420:
extract transplants occurred for 5 generations of mice, where the last group all showed tumor growth. In 1962, Eddy presented evidence that the oncological agent present in the rhesus monkey kidney cell serum was capable of inducing histologically similar tumors under the same conditions as SV40, and that these tumors showed different properties than the SE polyoma virus, which was the only other biological material known to be capable of inducing tumors in almost all hamsters injected as newborns. Similar to SV40, rhesus monkey kidney cell extracts remained infectious after passage through filters, and similar levels of exposure to diethyl ether, heat, and storage at -70 °C. Eddy also provided evidence that the extracts were inhibited (tumors would not develop) under conditions that also inhibited SV40 tumor development. This includes inhibition in animals that received rhesus monkey kidney cell extracts combined with anti-SV40 rabbit serum. Given the preponderance of evidence, this paper drew the conclusion that the oncological agent in the rhesus monkey kidney cell extracts were identical to the SV40 virus.
394:
leading them to reason that viruses can be causative agents of cancer. The virus can be absorbed onto guinea pig, hamster, or human 0 erythrocytes in the cold-causing hemag- glutination. They also concluded that the polyomavirus was able to cause 20 different types of mouse tumors. Some of the tumors observed were angiomatous sarcomas in Syrian hamsters, sarcomas in rats, and mesenchymal nodules in rabbits. Eddy and
Stewart demonstrated that the virus causes cell necrosis and proliferation in cell culture, that it is highly antigenic, and that it leads to formation of specific antibodies in infected animals whether or not tumors develop. At Eddy's suggestion, the virus was dubbed polyoma, which means many tumors. The virus was named the Stewart-Eddy or SE polyoma virus, after their respective surnames. The results of their collaboration earned them recognition by Time magazine in 1959, featuring a cover story on newly discovered viral agents that cause cancer.
334:, resulting in the monkeys showing polio-like symptoms and paralysis. Eddy found that three of the six batches paralyzed monkeys and therefore contained live polio virus. These findings pointed to a flawed vaccine manufacturing process at Cutter Laboratories. Eddy reported her findings regarding the flawed vaccines to the head of the Laboratory of Biologics Control, William Workman, who did not heed Eddy's warnings; the identified problems with the vaccine was not passed down to the licensing advisory committee. Workman invalidated Eddy's findings and dismissed her from the polio research. She was put back on duty to test on flu vaccines in response. The flawed vaccine was licensed for use to the public. 120,000 doses of polio vaccine that contained improperly inactivated version of the live polio virus was manufactured and produced. Of children who received the vaccine, 40,000 developed
407:
along with
Borgese, published their 1958 paper on a parotid tumor-inducing virus (later named the SE polyomavirus), Gross' earlier work on the parotid virus was not cited. The rivalry came to a peak in 1958, when Jacob Furth attributed the discovery of the parotid tumor virus to both Stewart and Gross. While Gross claimed to be the first discoverer of the virus, Stewart maintained that she and Eddy discovered it independently. When the virus was renamed "SE polyomavirus" for Stewart and Eddy, Gross felt that this diminished his role in the discovery, and he wrote several letters to his peers arguing his point. Later, Eddy would agree, going on to state that, "Sarah was very aggressive. We named it. We probably shouldn't have," and "He (Gross) had that virus before we did. There was no question."
381:, her colleague at the National Institutes of Health, in 1956 while both were working on testing common cold vaccines. Stewart asked Eddy for assistance growing the agent causing parotid tumors in mice. Eddy readily agreed and the two women rapidly worked out the characteristics of the agent that was not referred to as a virus in their publications until 1959. Building on earlier work by
330:. Salk's inactivated polio vaccine was a killed-virus vaccine that was to be used in a massive national vaccination program. Eddy's job was to test the inactivated vaccines from five different companies. After testing the vaccines on 18 monkeys, she and her team discovered that Cutter Laboratories' vaccine contained residual live
297:. As part of the Biologics Control Division, Eddy and her team created the first reliable potency test for flu vaccines so that the quality and effectiveness would be consistent throughout manufacturing. Eddy tested Army flu vaccines for 16 years until she was promoted to chief of flu virus vaccine testing in 1944.
