666:“islands” between leaves better habitat for Bicknell's thrush. Limiting vegetation management outside of the breeding season near mountain tops is another way to diminish disturbance. In areas where infrastructures are built in favorable Bicknell's thrush habitat, restoration of non-permanent modifications in the environment by reforesting is recommended. Signs or barriers along trails leading to the infrastructure to minimize disturbance is another suggested measure. As regenerating forests are known to be a good habitat for this species, assuring a continuous forest regeneration after clear-cuts benefits Bicknell's thrush. On winter range, reforestation of agricultural lands is proposed way to protect this declining thrush.
358:. It is the rarest and most secretive of the breeding thrushes in North America, and it is the only bird species whose breeding range is entirely restricted to the northeastern part of the continent. It is a habitat specialist in its breeding range. It is known to favor high altitude coniferous forests affected by strong winds and heavy ice conditions. They usually breed at higher elevations, normally nesting above 915 m (3,002 ft). However, they do not only live in this habitat, they also inhabit successional forests that have recently been affected by the forest industry. Its habitat is therefore best characterized by highly disturbed forest, where trees are small and stunted.
302:(head, nape, back) contrasting with chestnut-tinged tail. The contrast is, however, less evident in worn plumage. The underparts are off-white with gray on the flanks; the breast is off-white with buffy wash, showing dusky spots that becomes more diffuse toward the sides and the lower breast. They have pink legs, a faint grey eye ring, and gray cheeks. Two-thirds of the lower mandible is yellow colored, while the tip of the lower mandible and upper mandible is blackish. They average slightly smaller than the very similar gray-cheeked thrush but are all but indistinguishable in outward appearance. The song is a jumbled series of flute-like tones ending on a higher note.
31:
95:
217:
474:, is not known to occur in other thrushes. As many as four males perform duties connected with one nest, including bringing food for the nestlings. It is possible that females decide to mate with more males when preys are less abundant. Pair formation is thought to occur after female arrival to breeding site in late May. The nest itself is typically a bulky cup made of twigs and moss, close to the trunk of a
50:
72:
591:
forest in the eastern United States and Canada. If average global temperatures increase and forests change as much as predicted, Bicknell's thrush habitat is very likely to be altered in ways that may seriously affect the species' survival. Indeed, models predict that
Bicknell's thrush will lose more
545:
Mountain
Birdwatch data suggest that Bicknell's thrush populations have declined by an average of -3.88% per year (95% Bayesian credible interval: -5.27% to -2.52%) in northern New England and northeastern New York since 2010. The steepest declines (>60% decline between 2010 and 2022, 95% Bayesian
461:
John
Burroughs, in his essay, "The Heart of the Southern Catskills" (1886), writes effusively about the voice of Bicknell's thrush heard near the summit on his climbs of Slide Mountain, and how on his stays on Slide saw them nowhere else but "about the summit", and saw no other thrush but Bicknell's.
603:
practices, although possibly harmful, may be modified to aid in conservation efforts to protect
Bicknell's thrush. While more study is needed, the bird's apparent acceptance of certain commercial second-growth forest gives promise to possibilities of man-made "growing" Bicknell's thrush habitats in
522:
The thrush's diet consists mainly of insects, beetles and ants being the main preys. They also start eating wild fruits in late summer (mid-July), and continue to do so during migration, and on the wintering grounds. They forage on both insects and wild fruits in winter. They usually forage on the
301:
thrushes, with an average length of approximately 17 cm (6.7 in) and a weight ranging generally from 26 to 30g. Both sexes are identical in the field and are roughly the same size, although males average slightly larger in wing length. Adults are olive-brown to brownish on the upperparts
286:
in the late 19th century. John
Burroughs, in his essay, "The Heart of the Southern Catskills" (1886), writes effusively about the voice of Bicknell's thrush heard near the summit on his climbs of Slide Mountain, and how on his stays on Slide saw them nowhere else but "about the summit", and saw no
665:
Few management actions are known to be in place, even though management procedures for the species’ conservation have been established by the
International Bicknell's Thrush Conservation Group (IBTCG). Near ski trails, maintaining vegetation on edges in a gradual slope and keeping large forested
531:
insects from the foliage of trees. Individuals eating fruits on wintering ground forage higher in the tree than those eating insects. Foraging technique varies but
Bicknell's thrush mostly searches by pausing and peering, marked by hops and short flights. Sometimes food scratch on the ground,
478:
at base of horizontal branches, usually 2 meters above ground. The female builds the nest alone and lay three or four eggs per clutch. While the incubation period is about two weeks, nestlings, fed by both parents, grow rapidly, developing in 12 days from peanut-sized hatchlings to completely
652:
There is also considerable concern about the degradation of
Bicknell's thrush's wintering habitats. The Dominican Republic's native forests are under considerable pressure from naturally occurring events such as hurricanes, as well as changes from agricultural activities, particularly at low
648:
thrush. Mercury level increases greatly with altitude and its concentration bioaccumulate in the food web, probably explaining why it decreases as breeding season advances and birds begin to feed more on fruits. High mercury concentrations may cause reproductive impairment.
