258:
281:
long enough to genetically differentiate in response to these thermal conditions. The relationship between stature and mean annual temperature can be explained by modeling any shape that is increasing in any dimension. As you increase the height of a shape, its surface area-to-volume ratio will decrease. Modeling a person's trunk and limbs as cylinders shows a 17% decrease in surface area-to-volume ratio from a person who is five feet tall to a person who is six feet tall even at the same
2558:
31:
371:, effects of body size on vulnerability to predation, and resource availability. For example, if an organism is adapted to tolerate cold temperatures, it may also tolerate periods of food shortage, due to correlation between cold temperature and food scarcity. A larger organism can rely on its greater fat stores to provide the energy needed for survival as well being able to procreate for longer periods.
121:
57:, populations and species of larger size are found in colder environments, while populations and species of smaller size are found in warmer regions. The rule derives from the relationship between size in linear dimensions meaning that both height and volume will increase in colder environments. Bergmann's rule only describes the overall size of the animals, but does not include body proportions like
183:. These populations show a shorter stature and smaller body size due to an adaptation to hotter and more humid environments. With elevated environmental humidity, evaporative cooling (sweating) is a less effective way to dissipate body heat, but a higher surface area to volume ratio should provide a slight advantage through passive convective heat loss.
280:
Thus, the higher surface area-to-volume ratio of smaller animals in hot and dry climates facilitates heat loss through the skin and helps cool the body. When analyzing
Bergmann's Rule in the field, groups of populations being studied are of different thermal environments, and also have been separated
366:
Because many factors can affect body size, there are many critics of
Bergmann's rule. Some believe that latitude itself is a poor predictor of body mass. Examples of other selective factors that may contribute to body mass changes are the size of food items available, effects of body size on success
99:
Larger-bodied animals tend to conform more closely to
Bergmann's rule than smaller-bodied animals, at least up to certain latitudes. This perhaps reflects a reduced ability to avoid stressful environments, such as by burrowing. In addition to being a general pattern across space, Bergmann's rule has
374:
Resource availability is a major constraint on the overall success of many organisms. Resource scarcity can limit the total number of organisms in a habitat, and over time can also cause organisms to adapt by becoming smaller in body size. Resource availability thus becomes a modifying restraint on
336:
found that predation was reduced in polar areas relative to temperate latitudes (the same trend was not found in deep water, where predation is also reduced, or in comparison of tropical and temperate brachiopods, perhaps because tropical brachiopods have evolved to smaller sizes to successfully
331:
is observed in some of the same groups, possibly for the same reasons. An additional factor in aquatic species may be the greater dissolved oxygen concentration at lower temperature. This view is supported by the reduced size of crustaceans in high-altitude lakes. A further possible influence on
191:
A 2019 study of changes in the morphology of migratory birds used bodies of birds which had collided with buildings in
Chicago from 1978 to 2016. The length of birds' lower leg bones (an indicator of body size) shortened by an average of 2.4% and their wings lengthened by 1.3%. A similar study
1123:
64:
Although originally formulated in relation to species within a genus, it has often been recast in relation to populations within a species. It is also often cast in relation to latitude. It is possible that the rule also applies to some plants, such as
100:
been reported in populations over historical and evolutionary time when exposed to varying thermal regimes. In particular, temporary, reversible dwarfing of mammals has been noted during two relatively brief upward excursions in temperature during the
362:
claimed
Bergmann's rule to be false: the correlation with temperature is spurious; instead, Geist found that body size is proportional to the duration of the annual productivity pulse, or food availability per animal during the growing season.
349:
proposed an extension of
Bergmann's rule. Hesse's rule, also known as the heartâweight rule, states that species inhabiting colder climates have a larger heart in relation to body weight than closely related species inhabiting warmer climates.
1281:
Jirinec, Vitek; Burner, Ryan C.; Amaral, Bruna R.; BierregaardJr, Richard O.; Fernåndez-Arellano, Gilberto; Hernåndez-Palma, Angélica; Johnson, Erik I.; Lovejoy, Thomas E.; Powell, Luke L.; Rutt, Cameron L.; Wolfe, Jared D. (2021).
153:. According to Marshall T. Newman in 1953, Native American populations are generally consistent with Bergmann's rule although the cold climate and small body size combination of the Eastern Inuit, Canoe Nation,
390:
tended to get smaller during colder and drier intervals. Further, a 2024 study found the size of dinosaurs did not increase at northern Arctic latitudes, and that the rule was "only applicable to a subset of
248:
grow in a distributional area in which average precipitation tends to diminish at higher latitudes, and their body size is not conditioned by climatic variables, this could suggest a possible
Bergmann trend.
1228:
Weeks, B. C.; Willard, D. E.; Zimova, M.; Ellis, A. A.; Witynski, M. L.; Hennen, M.; Winger, B. M. (2019). "Shared morphological consequences of global warming in North
American migratory birds".
