pang, Xianzhi, Feng, Hui, 1931-, Chen, Jin, 1958-, 逄先知, 冯蕙, 1931-, 陈晋, 1958- (Di 1 ban ed.). Beijing.
1380:. University of California, Berkeley. Center for Chinese Studies. Berkeley: University of California Press.
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149:", which meant rural areas in the country constantly reported extremely high production output. On June 16,
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leader of the communes that if they produced massive outputs of grain, they could have 5 meals per day.
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1043:"Sixty Points On Working Methods -- A Draft Resolution From The Office Of The Centre Of The CPC"
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346:
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Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo guo min jing ji he she hui fa zhan ji fa da shi ji yao, 1949-1985
53:
province. In 1953, the CCP Central Committee formed the summer office system (Chinese:
2053:
Esherick, Joseph W. (1979). "On the "Restoration of Capitalism": Mao and Marxist Theory".
29:
2638:. Shu, Ling., 舒玲. (Beijing di 1 ban ed.). Beijing: Zhongguo qing nian chu ban she.
495:
demonstrated his viewpoints on the interrelationship among people and the distribution.
2440:
Yi Mao zhu xi : wo qin sheng jing li di ruo gan zhong da li shi shi jian pian duan
441:
The characteristic of people's communes was well-known as "one, big, and two, public (
2666:
2204:
2082:
853:
334:
322:
280:
196:
2525:
Contemporary China; economic and social studies, documents, bibliography, chronology
1793:. Meisner, Maurice J., 1931-, Rogers D. Spotswood Collection. New York: Free Press.
1788:
1210:
698:
420:
342:
2591:. Chang, Julian., Cheek, Timothy., Saich, Tony. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe. 1999.
1433:
540:
314:
295:
291:
227:
174:
150:
46:
2066:
1720:
554:
For more details about the background and the course of the Crisis, see below:
665:
326:
310:
268:
264:
260:
77:
2243:
2228:. Mao ze dong, (1893-1976). Bei jing: Zhong yang wen xian chu ban she. 1992.
2175:
2109:
1996:
1898:
1526:
1353:
1128:
1013:
2653:
2606:
2557:
2489:
2457:
2362:
2142:
1964:
1931:
1841:
1808:
1759:
1409:
1375:
1317:
1280:
1172:
1090:
951:
905:
780:
536:
The Second Taiwan Strait Crisis happened in the session of the conference.
303:
287:
181:
113:), and labelled the "Anti-Rash Advance" as "vulgar dialectics and Marxism."
1577:
309:
The First Secretaries of provinces, municipalities and autonomous regions:
1395:
873:
1879:
Xun, Zhou (2013). "The Tragedy of Collectivization". In Xun, Zhou (ed.).
338:
276:
1914:
Mao Zedong and China's revolutions : a brief history with documents
821:
330:
318:
299:
65:
production and supported building people's communes nationwide. It led
2074:
544:
272:
248:
209:
to the famous political slogan "people's communes are good (人民公社好)."
76:
Mao giving a speech on Beidaihe Conference in 1958. To his left was
1263:
Rebellions and revolutions : China from the 1800s to the 1980s
679:
Saltationist socialism: Mao Zedong and the Great Leap Forward 1985
419:
50:
1790:
Mao's China and after : a history of the People's Republic
1113:. : Xianggang she hui ke xue jiao yu chu ban you xian gong si.
161:
developed dramatically, which influenced the transition of the
203:
good to establish people's communes, which was paraphrased by
1981:. Zhou, Xun, 1968-. New Haven : Yale University Press. 2012.
1979:
Great famine in China, 1958-1962 : a documentary history
165:
to meet the needs of higher production output and communism.
588:
GROSS VALUE OUTPUT (In thousand million yuan at 1957 prices)
578:
Table 1. Gross Industrial Output in Mainland China, 1957–59
1883:. An Oral History. Yale University Press. pp. 13–65.
221:
In August 1958, Mao met with Nikita Khrushchev in Beijing.
145:
In the first half of 1958, the agricultural sector kept "
2540:
Jian guo yi lai nong ye he zuo hua shi liao hui bian
286:The Responsible members of government departments:
2678:Economic history of the People's Republic of China
1075:(Di 1 ban ed.). : Henan ren min chu ban she.
2417:. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. p. 266.
1881:Forgotten Voices of Mao's Great Famine, 1958-1962
69:to reach its culmination in the next two months.