1590:
Kerchner, Charles; Honzák, Miroslav; Kemkes, Robin; Richardson, Amanda; Townsend, Jason; Rimmer, Christopher C. (September 2010). "Designing spatially explicit incentive programs for habitat conservation: A case study of the
Bicknell's thrush wintering grounds".
514:. On the nesting grounds there are at least six other predators suspected or likely to depredate nests and at least three other predators that may attacks nesting adults, to say nothing of potential predators during migration or on wintering grounds.
438:
Vocalizing mostly at dawn and dusk, the song is mostly performed by the male, but sometimes also by females. Like all North
American thrushes, Bicknell's thrush song is flute-like. High pitched and vibrant, the song is composed of four phrases:
559:. The U.S. population of Bicknell's thrush is likely around 70,000, and the Canadian population estimated between 40,570 and 49,568, with a global population of less than 120,000. The species was considered a "Special Concern" species by
1546:
NIXON, ERIN A.; HOLMES, STEPHEN B.; DIAMOND, ANTONY W. (March 2001). "Bicknell's Thrushes (Catharus Bicknelli) in New Brunswick Clear Cuts: Their Habitat Associations and Co-Occurrence with Swainson's Thrushes (Catharus Ustulatus)".
546:
credible interval: -75.31% to -33.33%, ) were observed in the Catskill Mountains in New York, USA, the southernmost portion of the Bicknell's thrush global breeding range. At that rate, it is possible that Bicknell's thrush may be
314:. This genus includes twelve species, five of which are found in North America. The closest relative of the Bicknell's thrush is its sister species, the gray-cheeked thrush. Together, the gray-cheeked and Bicknell's thrush form a
550:
entirely from the Catskills by 2050, with an estimated population loss of >95%. The Catskills, however, likely harbor less than 5% of the U.S. Bicknell's thrush population. The species has already been extirpated from
1453:
Townsend, Jason M.; Driscoll, Charles T.; Rimmer, Christopher C.; McFarland, Kent P. (December 2013). "Avian, salamander, and forest floor mercury concentrations increase with elevation in a terrestrial ecosystem".
1169:
Strong, Allan M.; Rimmer, Christopher C.; McFarland, Kent P. (2004). "Effect of Prey Biomass on Reproductive Success and Mating Strategy of Bicknell's Thrush (Catharus Bicknelli), A Polygynandrous Songbird".
254:, at 17.5 cm (6.9 in) and 28 g (0.99 oz). One of North America's rarest and most localized songbirds, it breeds on coniferous mountain tops and disturbed habitats of northeastern
385:). During the winter, they live in broadleaf forests at various elevations but generally preferring higher elevations. Wintering individuals have been recorded from the mountain ranges of the
560:
1213:
Aubry, Yves; Desrochers, André; Seutin, Gilles (June 2011). "Response of Bicknell's Thrush (Catharus bicknelli) to boreal silviculture and forest stand edges: a radio-tracking study".
2006:
927:
Rimmer, Christopher C. (April 2002). "The Gray-Cheeked Thrush, Catharus minimus, and Its New England Subspecies, Bicknell's Thrush, Catharus minimus bicknelli Joe T. Marshall".