1055:
Holliday, Trenton W.; Hilton, Charles E. (June 2010). "Body proportions of circumpolar peoples as evidenced from skeletal data: Ipiutak and Tigara (Point Hope) versus Kodiak Island Inuit".
794:
Huey, Raymond B.; Gilchrist, George W.; Carlson, Margen L.; Berrigan, David; Serra, Luıs (January 14, 2000). "Rapid
Evolution of a Geographic Cline in Size in an Introduced Fly".
238:), once described as "a botanical Bergmann trend", has instead been shown to depend on rainfall, particularly winter precipitation, and not temperature. Members of the genus
949:
149:, are on average heavier than populations from mid-latitudes, consistent with Bergmann's rule. They also tend to have shorter limbs and broader trunks, consistent with
179:
Human populations also show a decrease in stature with an increase in mean annual temperature. Bergmann's rule holds for
Africans with the pygmy phenotype and other
653:
Millien, Virginie; Lyons, S. Kathleen; Olson, Link; et al. (May 23, 2006). "Ecotypic variation in the context of global climate change: Revisiting the rules".
749:
Smith, Felia A.; Betancourt, Julio L.; Brown, James H. (December 22, 1995). "Evolution of Body Size in the Woodrat over the Past 25,000 Years of Climate Change".
300:, both of which lead to an increase in maximum body size (continued growth throughout life is characteristic of crustaceans). The size trend has been observed in
995:
Sand, HÄkan K.; Cederlund, Göran R.; Danell, Kjell (June 1995). "Geographical and latitudinal variation in growth patterns and adult body size of Swedish moose (
208:
Bergmann's rule has been reported to be vaguely followed by female crocodilians. However, for turtles or lizards the rule's validity has not been supported.
196:. Between 1979 and 2019, all study species have gotten smaller on average, by up to 2% per decade. The morphological changes are regarded as resulting from
2230:
442:. Ostrava, Czech Republic: VSB â Technical University of Ostrava, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Applied Mechanics. pp. 337â338.
2085:
82:, who described the pattern in 1847, although he was not the first to notice it. Bergmann's rule is most often applied to mammals and birds which are
1870:
124:
Bergmann's rule is an ecologic principle stating that body mass increases with colder climate. Data illustrating such a relationship are shown for
1374:"Crocodilians, Which Have Walked Earth for Nearly 100 Million Years, Are Survivors of Mass Extinctions and May Be Able to Adapt to Climate Change"
1373:
1563:
Moles, A. T.; Warton, D. I.; Warman, L.; Swenson, N. G.; Laffan, S. W.; Zanne, A. E.; Pitman, A.; Hemmings, F. A.; Leishman, M. R. (2009-09-01).
447:
277:. Warmer climates impose the opposite problem: body heat generated by metabolism needs to be dissipated quickly rather than stored within.
1400:"Do turtles follow the rules? Latitudinal gradients in species richness, body size, and geographic range area of the world's turtles"
2141:
2125:
2303:
904:
Secord, R.; Bloch, J.I.; Chester, S.G.B.; Boyer, D.M.; Wood, A.R.; Wing, S.L.; Kraus, M.J.; McInerney, F.A.; Krigbaum, J. (2012).
1093:
Newman, Marshall T. (August 1953). "The Application of Ecological Rules to the Racial Anthropology of the Aboriginal New World".
244:
are larger in cooler environments, as their stem diameter increases with altitude and particularly with latitude. However, since
105:
2407:
Genes increase in frequency when relatedness of recipient to actor times benefit to recipient exceeds reproductive cost to actor
1203:
2614:
2532:
1341:"First evidence for a latitudinal body mass effect in extant Crocodylia and the relationships of their reproductive characters"
905:
292:, it has been proposed that an increase in size with latitude is observed because decreasing temperature results in increased
2223:
971:
2609:
1825:
270:
168:
runs contrary to the expectations of Bergmann's rule. Newman contends that Bergmann's rule holds for the populations of
1686:
Donati, D.; Bianchi, C.; Pezzi, G.; Conte, L.; Hofer, A.; Chiarucci, A. (2016). "Biogeography and ecology of the genus
1901:
1449:"The evolution of body size under environmental gradients in ectotherms: why should Bergmann's rule apply to lizards?"
269:
The earliest explanation, given by Bergmann when originally formulating the rule, is that larger animals have a lower
257:
2432:
1728:
Brown, James H.; Lee, Anthony K. (January 1969). "Bergmann's Rule and Climatic Adaptation in Woodrats (Neotoma)".
2572:
2437:
The correlation between the size of an animal and its diet quality; larger animals can consume lower quality diet
2216:
79:
2542:
1162:
109:
2477:
Sexual size dimorphism increases with size when males are larger, decreases with size when females are larger
1095:
602:
469:
1604:
Niering, W.A.; Whittaker, R.H.; Lowe, C.H. (1963). "The saguaro: a population in relation to environment".