419:
kidney cells used in the creation of the polio vaccine caused tumors in newborn hamsters. Specifically, 109 of 154 hamsters injected with the extract showed signs of tumor growth. The extracts of these neoplasms were transplanted into a new group of mice where similar tumor growth was observed. Tumor
406:
had been researching cancer-causing viruses concurrently and separately, and had been aware of each other's work since at least
December 1952. Both had independently discovered parotid tumors around the same time, and each reprimanded the other for not citing each other's work. When Stewart and Eddy,
423:
This discovery was of both practical and theoretical importance. Practically speaking, the discovery explained the origins of the widespread contamination of a variety of stocks of seed viruses and live polio virus vaccine by SV40 that had been written about in a 1960 paper written by Ben Sweet and
440:
However, a 1999 study is among those that find that "increased incidence of certain cancers among the 98 million persons exposed to contaminated polio vaccine in the U.S." The question of whether SV40 causes cancer in humans remains controversial, however, and the development of improved assays for
436:
undertook a large study, using cancer case information from the institute's SEER database. The published findings from the study were considered of little value in a 2002 review that called for further investigation. Another large study in Sweden examined cancer rates of 700,000 individuals who had
428:
kidney cells for the characteristic cytopathic (cellular) changes that SV40 causes. This finding led Merck to voluntarily withdraw its killed-virus polio vaccine. Theoretically speaking, it added to a growing body of evidence that the monkey, like the mouse, could harbor oncogenic (cancer-causing)
248:
Eddy married Dr. Jerald G. Wooley in 1938, at the age of 35 and the couple worked at
National Institutes of Health as bacteriologists. Eddy and Wooley had two daughters, Bernice and Sarah. Jerald Guy Wooley died at the age of 64, leaving Eddy with their two daughters. Eddy was 52 years old when her
484:
Eddy received an honorary Doctor of
Science degree from Marietta College in 1955, and the United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare awarded her a Superior Service Medal in 1967. She was then honored with the NIH Director's Award in 1977. This is the most prestigious awards ceremony
393:
to be transmitted from animal to animal. Stewart and Eddy continued to test the theory that viral components are able to induce tumors. They tested tumor extracts from both monkey and mouse embryos, and found that the mouse embryos contained a higher quantity of cancer causing viral agents, thus
357:
announced to the press that the national polio vaccination program would be postponed until further notice. Vaccine manufacturers withheld 3.9 million doses of polio vaccine as a result, and the polio vaccine program suspension in the United States was followed by a suspension of similar polio
31:
385:, Stewart and Bernice E. Eddy were the first to describe a polyomavirus. They did so by injecting the mice with ground organs of other mice that were known to contain leukemia, and observing cancerous tumor growth that was unrelated to leukemia. They satisfied
350:, the director of the National Institutes of Health, chaired a meeting to examine Cutter's manufacturing protocols. The meeting was also attended by Eddy and produced no conclusion on what Cutter should do differently in its manufacturing process.
309:
at the
National Institutes of Health in 1952. 1952 was when the polio virus reached its peak in the US with over 59,000 confirmed cases. In 1953, she was awarded the NIH Superior Accomplishment Award for the research on polio vaccines.
358:
vaccination drives in Great
Britain, Sweden, West Germany and South Africa. The Cutter incident was one of the worst pharmaceutical disasters in US history, and exposed several thousand children to live polio virus on vaccination.
437:
received potentially contaminated polio vaccine as late as 1957; the study again revealed no increased cancer incidence between persons who received polio vaccines containing SV40 and those who did not.
346:
of polio in the families and communities of the affected children, resulting in the death of 5 children and 113 others paralyzed with the nastier paralytic poliomyelitis. On April 29, 1955
996:
Eddy, Bernice E.; Borman, Gerald S.; Grubbs, George E.; Young, Ralph D. (May 1962). "Identification of the oncogenic substance in rhesus monkey kidney cell cultures as simian virus 40".
460:, the bacteria that causes leprosy, to gain valuable information for future diagnostic purposes. One study conducted by Eddy included finding new mediums on which to culture
472:
Eddy retired from the
National Institutes of Health in 1973 aged 70. Upon retirement she received several awards, including a Special Citation from the secretary of the
1911:
2000:
1776:
Fisher SG, Weber L, Carbone M. Cancer risk associated with simian virus 40 contaminated polio vaccine. Anticancer Res. 1999 May-Jun;19(3B):2173-80. PMID 10472327.