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than 50% of its breeding habitat over the next 30 years. Furthermore, recreational development, telecommunication towers and windmills increase is a major cause of
1991:
1906:
983:
1986:
2011:
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2001:
1867:
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is one of the main reasons for the decline of the red spruce, an important element in Bicknell's thrush habitat in the United States. Airborne
386:
2021:
1932:
266:), the two species, with two completely different breeding ranges, differ slightly in their morphology and vocalizations. It was named after
1072:"Avian community characteristics and demographics reveal how conservation value of regenerating tropical dry forest changes with forest age"
575:
Its numbers are declining in some parts of its already limited range as a result of habitat degradation. Scientists believe that industrial
502:
is the main predator of eggs and nestlings, according to breeding ecology. Predators confirmed to hunt nesting adults have consisted of the
30:
1433:
1157:
1531:
Lambert, J. D.; MacFarland, K. P.; Rimmer, C. C. (2017). "Guidelines for managing Bicknell's thrush habitat in the United States".
634:
shifting temperature up elevation on mountains, Bicknell's thrush may suffer from asymmetrical and aggressive competition from the
361:
Conversely, Bicknell's thrush is more a habitat generalist in migration. The Bicknell's and gray-cheeked thrushes, along with the
2016:
402:
1038:
1779:
79:
1735:
914:
Wallace, G. J. 1939. Bicknell's Thrush, its taxonomy, distribution, and life history. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 41:211-402.
1872:
470:
Bicknell's thrushes have an unusual mating system in which females mate with more than one male. Such a practice, known as
1719:
1149:
969:
583:
may also damage high-elevation forests in the northeastern United States. Furthermore, based on expected substantial
743:
1911:
1635:
779:
828:
279:
94:
1784:
1560:
1250:"Site-specific variation in food resources, sex ratios, and body condition of an overwintering migrant songbird"
1183:
1008:
855:"Wallace on Bicknell's Thrush Bicknell's Thrush, Its Taxonomy, Distribution, and Life History George J. Wallace"
1919:
410:
394:
1020:
580:
1710:
1355:
State of the Mountain Birds | Measuring the Population Health of Our Northeastern U.S. Montane Bird Species
1924:
1743:
1672:
654:
390:
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511:
499:
189:
714:
1642:
1805:
1388:
635:
351:
1377:"A fine-scale U.S. population estimate of a montane spruce-fir bird species of conservation concern"
775:
471:
259:
39:
1898:
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Pearce-Higgins, James W.; Green, Rhys E. (2014), "Effects of climate change mitigation on birds",
1572:
1487:
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952:
884:
615:
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507:
503:
398:
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224:
89:
54:
1248:
Townsend, Jason M.; Rimmer, Christopher C.; McFarland, Kent P.; Goetz, James E. (October 2012).
1859:
322:. However, DNA analysis showed a divergence between the two species about 1 million years ago.
1996:
1945:
1885:
1766:
1608:
1564:
1479:
1471:
1429:
1324:
1271:
1230:
1187:
1153:
1126:
1103:
944:
876:
644:
Bicknell's thrush has a higher concentration of mercury in its blood than any lower-elevation
1950:
1833:
1649:
1600:
1556:
1463:
1421:
1396:
1314:
1261:
1222:
1179:
1093:
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1004:
936:
866:
709:
528:
370:
355:
1748:
443:”. Unlike in the gray-cheeked thrush, the pitch of the last phrase is constant or rising.
315:
267:
691:
1505:
1392:
814:, The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology.
1098:
1071:
1070:
Latta, Steven C.; Brouwer, Nathan L.; MejĂa, Danilo A. & Paulino, Maria M. (2018).
810:
Rimmer, Christopher C., Kent P. Mcfarland, Walter G. Ellison and James E. Goetz. 2001.
631:
584:
556:
418:
366:
216:
206:
657:, and in Cuba, most of the known suitable habitat exists only in protected parklands.
1980:
1880:
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995:
700:
552:
275:
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255:
251:
156:
59:
1963:
1576:
1336:
1283:
1199:
1016:
1771:
1604:
1491:
567:"Threatened" in November 2009, and was re-assessed again as such in December 2022.