600:
Ashton, Kyle G.; Tracy, Mark C.; Queiroz, Alan de (October 2000). "Is Bergmann's Rule Valid for Mammals?".
975:
273:
than smaller animals, so they radiate less body heat per unit of mass, and therefore stay warmer in cold
192:
published in 2021 used measurements of 77 nonmigratory bird species captured live for banding in lowland
1878:
698:
Freckleton, Robert P.; Harvey, Paul H.; Pagel, Mark (2003). "Bergmann's rule and body size in mammals".
92:
2497:
A population at limit of tolerance in one aspect is vulnerable to small differences in any other aspect
2487:
Groups evolve from character variation in primitive species to a fixed character state in advanced ones
2070:
1981:
378:
Some examinations of the fossil record have found contradictions to the rule. For example, during the
2604:
2333:
2179:
1946:
1841:
1613:
1576:
1519:
1460:
1411:
1295:
1010:
917:
858:
803:
760:
664:
563:
478:
50:
1929:
2452:
1730:
906:"Evolution of the Earliest Horses Driven by Climate Change in the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum"
2293:
2011:
1962:
1747:
1707:
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1545:
1263:
1034:
941:
827:
776:
731:
715:
635:
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494:
328:
234:
173:
2557:
2462:
2392:
1284:"Morphological consequences of climate change for resident birds in intact Amazonian rainforest"
519:
Timofeev, S. F. (2001). "Bergmann's Principle and Deep-Water Gigantism in Marine Crustaceans".
96:. While Bergmann's rule appears to hold true for many mammals and birds, there are exceptions.
2512:
2492:
2427:
In cladistics, the most primitive species are found in earliest, central, part of group's area
2382:
2347:
2313:
2263:
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2121:
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2003:
1804:
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1629:
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1429:
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819:
751:
723:
680:
627:
443:
193:
2472:
2442:
2412:
2372:
2351:
2343:
2239:
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2065:
1995:
1986:
1954:
1910:
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1739:
1699:
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1621:
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1527:
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1311:
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486:
404:
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1937:
655:
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30:
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165:
150:
58:
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1950:
1845:
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921:
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807:
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482:
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2037:
1799:
1774:
1483:
1448:
1316:
1283:
881:
846:
359:
332:
invertebrates is reduced predation pressure at high latitude. A study of shallow water
327:, both in comparisons of related species as well as within widely distributed species.
293:
197:
1928:
Clauss, Marcus; Dittmann, Marei T.; MĂŒller, Dennis W. H.; et al. (October 2013).
2598:
2580:
2402:
2015:
1999:
1958:
1664:
1589:
1564:
1549:
1267:
780:
676:
639:
575:
490:
419:
346:
180:
162:
1966:
1711:
1672:
831:
735:
583:
540:
498:
465:"Broad-scale patterns of body size in squamate reptiles of Europe and North America"
2422:
1038:
945:
409:
395:
animals" with regard to temperature when all other climatic variables are ignored.
383:
200:, and may demonstrate an example of evolutionary change following Bergmann's rule.
142:
27:
Biological rule stating that larger size organisms are found in colder environments
1703:
1108:
772:
2115:
815:
2537:
Embryos start from a common form and develop into increasingly specialised forms
1625:
1357:
1340:
392:
379:
154:
146:
120:
87:
1982:"Were P leistocene hippopotamuses exposed to climate-driven body size changes?"
851:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
464:
17:
719:
623:
532:
463:
Olalla-TĂĄrraga, Miguel Ă.; RodrĂguez, Miguel Ă.; Hawkins, Bradford A. (2006).
333:
324:
316:
301:
289:
240:
67:
2447:
Inverse relationship between water temperature and no. of fin rays, vertebrae
2007:
1404:
Journal of Experimental Zoology Part B: Molecular and Developmental Evolution
1339:
Lakin, R.J.; Barrett, P.M.; Stevenson, C.; Thomas, R.J.; Wills, M.A. (2020).
847:"Climate change, body size evolution, and Cope's rule in deep-sea ostracodes"
2155:
2136:
2098:
1877:. Texas Center for Climate Studies, Texas A&M University. Archived from
1204:"North American Birds Are Shrinking, Likely a Result of the Warming Climate"
1139:
1001:
929:
871:
414:
297:
229:
101:
83:
2201:
2106:
1808:
1790:
1759:
1633:
1492:
1473:
1433:
1325:
1307:
1259:
1147:
1076:
1030:
937:
890:
823:
727:
684:
631:
86:, but some researchers have also found evidence for the rule in studies of
1250:
2547:
Parts in an organism become reduced in number and specialized in function
2357:
Small species get larger, large species smaller, after colonizing islands
1779:
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences
554:
Meiri, S.; Dayan, T. (2003-03-20). "On the validity of Bergmann's rule".
