234:" has four possible outcomes: (a) they both betray each other, and are both sentenced to two years in prison; (b) A betrays B, which sets A free and B is sentenced to four years in prison; (c) B betrays A, with the same result as (b) except that it is B who is set free and the other spends four years in jail; (d) both remain silent, resulting in a six-month sentence each. Clearly (d) ("cooperation") is the best mutual strategy, but from the point of view of the individual betrayal is unbeatable (resulting in being set free, or getting only a two-year sentence). Remaining silent results in a four-year or six-month sentence. This is exemplified by a further example of the PDG: two strangers attend a restaurant together and decide to split the bill. The mutually best ploy would be for both parties to order the cheapest items on the menu (mutual cooperation). But if one member of the party exploits the situation by ordering the most expensive items, then it is best for the other member to do likewise. In fact, if the fellow diner's personality is completely unknown, and the two diners are unlikely ever to meet again, it is always in one's own best interests to eat as expensively as possible. Situations in nature that are subject to the same dynamics (rewards and penalties) as the PDG define cooperative behaviour: it is never in the individual's fitness interests to cooperate, even though mutual cooperation rewards the two contestants (together) more highly than any other strategy. Cooperation cannot evolve under these circumstances.
320:, better golfers have fewer strokes subtracted from their raw scores than the less talented players. The handicap therefore correlates with unhandicapped performance, making it possible, if one knows nothing about the horses, to predict which unhandicapped horse would win an open race. It would be the one handicapped with the greatest weight in the saddle. The handicaps in nature are highly visible, and therefore a peahen, for instance, would be able to deduce the health of a potential mate by comparing its handicap (the size of the peacock's tail) with those of the other males. The loss of the male's fitness caused by the handicap is offset by its increased access to females, which is as much of a fitness concern as is its health. An altruistic act is, by definition, similarly costly. It would therefore also signal fitness, and is probably as attractive to females as a physical handicap. If this is the case altruism is evolutionarily stabilized by
754:/non-kin recognition, few studies have focused on this trait in crops. Despite most crops growing in monocultures, there is evidence that they are able to recognize kin and other cultivars. For example, cultivated soybean plants were able to recognize a distant ancestor and unrelated neighbors. In that experiment, plants were grown in combinations of relation to each other (same cultivar or different cultivar) in pots and their biomass of stems, leaves, and roots were measured to see how the plants responded growing next to kin or non-kin. Crops, unlike wild plants, are highly cultivated. The evolution of traits such as altruism can thus be bred into them through the selection of the trait. In agriculture, the importance of yield is stressed, therefore breeding crop cultivars to favor altruism can decrease competitiveness and increase yield. It has been shown that using mass
484:, Thailand, increased their grooming activity when the female partner was fertile. Adult females and males of our study population are codominant (in terms of aggression), they live in pairs or small multi male groups and mate promiscuously. They found that males groomed females more than vice versa and more grooming was exchanged when females were cycling than during pregnancy or lactation. The number of copulations/day was elevated when females were cycling, and females copulated more frequently with males on days when they received more grooming. When males increased their grooming efforts, females also increased their grooming of males, perhaps to equalize give and take. Although grooming might be reciprocated because of intrinsic benefits of receiving grooming, males also interchange grooming as a commodity for sexual opportunities during a female's fertile period.
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of offspring it is likely to produce itself, but boosts the likelihood that other organisms are to produce offspring. There are other forms of altruism in nature other than risk-taking behavior, such as reciprocal altruism. This biological notion of altruism is not identical to the everyday human concept. For humans, an action would only be called 'altruistic' if it was done with the conscious intention of helping another. Yet in the biological sense there is no such requirement. Instead, until we can communicate directly with other species, an accurate theory to describe altruistic acts between species is
Biological Market Theory. Humans and other animals exchange benefits in several ways, known technically as reciprocity mechanism. No matter what the mechanism, the common thread is that benefits find their way back to the original giver.