2010:
377:
in 1954, Eddy had been sidelined for whistleblowing about the presence of live virus in Jonas Salk's inactivated polio vaccine. She was later on approached by
473:
359:
415:
In 1959, Eddy began to conduct safety studies on polio vaccines, which used viruses grown in monkey kidney cells. In 1961, Eddy showed that an extract of
1486:
277:. Most notably, Eddy was responsible for testing different Polio vaccines from 5 different companies while working in the Biologics Control Division.
2005:
1970:
274:
2015:
1254:
1308:"The Cutter Incident Poliomyelitis Following Formaldehyde-Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccination in the United States During the Spring of 1955"
464:
in labs. Another notable study done by Eddy includes the research on certain behaviors of leprosy bacteria in the presence of leukocytes.
258:
152:
160:
1213:
1975:
1409:
1049:
486:
403:
184:
1620:
Studies in
History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences
1919:
1985:
550:"Cross Reactions between the Several Pneumococcic Types and Their Significance in the Preparation of Polyvalent Antiserum"
262:
156:
1166:"To Boldly Remember Where We Have Already Been: Revisiting the Cutter Polio Vaccine Incident during Operation Warp Speed"
821:"An Antigenically Distinct Subtype of Influenza Virus A Which is Virulent for Mice in Primary Passage of Allantoic Fluid"
1281:
1980:
739:"Report of a New Type of Pneumococcus Which Crosses with Types X, XI, XX, XXIX, and XXXI Antipneumococcic Serums"
485:
and it honors the great achievements throughout the
National Institutes of Health. Eddy and her research partner
433:
424:
Maurice Hilleman. Eddy suggested that this contamination could be avoided in the future by screening cultures of
1787:
Institute of Medicine (US) Immunization Safety Review Committee; Stratton K, Almario DA, McCormick MC, editors.
229:
213:
93:
58:
698:"A Study of Cross Reactions among the Pneumococcic Types and Their Application to the Identification of Types"
342:), 51 developed paralytic poliomyelitis—and of these, five children died from polio. The exposures led to an
378:
347:
339:
269:, where she joined the Biologics Control Division, the department responsible for checking the quality of
1616:"Ludwik Gross, Sarah Stewart, and the 1950s discoveries of Gross murine leukemia virus and polyoma virus"
217:
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1995:
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536:
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354:
318:
In 1954, the National Institutes of Health delegated Eddy to perform safety tests for a batch of
294:
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233:
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1165:
1065:
1869:
1822:
1738:
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1643:
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1596:
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Eddy, Bernice E.; Borman, Gerald S.; Kirschstein, Ruth L.; Touchette, Robert H. (1960-11-01).
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591:"A Study of Pneumococcus Typing Serums for the Purpose of Standardizing a Test for Potency"
501:"A Simplified Procedure for Detecting Cross Reactions in Diagnostic Antipneumococcic Serum"
1849:
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374:
1865:
1246:
The Cutter incident: how America's first polio vaccine led to the growing vaccine crisis
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1964:
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1199:
1127:"The road to the biotech revolution: highlights of 100 years of biologics regulation"
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335:
306:
305:
In parallel to her job as chief of flu virus vaccine testing, Eddy began research on
108:
1834:
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540:
365:
stepped down. Sebrell, the director of the National Institutes of Health, resigned.
30:
382:
286:
188:
142:
104:
1354:
820:
844:
665:"Search for Protective, Bacteriophagic and Enzymatic Agents in Pneumonic Sputums"
216:. Eddy and her family: Nathan E. Eddy and Clara C. Eddy (née Griffith), lived in
1940:
1788:
1631:
1802:
1734:
1683:
1668:"Tumors Induced in Hamsters by Injection of Rhesus Monkey Kidney Cell Extracts"
1584:
795:
1818:
1182:
680:
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detection of SV40 in human tissues will be needed to resolve the controversy.
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Immunization Safety Review: SV40 Contamination of Polio Vaccine and Cancer.