368:
308:
305:
2584:
Large ectothermic animals more easily maintain constant body temperature
1540:
1424:
1399:
1751:
1647:
Drezner, T. D. (2003-03-01). "Revisiting Bergmann's rule for saguaros (
1531:
1068:
1022:
312:
274:
262:
217:
169:
75:
35:
1854:
1829:
1690:(Cactaceae): environmental controls of taxa richness and morphology".
1241:
2192:
2165:
1507:
387:
2066:"Ăber die VerhĂ€ltnisse der WĂ€rmeökonomie der Thiere zu ihrer Grösse"
1914:
1875:
Glossary of Oceanography and the Related Geosciences with References
1743:
2517:
No. of eggs of benthic marine invertebrates decreases with latitude
2208:
2137:"Morphological adaptation to climate in modern and fossil hominids"
1930:"BergmannâČs rule in mammals: A cross-species interspecific pattern"
711:
615:
320:
256:
158:
138:
125:
54:
39:
2166:"Geographical distribution of the body-weight/body-surface ratio"
228:
Bergmann's rule cannot generally be applied to plants. Regarding
1651:(Engelm.) Britt. and Rose): stem diameter patterns over space".
2387:
Hybrid sexes that are absent, rare, or sterile, are heterogamic
2212:
2328:
Insect social parasites are often in same genus as their hosts
1830:"Latitudinal and depth gradients in marine predation pressure"
1899:
Geist, Valerius (April 1987). "Bergmann's rule is invalid".
2527:
Probability of extinction of a group is constant over time
2507:
The top of an animals coloration is darker than the bottom
1447:
Pincheira-Donoso, D.; Hodgson, D.J.; Tregenza, T. (2008).
1398:
Angielczyk, K.D.; Burroughs, R.W.; Feldman, C.R. (2015).
53:
that states that, within a broadly distributed taxonomic
2457:
Birds lay only as many eggs as they can provide food for
1161:
Dominy, Nathaniel; Perry, George (February 25, 2009).
1980:
Mazza, Paul P. A.; Bertini, Adele (24 October 2012).
1775:"Reduced oxygen at high altitude limits maximum size"
216:
Evidence of Bergmann's rule has been found in marine
2083:
Roberts DF (1953). "Body weight, race and climate".
2565:
2246:
972:"Global warming led to dwarfism in mammals â twice"
521:
Biology Bulletin of the Russian Academy of Sciences
2036:Grimes, Marmian; Fairbanks, University of Alaska.
2417:An animals metabolic rate decreases with its size
137:Human populations near the poles, including the
2576:Where genetics opposes environment as a factor
2338:Host and parasite phylogenies become congruent
514:
512:
510:
508:
2224:
1820:
1818:
1723:
1721:
845:Hunt, Gene; Roy, Kaustuv (January 31, 2006).
8:
2377:Lighter coloration in colder, drier climates
1508:"Testing Bergmann's Rule in marine copepods"
595:
593:
2038:"Dinosaur study challenges Bergmann's rule"
74:The rule is named after nineteenth century
2397:Parasites co-vary in size with their hosts
2231:
2217:
2209:
2120:(2nd ed.). Menlo Park, CA: Cummings.
1506:Campbell, M.D.; et al. (2021-08-21).
2467:Latitudinal range increases with latitude
2191:
2154:
2086:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
1853:
1798:
1588:
1539:
1482:
1472:
1423:
1356:
1345:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
1315:
1249:
1128:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
1088:
1086:
1057:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
1050:
1048:
880:
870:
1178:"Birds 'shrinking' as the climate warms"
1163:"Evolution of the human pygmy phenotype"
119:
29:
430:
345:In 1937 German zoologist and ecologist
2308:Loss of complex traits is irreversible
265:from northern and southern populations
2258:Shorter appendages in colder climates
7:
172:, but it does not hold for those of
2367:Complete competitors cannot coexist
2268:Extra limbs mirror their neighbours
2318:Parasites co-vary with their hosts
1773:Peck, L. S.; Chapelle, G. (2003).
1202:Liao, Kristine (4 December 2019).
970:Erickson, Jim (November 1, 2013).
25:
2298:Larger bodies in deep-sea animals
2142:Yearbook of Physical Anthropology
2025:– via Wiley Online Library.
1869:Baum, Steven (January 20, 1997).
1565:"Global patterns in plant height"
2556:
2278:Larger bodies in colder climates
2000:10.1111/j.1502-3885.2012.00285.x
1959:10.1111/j.1600-0706.2013.00463.x
1665:10.1046/j.1365-2699.2003.00834.x
1590:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2009.01526.x
677:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2006.00928.x
576:10.1046/j.1365-2699.2003.00837.x
491:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2006.01435.x
106:Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum
1834:Global Ecology and Biogeography
1124:"Body weight, race and climate"
952:from the original on 2019-04-09
261:Bergmann's rule illustrated by
1372:Georgiou, A. (12 March 2020).