1509:Mao Zedong nian pu (yi jiu si jiu-yi jiu qi liu)
449:Socialist and Communist Education in Rural Areas
1742:Chen Yun nian pu, yi jiu ling wu--yi jiu jiu wu
1458:"中央编译局-理论研究-当代世界社会主义研究：《关于中苏两国共产党相互关系的历史回顾与思考》"
1434:"老新闻：陈伯达：在毛泽东同志的旗帜下（在北京大学庆祝党成立三十七周年大会上的讲演）1958"
2205:"Do Away with the Ideology of Bourgeois Right"
1701:Goldman, Merle; Schwartz, Benjamin I. (1989).
169:cooperatives and endorsed the winter mergers.
2226:Jian guo yi lai mao ze dong wen gao. di qi ce
996:Ruo gan zhong da jue ce yu shi jian de hui gu
8:
2589:New perspectives on state socialism in China
2472:Jian guo yi lai zhong yao wen xian xuan bian
2442:(Di 1 ban ed.). : Xin hua chu ban she.
2123:Schram, Stuart R. (Stuart Reynolds) (1989).
1300:Jian guo yi lai zhong yao wen xian xuan bian
888:Jian guo yi lai zhong yao wen xian xuan bian
763:Jian guo yi lai zhong yao wen xian xuan bian
593:2. INCREASE OVER PRECEDING YEAR (per cent)
2188:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2158:The Intellectual in Modern Chinese History
2127:. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
1539:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1157:. Sun, Warren. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe.
1026:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
576:
486:, provoked extensive discussion in China.
255:Participants of Beidaihe Conference (1958)
2528:. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
2025:""大跃进"中"拔白旗、插红旗"运动始末--中国共产党新闻--中国共产党新闻网"
1696:
1694:
1692:
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1688:
1686:
1684:
1682:
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1668:
1666:
1664:
1662:
1660:
1658:
1656:
1654:
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1650:
216:
184:, the Chief Editor of the party journal
123:
71:
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1642:
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1532:
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1323:
1148:
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1142:
1140:
1138:
1019:
957:
911:
855:The origins of the Cultural Revolution
786:
490:The Interrelationship among the People
353:Industrial and Agricultural Production
89:Continuously Rising Production Targets
2304:
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1265:. New York: Oxford University Press.
1256:
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1100:
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833:
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757:
755:
753:
751:
749:
747:
1703:The Secret Speeches of Chairman Mao
852:MacFarquhar, Roderick (1974–1997).
45:, a seaside retreat for the CCP in
1824:Jian guo yi lai Mao Zedong wen gao
14:
2415:Communist China in World Politics
810:International Journal of Politics
1916:. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's.
1856:"58年毛泽东忧徐水粮食吃不完 次年百姓吃糠_新闻频道_中华网"
2272:"共和国历史上的柯庆施--中国共产党新闻--中国共产党新闻网"
1507:逄先知; 冯蕙; 陈晋; 中共中央文献硏究室 (2013).
1346:"1958年的并社运动：人民公社化的前奏-往事-中国新闻周刊"
532:The Second Taiwan Strait Crisis
483:Critique of the Gotha Programme
107:Sixty Points on Working Methods
1606:"1958年炮击金门前中国是否告知苏联？--文史--人民网"
1560:The Cambridge history of China
476:capacities in the work force.
435:
110:
102:
54:
25:
1:
2160:. Cambridge, United Kingdom.
1153:Teiwes, Frederick C. (1999).
190:, released the article named
1787:Meisner, Maurice J. (1986).
1211:"还原真实的钱学森:吹捧大跃进 3次论证亩产万斤-搜狐"
2345:Mao Zedong zhuan, 1949-1976
2125:The thought of Mao Tse-Tung
559:Second Taiwan Strait Crisis
454:the editorial published by
141:Emerging Small Cooperatives
41:The conference was held in
2694:
2317:(1): 84–94. Archived from
2096:方海兴 (2008). "共和国历史上的柯庆施".
2067:10.1177/009770047900500102
192:"New Society, New People."
2522:Kirby, E. Stuart (1956).
2402:: 32–33 – via CNKI.
1949:(Di 1 ban ed.). : .
1235:"1958年农村建立人民公社的缘由 - 中国知网"
1073:Qu zhe fa zhan de sui yue
2634:Xiaofeng, Zheng (1992).
2311:""资产阶级法权":一个革命政治语词的历史考察"
1374:Rice, Edward E. (1972).
723:""北戴河会议"如何影响中国--文史--人民网"
661:Five-year Plans of China
415:
397:
306:, Wu Lengxi and others.
2413:Hinton, Harold (1966).
2156:Cheek, Timothy (2015).
1912:Cheek, Timothy (2002).