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1126:
1066:"Stadtman NIH Couples - history - Office of NIH History and Stetten Museum"
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860:
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35:
Bernice Eddy as a staff member of the Laboratory of Biologics Control, 1938
1244:
476:(HEW). Eddy died on the 24th of May, 1989 due to cardiopulmonary arrest.
1721:
Sweet BH, Hilleman MR (November 1960). "The vacuolating virus, S.V. 40".
343:
270:
138:
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Eddy, B. E.; Borman, G. S.; Berkeley, W. H.; Young, R. D. (1961-05-01).
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In: Foundations in Cancer Research, Academic Press, 1994 pp. 152-153.
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390:
1487:"The Woman Who Revealed the Missing Link Between Viruses and Cancer"
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516:
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husband passed, it was noted that her mother helped her raise them.
220:. She was the oldest of four children. Eddy and her mother moved to
237:
353:
On May 6, 1955, National Institutes of Health Associate Director
338:(a less aggressive form of the disease that does not involve the
192:
454:
In 1937, Eddy and her colleagues studied multiple aspects of
1569:"Neoplasms in Guinea Pigs Infected with SE Polyoma Virus"
1516:
American Journal of Public Health and the Nation's Health
874:
American Journal of Public Health and the Nation's Health
780:"Neoplasms in Guinea Pigs Infected with Se Polyoma Virus"
289:, Eddy was made responsible for checking the quality of
224:
a few years after her father's death. Eddy graduated at
1791:
Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2002.
1510:
Eddy, Bernice E.; Stewart, Sarah E. (November 1959).
1035:
1033:
1031:
1029:
1027:
632:"Hemoglobinophilic Bacilli from Infantile Meningitis"
175:(September 30, 1903 – May 24, 1989) was an American
148:
129:
114:
99:
85:
77:
65:
40:
21:
1214:"Immoral Medical Experiments - and Salk's Vaccine"
1282:"The Networks of Women Behind the Polio Vaccine"
429:viruses that could affect other animal species.
1941:"Biography of Sarah Elizabeth Stewart, MD, PhD"
8:
1306:Nathanson, N.; Langmuir, A. D. (July 1963).
474:Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
1249:. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.
934:Fulghieri, Carl; Bloom, Sharon (May 2014).
929:
927:
925:
923:
921:
389:to demonstrate that polyomavirus can cause
360:Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare
187:are known for their discoveries related to
1803:"Cultivation of Mycobacterium Leprae. III"
737:Chinn, Alice L.; Eddy, Bernice E. (1941).
489:were nominated twice for the Nobel Prize.
29:
18:
1543:
1512:"Characteristics of the SE Polyoma Virus"
1458:
1435:"Characteristics of the SE Polyoma Virus"
1181:
961:
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1854:Archives of Dermatology and Syphilology
917:
819:Ward, T. G.; Eddy, B. E. (1950-10-27).
275:Federal government of the United States
208:Eddy was born in 1903 into a family of
2001:20th-century American women scientists
1765:The Origins of Small DNA Tumor Viruses
1480:
1478:
1105:Alliance for Human Research Protection
1661:
1659:
1657:
1433:Eddy BE, Stewart SE (November 1959).
1355:"The Cutter Incident, 50 Years Later"
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7:
2011:People from Glen Dale, West Virginia
1866:10.1001/archderm.1933.01450040803010
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253:National Institutes of Health career
1044:. Infobase Publishing. p. 78.
1042:A to Z of Women in Science and Math
259:United States Public Health Service
153:United States Public Health Service
16:American epidemiologist (1864–1916)
1573:The Journal of Infectious Diseases
1324:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a120328
784:The Journal of Infectious Diseases
261:. In 1935 Eddy transferred to the
161:American Public Health Association
14:
1807:Experimental Biology and Medicine
1672:Experimental Biology and Medicine
1614:Morgan, Gregory J. (2014-12-01).
1439:Am J Public Health Nations Health
1164:Moir, Nathaniel L. (2020-12-04).
228:in 1924. She went on to study at
870:"Virus and Rickettsial Diseases"
2006:University of Cincinnati alumni
1359:New England Journal of Medicine
1101:"Bernice Eddy, PhD (1903–1989)"
778:Eddy, Bernice (December 1960).