1176:Vlamis, K. (4 December 2019).
1:
2117:Climate and Human Variability
1704:10.1080/14772000.2016.1251504
1109:10.1525/aa.1953.55.3.02a00020
773:10.1126/science.270.5244.2012
1692:Systematics and Biodiversity
816:10.1126/science.287.5451.308
271:surface area to volume ratio
232:, the case of the saguaro (
2288:Bodies get larger over time
1902:Canadian Journal of Zoology
1626:10.1126/science.142.3588.15
2631:
2573:Countergradient variation
2554:
2423:Hennig's progression rule
1358:10.1093/biolinnean/blz208
438:FRYDRĂĆ EK, Karel (2019).
128:(Eurasian elk) in Sweden.
90:species, such as the ant
1453:BMC Evolutionary Biology
110:Eocene Thermal Maximum 2
2156:10.1002/ajpa.1330370605
2099:10.1002/ajpa.1330110404
2064:Bergmann, Carl (1847).
1785:(suppl. 2): S166âS167.
1653:Journal of Biogeography
1140:10.1002/ajpa.1330110404
1096:American Anthropologist
930:10.1126/science.1213859
872:10.1073/pnas.0510550103
700:The American Naturalist
603:The American Naturalist
556:Journal of Biogeography
533:10.1023/A:1012336823275
470:Journal of Biogeography
2615:Laws of thermodynamics
1828:; Peck, L. S. (2016).
1791:10.1098/rsbl.2003.0054
1474:10.1186/1471-2148-8-68
1308:10.1126/sciadv.abk1743
976:University of Michigan
266:
129:
43:
2433:JarmanâBell principle
283:body mass index (BMI)
260:
123:
93:Leptothorax acervorum
33:
2164:Schreider E (1950).
1881:on December 22, 2010
1122:Roberts, DF (1954).
340:
51:ecogeographical rule
2610:Ecogeographic rules
2184:1950Natur.165..286S
2114:Roberts DF (1978).
1951:2013Oikos.122.1465C
1846:2016GloEB..25..670H
1618:1963Sci...142...15N
1581:2009JEcol..97..923M
1524:2021Ecogr..44.1283C
1465:2008BMCEE...8...68P
1425:10.1002/jez.b.22602
1416:2015JEZB..324..270A
1300:2021SciA....7.1743J
1015:1995Oecol.102..433S
922:2012Sci...335..959S
863:2006PNAS..103.1347H
808:2000Sci...287..308H
765:1995Sci...270.2012S
759:(5244): 2012â2014.
669:2006EcolL...9..853M
568:2003JBiog..30..331M
483:2006JBiog..33..781O
296:size and increased
2493:Schmalhausen's law
2294:Deep-sea gigantism
1649:Carnegiea gigantea
1569:Journal of Ecology
1532:10.1111/ecog.05545
1069:10.1002/ajpa.21226
1023:10.1007/BF00341355
337:evade predation).
329:Deep-sea gigantism
267:
235:Carnegiea gigantea
174:sub-Saharan Africa
130:
44:
42:(mass m, height h)
34:Bergmann's rule -
2592:
2591:
2348:Insular gigantism
2334:Fahrenholz's rule
2071:Göttinger Studien
1945:(10): 1465â1472.
1855:10.1111/geb.12444
1242:10.1111/ele.13434
916:(6071): 959â962.
802:(5451): 308â309.
449:978-80-248-4263-9
375:Bergmann's Rule.
358:In a 1986 study,
323:, and planktonic
194:Amazon rainforest
16:(Redirected from
2622:
2585:
2577:
2560:
2549:
2548:
2539:
2538:
2529:
2528:
2519:
2518:
2509:
2508:
2499:
2498:
2489:
2488:
2479:
2478:
2469:
2468:
2459:
2458:
2453:Lack's principle
2449:
2448:
2439:
2438:
2429:
2428:
2419:
2418:
2409:
2408:
2399:
2398:
2389:
2388:
2379:
2378:
2369:
2368:
2359:
2358:
2352:Insular dwarfism
2340:
2339:
2330:
2329:
2320:
2319:
2310:
2309:
2300:
2299:
2290:
2289:
2280:
2279:
2270:
2269:
2260:
2259:
2240:Biological rules
2233:
2226:
2219:
2210:
2205:
2195:
2193:10.1038/165286b0
2160:
2158:
2135:Ruff CB (1994).
2131:
2110:
2079:
2052:
2051:
2049:
2048:
2033:
2027:
2026:
2024:
2022:
1977:
1971:
1970:
1934:
1925:
1919:
1918:
1909:(4): 1035â1038.