699:"中央取消北戴河办公制度对当地有何影响-搜狐"
259:The Politburo Members:
163:relations of production
2619:: CS1 maint: others (
2570:: CS1 maint: others (
2502:: CS1 maint: others (
2375:: CS1 maint: others (
2256:: CS1 maint: others (
2009:: CS1 maint: others (
1772:: CS1 maint: others (
1590:: CS1 maint: others (
1330:: CS1 maint: others (
1187:"一九五八年全民大炼钢--党史频道-人民网"
964:: CS1 maint: others (
918:: CS1 maint: others (
793:: CS1 maint: others (
561:(English version) and
426:
222:
129:
80:
67:the Great Leap Forward
1945:Chuntao, Xie (1990).
1191:dangshi.people.com.cn
727:history.people.com.cn
677:Schoenhals, Michael.
423:
220:
212:
127:
75:
1947:Da yue jin kuang lan
1822:Mao, Zedong (1992).
619:1959 (January–June)
159:forces of production
147:launching satellites
2438:Wu, Lengxi (1995).
1261:Gray, Jack (1990).
579:
35:Peitaiho Conference
18:Beidaihe Conference
2673:Great Leap Forward
2212:Marxist Philosophy
1350:story.inewsweek.cn
1071:Cong, Jin (1989).
646:Great Leap Forward
577:
565:(Chinese version)
557:Knowledge (XXG) -
511:Practical Strategy
427:
223:
213:Khrushchev's Visit
130:
81:
2276:cpc.people.com.cn
2203:Zhang, Chunqiao.
2029:cpc.people.com.cn
1610:www.people.com.cn
994:Yibo, Bo (2008).
656:Three Red Banners
629:
628:
398:People's Communes
374:Chaos in Industry
241:Nikita Khrushchev
43:Beidaihe District
2685:
2658:
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2366:
2341:
2330:
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2327:
2326:
2306:
2291:
2290:
2288:
2287:
2278:. Archived from
2268:
2262:
2261:
2255:
2247:
2222:
2216:
2215:
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2200:
2194:
2193:
2187:
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2146:
2120:
2114:
2113:
2093:
2087:
2086:
2050:
2044:
2043:
2041:
2040:
2031:. Archived from
2021:
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2014:
2008:
2000:
1975:
1969:
1968:
1942:
1936:
1935:
1909:
1903:
1902:
1876:
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1777:
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1763:
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1724:
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1625:
1624:
1622:
1621:
1612:. Archived from
1602:
1596:
1595:
1589:
1581:
1556:
1545:
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1538:
1530:
1504:
1477:
1476:
1474:
1473:
1464:. Archived from
1454:
1448:
1447:
1445:
1444:
1430:
1424:
1423:
1421:
1420:
1406:
1400:
1399:
1371:
1365:
1364:
1362:
1361:
1352:. Archived from
1342:
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1335:
1329:
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1296:
1285:
1284:
1258:
1249:
1248:
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1215:history.sohu.com
1207:
1201:
1200:
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1177:
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1132:
1109:Li, Rui (2007).
1106:
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1056:
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1053:
1047:www.marxists.org
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826:
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805:
799:
798:
792:
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759:
742:
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739:
738:
729:. Archived from
719:
713:
712:
710:
709:
703:history.sohu.com
695:
651:People's Commune
580:
437:
347:Zhang Zhongliang
155:China Youth News
112:
104:
56:
47:Qinhuangdao City
36:
27:
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2538:
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2470:
2469:
2465:
2450:
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2432:
2425:
2412:
2411:
2407:
2392:""大跃进"研究中的一个问题"
2389:
2388:
2384:
2367:
2355:
2343:
2342:
2333:
2324:
2322:
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2207:
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2180:
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2121:
2117:
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2038:
2036:
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1977:
1976:
1972:
1957:
1944:
1943:
1939:
1924:
1911:
1910:
1906:
1891:
1878:
1877:
1873:
1864:
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1854:
1853:
1849:
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1820:
1816:
1801:
1786:
1785:
1781:
1764:
1752:
1740:
1739:
1728:
1721:j.ctt1sq5t53.29
1713:
1700:
1699:
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1604:
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1599:
1582:
1570:
1558:
1557:
1548:
1531:
1519:
1506:
1505:
1480:
1471:
1469:
1456:
1455:
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1442:
1440:
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1121:
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1041:Tse-tung, Mao.