524:
984:"Seasonal migration, speciation, and morphological convergence in the avian genus
1758:
1425:
1893:
1841:
1704:
1152:. Hinterland Who is WHo, Environment Canada & Canadian Wildlife Federation,
406:
347:
335:
319:
1661:
Photos of Bicknell's thrush at Visual Resources for Ornithology (VIREO) website
1958:
1631:
Bibliography on the International Bicknell's Thrush Conservation Group website
588:
374:
343:
1612:
1568:
1475:
1328:
1275:
1234:
1191:
1130:
948:
880:
295:
Bicknell's thrush is just slightly smaller than the other northern migratory
1297:
Townsend, Jason M.; Rimmer, Christopher C.; McFarland, Kent P. (July 2010).
627:
623:
619:
576:
547:
491:
146:
106:
1695:
1483:
1319:
1298:
1266:
1249:
1107:
1689:
600:
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are some of the parasites with which Bicknell's thrush must contend. The
297:
166:
126:
310:
A member of the family Turdidae, Bicknell's thrush belongs to the genus
1823:
1088:
956:
888:
475:
414:
1401:
1376:
618:
consume the saplings of the tree species birds breed on, and invasive
1846:
1730:
1467:
587:
by the end of the century, scientists predict a radical reduction of
339:
331:
330:
Bicknell's thrush scattered breeding range extends from southeastern
116:
1666:
1226:
940:
871:
854:
1797:
1792:
1299:"Winter Territoriality and Spatial Behavior of Bicknell's Thrush (
611:
382:
362:
1937:
1810:
495:
487:
422:
136:
1670:
1303:) at Two Ecologically Distinct Sites in the Dominican Republic"
1655:
1039:"Bicknell's Thrush Conservation—Are Females Getting Squeezed?"
685:
683:
681:
679:
610:
are potential risks throughout the thrush's range; introduced
446:
The primary call is a downward whistle named the “Beer call” “
450:. Other calls include growl call given in alarm situations “
278:, who made the first scientific discovery of the species on
1561:
10.1676/0043-5643(2001)113[0033:btcbin]2.0.co;2
1184:
10.1642/0004-8038(2004)121[0446:eopbor]2.0.co;2
1123:
Bicknell's thrush (Turdus aliciae Bicknelli) in New England
1009:
10.1642/0004-8038(2006)123[1052:SMSAMC]2.0.CO;2
258:. While very similar in appearance and vocalization to the
561:
Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada
373:, with an estimated 90% of the individuals wintering in
655:
The forested lands of Haiti have been almost eliminated
829:"Bicknell's Thrush: taxonomic status and distribution"
780:"Bicknell's Thrush: taxonomic status and distribution"
563:
in April 1999. This was later re-examined to consider
1679:
1656:International Bicknell's Thrush Conservation Group
715:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T22728467A180783383.en
1351:"Bicknell's Thrush | State of the Mountain Birds"
1420:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 308–358,
982:Winker, Kevin & Pruett, Christin L. (2006).
922:
920:
1533:High Branch Conservation Services, Hartland, VT
2007:Native birds of the Northeastern United States
1375:Hill, Jason M.; Lloyd, John D. (August 2017).
8:
1506:"Bicknell's Thrush Conservation Action Plan"
441:chook-chook, wee-o, wee-o, wee-o-ti-t-ter-ee
1667:
318:pair, and were indeed formerly considered
215:
70:
48:
29:
20:
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675:
1456:Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry
812:Bicknell's Thrush (Catharus bicknelli)
555:, with the last record there being on
1992:NatureServe apparently secure species
1448:
1446:
1444:
738:
736:
734:
732:
7:
770:
768:
972:. Fws.gov. Retrieved on 2013-03-11.
701:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
1148:Busby, Dan and Aubry, Yves (2003)
630:may pose a potential threat. With
369:species. The birds migrate to the
14:
1987:IUCN Red List vulnerable species
365:, make up a close-knit group of
93:
2012:Birds of the Dominican Republic
1037:Rimmer, Chris (December 2006).
970:Bicknell's Thrush Habitat Model
690:BirdLife International (2020).
532:especially in wintering range.
397:in the Dominican Republic, the
2002:Native birds of Eastern Canada
1605:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2009.08.031
1:
479:feathered adult-sized birds.
287:other thrush but Bicknell's.