1896:
1890:
1889:
1887:
1886:
1866:
1860:
1859:
1857:
1822:
1813:
1812:
1802:
1770:
1764:
1763:
1725:
1716:
1715:
1683:
1677:
1676:
1644:
1638:
1637:
1601:
1595:
1594:
1592:
1560:
1554:
1553:
1543:
1518:(9): 1283â1295.
1503:
1497:
1496:
1486:
1476:
1444:
1438:
1437:
1427:
1395:
1389:
1388:
1386:
1385:
1369:
1363:
1362:
1360:
1336:
1330:
1329:
1319:
1294:(46): eabk1743.
1288:Science Advances
1278:
1272:
1271:
1253:
1225:
1219:
1218:
1216:
1214:
1199:
1193:
1192:
1190:
1188:
1173:
1167:
1166:
1158:
1152:
1151:
1119:
1113:
1112:
1090:
1081:
1080:
1052:
1043:
1042:
992:
986:
985:
983:
982:
967:
961:
960:
958:
957:
901:
895:
894:
884:
874:
857:(5): 1347â1352.
842:
836:
835:
791:
785:
784:
746:
740:
739:
695:
689:
688:
650:
644:
643:
597:
588:
587:
551:
545:
544:
516:
503:
502:
460:
454:
453:
435:
405:Animal migration
21:
2630:
2629:
2625:
2624:
2623:
2621:
2620:
2619:
2595:
2594:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2575:
2561:
2552:
2546:
2545:
2543:Williston's law
2536:
2535:
2533:von Baer's laws
2526:
2525:
2523:Van Valen's law
2516:
2515:
2506:
2505:
2496:
2495:
2486:
2485:
2476:
2475:
2466:
2465:
2463:Rapoport's rule
2456:
2455:
2446:
2445:
2436:
2435:
2426:
2425:
2416:
2415:
2406:
2405:
2403:Hamilton's rule
2396:
2395:
2393:Harrison's rule
2386:
2385:
2376:
2375:
2366:
2365:
2356:
2355:
2337:
2336:
2327:
2326:
2317:
2316:
2307:
2306:
2297:
2296:
2287:
2286:
2277:
2276:
2274:Bergmann's rule
2267:
2266:
2257:
2256:
2242:
2237:
2163:
2134:
2128:
2113:
2082:
2063:
2060:
2055:
2046:
2044:
2035:
2034:
2030:
2020:
2018:
1979:
1978:
1974:
1932:
1927:
1926:
1922:
1915:10.1139/z87-164
1898:
1897:
1893:
1884:
1882:
1868:
1867:
1863:
1824:
1823:
1816:
1772:
1771:
1767:
1744:10.2307/2406795
1727:
1726:
1719:
1685:
1684:
1680:
1646:
1645:
1641:
1612:(3588): 15â23.
1603:
1602:
1598:
1562:
1561:
1557:
1505:
1504:
1500:
1446:
1445:
1441:
1397:
1396:
1392:
1383:
1381:
1371:
1370:
1366:
1338:
1337:
1333:
1280:
1279:
1275:
1230:Ecology Letters
1227:
1226:
1222:
1212:
1210:
1201:
1200:
1196:
1186:
1184:
1175:
1174:
1170:
1160:
1159:
1155:
1121:
1120:
1116:
1092:
1091:
1084:
1054:
1053:
1046:
994:
993:
989:
980:
978:
969:
968:
964:
955:
953:
903:
902:
898:
844:
843:
839:
793:
792:
788:
748:
747:
743:
697:
696:
692:
656:Ecology Letters
652:
651:
647:
599:
598:
591:
553:
552:
548:
518:
517:
506:
462:
461:
457:
450:
437:
436:
432:
428:
401:
356:
343:
255:
226:
214:
206:
189:
135:
118:
47:Bergmann's rule
28:
23:
22:
18:Bergmannâs rule
15:
12:
11:
5:
2628:
2626:
2618:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2597:
2596:
2590:
2589:
2587:
2586:
2578:
2569:
2567:
2563:
2562:
2555:
2553:
2551:
2550:
2540:
2530:
2520:
2513:Thorson's rule
2510:
2500:
2490:
2480:
2470:
2460:
2450:
2440:
2430:
2420:
2410:
2400:
2390:
2383:Haldane's rule
2380:
2370:
2360:
2341:
2331:
2321:
2314:Eichler's rule
2311:
2301:
2291:
2281:
2271:
2264:Bateson's rule
2261:
2250:
2248:
2244:
2243:
2238:
2236:
2235:
2228:
2221:
2213:
2207:
2206:
2161:
2132:
2126:
2111:
2093:(4): 533â558.
2080:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2053:
2028:
1994:(1): 194â209.
1972:
1920:
1891:
1871:"Hesse's rule"
1861:
1840:(6): 670â678.