1971:American women epidemiologists
669:Journal of Infectious Diseases
636:Journal of Infectious Diseases
1:
2016:Scientists from West Virginia
1353:Offit, Paul A. (2005-04-07).
263:National Institutes of Health
157:National Institutes of Health
1918:. 2018-10-17. Archived from
1848:DENNEY, O. E. (1933-05-01).
1216:. 2013-03-10. Archived from
1125:Bren, Linda (January 2006).
1010:10.1016/0042-6822(62)90082-X
940:Emerging Infectious Diseases
845:10.1126/science.112.2913.501
1801:Soule, M. H. (1934-06-01).
1632:10.1016/j.shpsc.2014.07.013
1312:American Journal of Hygiene
236:in 1925 and a bacteriology
199:Personal life and education
2032:
1735:10.3181/00379727-105-26128
1684:10.3181/00379727-107-26576
1170:Journal of Applied History
663:Eddy, B. E. (1928-05-01).
630:Eddy, B. E. (1933-03-01).
320:inactivated polio vaccines
1916:Office of Human Resources
1819:10.3181/00379727-31-7500p
1723:Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med
1183:10.1163/25895893-bja10009
696:Eddy, Bernice E. (1944).
589:Eddy, Bernice E. (1940).
548:Eddy, Bernice E. (1944).
499:Eddy, Bernice E. (1944).
434:National Cancer Institute
166:
122:
28:
1976:American epidemiologists
1585:10.1093/infdis/107.3.361
1400:Shorter, Edward (1987).
886:10.2105/AJPH.41.9.1133-b
796:10.1093/infdis/107.3.361
257:In 1930 Eddy joined the
230:University of Cincinnati
214:Glen Dale, West Virginia
94:University of Cincinnati
59:Glen Dale, West Virginia
1912:"NIH Director's Awards"
1528:10.2105/ajph.49.11.1486
1451:10.2105/ajph.49.11.1486
1404:. New York: Doubleday.
1243:Offit, Paul A. (2007).
681:10.1093/infdis/42.5.449
648:10.1093/infdis/52.2.242
379:Sarah Elizabeth Stewart
185:Sarah Elizabeth Stewart
953:10.3201/eid2005.131876
868:Eddy, Bernice (1951).
445:Other notable research
340:central nervous system
336:abortive poliomyelitis
301:Polio vaccine research
1888:"Hall of Honor: 2000"
743:Public Health Reports
702:Public Health Reports
595:Public Health Reports
554:Public Health Reports
505:Public Health Reports
369:Polyomavirus research
218:Auburn, West Virginia
103:first describing the
1986:American virologists
1491:Smithsonian Magazine
1040:Yount, Lisa (2007).
462:Mycobacterium leprae
457:Mycobacterium leprae
398:Ludwik Gross rivalry
1371:10.1056/NEJMp048180
1288:. 17 September 2020
837:1950Sci...112..501W
411:SV40 virus research
328:Cutter Laboratories
281:Flu vaccine testing
273:distributed by the
1945:School of Medicine
1402:The health century
814:– via JSTOR.
355:Leonard A. Scheele
295:United States Army
291:influenza vaccines
267:Bethesda, Maryland
55:September 30, 1903
1981:Women virologists
1522:(11): 1486–1492.
1445:(11): 1486–1492.
1365:(14): 1411–1412.
1256:978-0-300-12605-1
831:(2913): 501–503.
511:(32): 1041–1045.
493:Published studies
480:Awards and honors
402:Ludwik Gross and
387:Koch's postulates
170:
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124:Scientific career
118:Dr. Jerald Wooley
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1892:Marietta College
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1485:McNeill, Leila.
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880:(9): 1133–1134.
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659:
626:
585:
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487:Sarah E. Stewart
468:Retirement/death
450:Leprosy research
363:Oveta Culp Hobby
226:Marietta College
134:Medical research
90:Marietta College
72:
54:
52:
33:
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714:10.2307/4584838
708:(14): 451–468.
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607:10.2307/4583194
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560:(15): 485–499.
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517:10.2307/4584990
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375:Cutter incident
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