2022:Taxa named by Robert Ridgway
1426:10.1017/cbo9781139047791.011
527:, but also catch flies, and
1215:Canadian Journal of Zoology
853:Allen, G. M. (April 1939).
748:. NatureServe Explorer 2.0"
2038:
1638:'s All About Birds website
1636:Cornell Lab of Ornithology
233:Catharus minimus bicknelli
708:: e.T22728467A180783383.
230:
223:
214:
195:
188:
90:Scientific classification
88:
68:
46:
37:
28:
23:
1418:Birds and Climate Change
752:explorer.natureserve.org
585:carbon dioxide increases
536:Conservation and threats
395:Cordillera Septentrional
2017:Birds described in 1882
1643:Birds of North America
1320:10.1525/auk.2010.09160
1267:10.1525/auk.2012.12043
1052:(2): 6. Archived from
24:Bicknell's thrush
1648:Bicknell's thrush on
1641:Bicknell's thrush on
1634:Bicknell's thrush on
594:habitat fragmentation
541:Population monitoring
512:northern saw-whet owl
500:American red squirrel
1593:Ecological Economics
640:Catharus swainsoni).
250:) is a medium-sized
1650:Audubon Field Guide
1549:The Wilson Bulletin
1510:bicknellsthrush.org
1393:2017Ecosp...8E1921H
1121:Brewster, William.
1082:: e5217 (Table 2).
596:and deterioration.
454:” and flight call “
260:gray-cheeked thrush
40:Conservation status
1964:Catharus-bicknelli
1736:catharus-bicknelli
1711:Catharus bicknelli
1681:Catharus bicknelli
1301:Catharus bicknelli
1089:10.7717/peerj.5217
746:Catharus bicknelli
694:Catharus bicknelli
616:Cape Breton Island
608:Non-native species
508:long-tailed weasel
504:sharp-shinned hawk
403:Cordillera Central
399:Massif de la Hotte
387:Cordillera Central
379:Dominican Republic
247:Catharus bicknelli
199:Catharus bicknelli
76:Apparently Secure
1974:
1973:
1946:Open Tree of Life
1673:Taxon identifiers
1599:(11): 2108–2115.
1402:10.1002/ecs2.1921
1150:Bicknell’s Thrush
1059:on June 28, 2007.
636:Swainson's thrush
391:Sierra de Baoruco
354:and Catskills in
326:Habitat and range
242:Bicknell's thrush
239:
238:
181:C. bicknelli
83:
63:
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1834:bicknells-thrush
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1785:Bicknells_thrush
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1019:. Archived from
992:
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893:
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772:
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727:
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371:Greater Antilles
264:Catharus minimus
219:
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51:
33:
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1512:. 9 August 2016
1504:
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1227:10.1139/z11-011
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1168:
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1163:
1147:
1138:
1120:
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1115:
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1046:The Palmchatter
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941:10.2307/4089914
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872:10.2307/4078070
852:
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836:Wilson Bulletin
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377:(mostly in the
328:
316:cryptic species
308:
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268:Eugene Bicknell
210:
203:
197:
184:
92:
84:
75:
71:
64:
53:
49:
42:
17:
16:Species of bird
12:
11:
5:
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1842:iNaturalist
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988:(Turdidae)"
721:19 November
653:altitudes.
599:Industrial
421:in eastern
407:Puerto Rico
381:, but also
352:Adirondacks
348:New England
344:sky islands
336:Nova Scotia
320:conspecific
291:Description
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1981:Categories
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670:References
661:Management
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589:balsam fir
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375:Hispaniola
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1476:0730-7268
1381:Ecosphere
1329:0004-8038
1276:0004-8038
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628:Caribbean
577:pollution
492:blowflies
472:polyandry
452:crr-rr-rr
284:Catskills
175:Species:
113:Kingdom:
107:Eukaryota
1997:Catharus
1899:2.106330
1886:22728467
1860:10213241
1811:45510209
1749:22728467
1744:BirdLife
1690:Wikidata
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356:New York
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312:Catharus
306:Taxonomy
298:Catharus
274:amateur
272:American
225:Synonyms
168:Catharus
157:Turdidae
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127:Chordata
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1280:S2CID
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1076:PeerJ
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953:JSTOR
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488:Ticks
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