1814:
1765:
1738:(2): 329â338.
1717:
1698:(4): 361â371.
1678:
1659:(3): 353â359.
1639:
1596:
1575:(5): 923â932.
1555:
1498:
1439:
1410:(3): 270â294.
1390:
1364:
1351:(4): 875â887.
1331:
1273:
1251:2027.42/153188
1236:(2): 316â325.
1220:
1194:
1168:
1153:
1134:(4): 533â558.
1114:
1103:(3): 311â327.
1082:
1063:(2): 287â302.
1044:
1009:(4): 433â442.
987:
962:
896:
837:
786:
741:
720:10.1086/374346
712:10.1086/374346
706:(5): 821â825.
690:
663:(7): 853â869.
645:
624:10.1086/303400
616:10.1086/303400
610:(4): 390â415.
589:
562:(3): 331â351.
546:
527:(6): 646â650.
504:
477:(5): 781â793.
455:
448:
440:Biomechanika 1
429:
427:
424:
423:
422:
417:
412:
407:
400:
397:
384:hippopotamuses
360:Valerius Geist
355:
352:
342:
339:
254:
251:
225:
222:
213:
210:
205:
202:
198:global warming
188:
185:
134:
131:
117:
114:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2627:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2602:
2600:
2582:
2581:Gigantothermy
2579:
2574:
2571:
2570:
2568:
2564:
2559:
2544:
2541:
2534:
2531:
2524:
2521:
2514:
2511:
2504:
2501:
2494:
2491:
2484:
2481:
2474:
2473:Rensch's rule
2471:
2464:
2461:
2454:
2451:
2444:
2443:Jordan's rule
2441:
2434:
2431:
2424:
2421:
2414:
2413:Kleiber's law
2411:
2404:
2401:
2394:
2391:
2384:
2381:
2374:
2373:Gloger's rule
2371:
2364:
2361:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2344:Foster's rule
2342:
2335:
2332:
2325:
2322:
2315:
2312:
2305:
2302:
2295:
2292:
2285:
2282:
2275:
2272:
2265:
2262:
2255:
2252:
2251:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2234:
2229:
2227:
2222:
2220:
2215:
2214:
2211:
2203:
2199:
2194:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2178:(4190): 286.
2177:
2173:
2172:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2129:
2127:9780846566250
2123:
2119:
2118:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2087:
2081:
2078:(1): 595â708.
2077:
2073:
2072:
2067:
2062:
2061:
2057:
2043:
2039:
2032:
2029:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1988:
1983:
1976:
1973:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1939:
1931:
1924:
1921:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1903:
1895:
1892:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1865:
1862:
1856:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1826:Harper, E. M.
1821:
1819:
1815:
1810:
1806:
1801:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1769:
1766:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1732:
1724:
1722:
1718:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1688:Turbinicarpus
1682:
1679:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1643:
1640:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1600:
1597:
1591:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1559:
1556:
1551:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1502:
1499:
1494:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1475:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1443:
1440:
1435:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1394:
1391:
1379:
1375:
1368:
1365:
1359:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1335:
1332:
1327:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1277:
1274:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1252:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1224:
1221:
1209:
1205:
1198:
1195:
1183:
1179:
1172:
1169:
1164:
1157:
1154:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1118:
1115:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1097:
1089:
1087:
1083:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1051:
1049:
1045:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1003:
998:
991:
988:
977:
973:
966:
963:
951:
947:
943:
939:
935:
931:
927:
923:
919:
915:
911:
907:
900:
897:
892:
888:
883:
878:
873:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
848:
841:
838:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
790:
787:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
753:
745:
742:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
694:
691:
686:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
657:
649:
646:
641:
637:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
604:
596:
594:
590:
585:
581:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
550:
547:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