1040:
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993:
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956:
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760:
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720:
716:
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705:
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692:
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672:Further reading
642:
571:
534:
513:
492:
473:
471:Bourgeois Right
451:
418:
405:
400:
376:
360:
355:
302:, Wang Heshou,
257:
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143:
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2691:
2689:
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2680:
2675:
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2167:978-1107021419
2166:
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2115:
2088:
2045:
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1987:
1970:
1955:
1937:
1922:
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1889:
1871:
1860:news.china.com
1847:
1832:
1814:
1799:
1779:
1750:
1726:
1711:
1626:
1597:
1568:
1546:
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1449:
1438:blog.boxun.com
1425:
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1337:
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1271:
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1226:
1202:
1178:
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1119:
1096:
1081:
1058:
1033:
1004:
971:
942:
925:
896:
879:
864:
827:
816:(2/3): i–322.
800:
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743:
714:
689:
687:
684:
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682:
673:
670:
669:
668:
663:
658:
653:
648:
641:
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623:
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615:
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591:
590:
589:
584:
570:
567:
533:
530:
512:
509:
491:
488:
472:
469:
456:People's Daily
450:
447:
443:yi da, er gong
417:
416:Mao's Speeches
414:
404:
403:The Resolution
401:
399:
396:
375:
372:
370:regulations."
359:
358:The Communique
356:
354:
351:
256:
253:
214:
211:
206:People's Daily
142:
139:
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13:
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2647:
2641:
2637:
2636:Tao Zhu zhuan
2630:
2627:
2622:
2616:
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2604:
2600:
2594:
2590:
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2582:
2578:
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2549:9787800233135
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2481:9787507303001
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2449:9787501127863
2445:
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2424:9780333087145
2420:
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2356:
2354:9787507315141
2350:
2346:
2340:
2338:
2336:
2332:
2321:on 2017-12-07
2320:
2316:
2312:
2305:
2303:
2301:
2299:
2297:
2293:
2282:on 2018-01-28
2281:
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2235:9787507301014
2231:
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998:. Beijing.
541:Peng Dehuai
315:Li Jingquan
296:Tan Zhenlin
292:Li Xiannian
228:Pavel Yudin
180:On July 1,
175:Pan Fusheng
151:Qian Xuesen
2667:Categories
2645:7500611927
2598:0765600412
2325:2017-11-30
2286:2017-11-30
2134:0521310628
2039:2017-12-06
1865:2017-12-10
1800:0029208807
1751:7507307875
1620:2017-12-06
1569:052124336X
1472:2017-12-06
1443:2017-12-01
1419:2017-12-01
1387:0520021991
1360:2017-12-01
1309:750730227X
1272:0199130760
1244:2017-12-12
1220:2017-12-12
1196:2017-12-05
1164:0765602016
1082:721500614X
1052:2017-12-03
865:0231038410
737:2017-12-12
708:2017-12-12
686:References
666:Mao Zedong
327:Ou Yangqin
311:Ke Qingshi
269:Zhou Enlai
265:Liu Shaoqi
261:Mao Zedong
84:Background
78:Liu Shaoqi
30:Wade–Giles
2615:cite book
2566:cite book
2498:cite book
2371:cite book
2252:cite book
2244:299600320
2184:cite book
2176:908311103
2110:1003-1170
2104:: 35–40.
2083:144907145
2005:cite book
1997:798210569
1768:cite book
1586:cite book
1535:cite book
1527:869764569
1377:Mao's way
1326:cite book
1129:688480117
1022:cite book
1014:232546434
960:cite book
914:cite book
789:cite book
569:Aftermath
304:Zhao Erlu
288:Li Fuchun
182:Chen Boda
20:of 1958 (
2654:29340454
2607:36713022
2558:36341648
2490:28501033
2458:35021340
2363:53981103
2143:16802084
1965:24030387
1932:50562119
1842:32747038
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1760:47910831
1318:28501033
1281:20294239
1173:45729257
1091:24232007
952:22799289
906:28501033
822:27868827
781:28501033
640:See also
339:Wu Zhipu
277:Chen Yun
187:Red Flag
2315:党史研究与教学
1578:2424772
551:world.
331:Lin Tie
319:Tao Zhu
300:Bo Yibo
22:Chinese
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1410:"大事编年"
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545:Ye Fei
273:Zhu De
249:Kinmen
55:暑期办公制度
32::
24::
2396:Ō 京党史
2208:(PDF)
2079:S2CID
2071:JSTOR
1895:JSTOR
1717:JSTOR
818:JSTOR
625:64.6
622:72.9
614:66.2
608:1958
601:70.4
598:1957
583:YEAR
51:Hebei
26:北戴河会议
2650:OCLC
2640:ISBN
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1993:OCLC
1983:ISBN
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902:OCLC
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860:ISBN
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767:ISBN
563:金门炮战
436:政社合一
16:The
2063:doi
438:).
111:反冒进
103:两本账
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