515:
513:
511:
509:
505:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
471:
466:
459:
456:
451:
445:
441:
434:
431:
425:
421:
420:Gigantothermy
418:
416:
413:
411:
408:
406:
403:
402:
398:
396:
394:
389:
385:
381:
376:
372:
370:
364:
361:
353:
351:
348:
347:Richard Hesse
338:
335:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
286:
284:
278:
276:
272:
264:
259:
252:
250:
247:
243:
242:
237:
236:
231:
223:
221:
219:
212:Invertebrates
211:
209:
203:
201:
199:
195:
186:
184:
182:
181:pygmy peoples
177:
175:
171:
167:
164:
163:Harrison Lake
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
132:
127:
122:
115:
113:
111:
107:
103:
97:
95:
94:
89:
85:
81:
80:Carl Bergmann
77:
72:
70:
69:
62:
60:
56:
52:
48:
41:
37:
32:
19:
2503:Thayer's law
2324:Emery's rule
2273:
2254:Allen's rule
2175:
2169:
2146:
2140:
2116:
2090:
2084:
2075:
2069:
2045:. Retrieved
2041:
2031:
2019:. Retrieved
1991:
1985:
1975:
1942:
1936:
1923:
1906:
1900:
1894:
1883:. Retrieved
1879:the original
1874:
1864:
1837:
1833:
1782:
1778:
1768:
1735:
1729:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1681:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1642:
1609:
1605:
1599:
1572:
1568:
1558:
1541:10072/407178
1515:
1511:
1501:
1456:
1452:
1442:
1407:
1403:
1393:
1382:. Retrieved
1378:newsweek.com
1377:
1367:
1348:
1344:
1334:
1291:
1287:
1276:
1233:
1229:
1223:
1211:. Retrieved
1207:
1197:
1185:. Retrieved
1181:
1171:
1156:
1131:
1127:
1117:
1100:
1094:
1060:
1056:
1006:
1000:
996:
990:
979:. Retrieved
965:
954:. Retrieved
913:
909:
899:
854:
850:
840:
799:
795:
789:
756:
750:
744:
703:
699:
693:
660:
654:
648:
607:
601:
559:
555:
549:
524:
520:
474:
468:
458:
439:
433:
410:Biogeography
393:homeothermic
377:
373:
365:
357:
344:
341:Hesse's rule
287:
279:
268:
253:Explanations
245:
239:
233:
227:
215:
207:
190:
178:
161:natives and
151:Allen's rule
136:
98:
91:
73:
66:
63:
59:Allen's rule
46:
45:
2605:Animal size
2483:Rosa's rule
2363:Gause's law
2304:Dollo's law
2284:Cope's rule
997:Alces alces
380:Pleistocene
334:brachiopods
325:euphausiids
317:stomatopods
290:crustaceans
155:Yuki people
147:Sami people
88:ectothermic
2599:Categories
2149:: 65â107.
2047:2024-04-09
2021:20 January
1885:2011-01-09
1459:(68): 68.
1384:2020-03-13
1380:. Newsweek
1213:5 December
1187:5 December
981:2013-11-12
956:2020-01-08
426:References
288:In marine
246:Rapicactus
241:Rapicactus
84:endotherms
78:biologist
68:Rapicactus
2016:128992364
2008:0300-9483
1731:Evolution
1550:238701490
1512:Ecography
1268:208620935
1002:Oecologia
781:129915445
640:205983729
415:Gene flow
354:Criticism
309:amphipods
298:life span
263:red foxes
230:Cactaceae
102:Paleogene
2202:15410342
2107:13124471
2042:phys.org
1967:44183222
1809:14667371
1760:28562890
1712:90330480
1673:82276407
1634:17812501
1493:18304333
1434:25588662
1326:34767440
1260:31800170
1182:BBC News
1148:13124471
1077:19927367
1031:28306886
950:Archived
938:22363006
891:16432187
832:23209206
824:10634786
736:44612517
728:12858287
685:16796576
632:29592141
584:11954818
541:28016098
499:59440368
399:See also
369:predator
313:copepods
306:gammarid
302:hyperiid
275:climates
218:copepods
204:Reptiles
166:Lillooet
116:Examples
108:and the
36:Penguins
2566:Related
2180:Bibcode
1947:Bibcode
1842:Bibcode
1800:1809933
1752:2406795
1614:Bibcode
1606:Science
1577:Bibcode
1520:Bibcode
1484:2268677
1461:Bibcode
1412:Bibcode
1317:8589309
1296:Bibcode
1208:Audubon
1039:5937734
1011:Bibcode
946:4603597
918:Bibcode
910:Science
882:1360587
859:Bibcode
804:Bibcode
796:Science
761:Bibcode
752:Science
665:Bibcode
564:Bibcode
479:Bibcode
170:Eurasia
38:on the
2200:
2171:Nature
2124:
2105:
2014:
2006:
1987:Boreas
1965:
1807:
1797:
1758:
1750:
1710:
1671:
1632:
1548:
1491:
1481:
1432:
1324:
1314:
1266:
1258:
1146:
1075:
1037:
1029:
944:
936:
889:
879:
830:
822:
779:
734:
726:
718:
683:
638:
630:
622:
582:
539:
497:
446:
388:Europe
321:mysids
224:Plants
145:, and
133:Humans
104:: the
76:German
61:does.
49:is an
2247:Rules
2058:Notes
2012:S2CID
1963:S2CID
1938:Oikos
1933:(PDF)
1748:JSTOR
1708:S2CID
1669:S2CID
1546:S2CID
1264:S2CID
1035:S2CID
942:S2CID
828:S2CID
777:S2CID
732:S2CID
716:JSTOR
636:S2CID
620:JSTOR
580:S2CID
537:S2CID
495:S2CID
367:as a
187:Birds
159:Andes
143:Aleut
139:Inuit
126:moose
55:clade
40:Earth
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