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players' opening moves are cooperation. Thereafter each contestant repeats the other player's last move, resulting in a seemingly endless sequence of mutually cooperative moves. However, mistakes severely undermine tit-for-tat's effectiveness, giving rise to prolonged sequences of betrayal, which can only be rectified by another mistake. Since these initial discoveries, all the other possible IPD game strategies have been identified (16 possibilities in all, including, for instance, "generous tit-for-tat", which behaves like "tit-for-tat", except that it cooperates with a small probability when the opponent's last move was "betray".), but all can be outperformed by at least one of the other strategies, should one of the players switch to such a strategy. The result is that none is
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473:, whereas other clients have small ranges and have access to one cleaning station only (resident clients). Field observations, field manipulations, and laboratory experiments revealed that whether or not a client has choice options influences several aspects of both cleaner and client behaviour. Cleaners give choosy clients priority of access. Choosy clients switch partners if cheated by a cleaner by taking a bite of out of the cleaner, whereas resident clients punish cheats. Cleaners and resident clients, but not choosy clients, build up relationships before normal cleaning interactions take place. Cleaners are particularly cooperative if choosy clients are bystanders of an interaction but less so when resident clients are bystanders.
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897:). This also applies to gene B and so on through the alphabet. If a coin-flip "heads" means that gene X is the same in offspring-1 as it is in offspring-2, then in 26 flips of the coin, approximately half are going to be "heads", and the rest "tails", i.e. half the genes inherited from parent "m" will be the same in the two offspring. The same will happen to the genes inherited from parent "f". Thus of the 52 genes inherited from the two parents, on average, 13 + 13 = 26 (or half) will be identical in the two sibs. Thus sibs are genetically as similar to one another as a parent is to an offspring.
367:, including any altruistic, cooperative and social characteristics. Thus, in the example of the selfish individual who hangs back from the rest of the hunting pack, but who nevertheless joins in the spoils, that individual will be recognized as being different from the norm, and will therefore find it difficult to attract a mate. Its genes will therefore have only a very small probability of being passed on to the next generation, thus evolutionarily stabilizing cooperation and social interactions at whatever level of complexity is the norm in that population.
83:, such as in parenting, but may also be evident among wider social groups, such as in social insects. They allow an individual to increase the success of its genes by helping relatives that share those genes. Obligate altruism is the permanent loss of direct fitness (with potential for indirect fitness gain). For example, honey bee workers may forage for the colony. Facultative altruism is temporary loss of direct fitness (with potential for indirect fitness gain followed by personal reproduction). For example, a
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853:. The subscript indicates from which parent that copy of A has come. Mostly the two copies are identical, but occasionally they differ slightly. When this individual reproduces sexually, one or other copy of A (chosen randomly) is passed on to offspring-1, who gets its other copy of A from the sexual partner. The same happens with genes B, C, D …. Z. If we denote the two sexual partners by means of subscripts "m" and "f", then the genome of the offspring they produce might consist of A
207:(See footnote). From an evolutionary genetic point of view it is therefore as advantageous to help with the upbringing of full sibs as it is to produce and raise one's own offspring. The two activities are evolutionarily entirely equivalent. Co-operative breeding (i.e. helping one's parents raise sibs—provided they are full sibs) could thus evolve without the need for group-level selection. This quickly gained prominence among biologists interested in the evolution of social behaviour.
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when it could avoid injury by hanging back from the pack but still share in the spoils) cannot evolve, because the selfish individual will leave, on average, more offspring than those who join the pack and suffer injuries as a result. If the selfishness is hereditary, this will ultimately result in the population consisting entirely of selfish individuals. However, in the 1960s and 1970s an alternative to the "group selection" theory emerged. This was the
893:. Each parent has contributed exactly half of the offspring's genome. So individual "m" shares only half of its genome with its offspring. Suppose individuals "m" and "f" produce a second offspring (offspring-2), whose genome is determined in exactly the same manner. For this example, suppose their genome consists of 52 genes. There is a coin-flip 50% probability that offspring-2 will inherit the same copy of A from "m" as offspring-1 did (i.e. A
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139:. A monkey will present its back to another monkey, who will pick out parasites; after a time the roles will be reversed. Such reciprocity will pay off, in evolutionary terms, as long as the costs of helping are less than the benefits of being helped and as long as animals will not gain in the long run by "cheating"—that is to say, by receiving favours without returning them. This is elaborated on in
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355:. This will have the effect of a sexual population rapidly shedding peripheral phenotypic features and canalizing the entire outward appearance and behaviour so that all the members of that population will begin to look remarkably similar in every detail, as illustrated in the accompanying photograph of the
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theory to explain the evolution of helping at the nest of an unrelated breeding pair of birds. He argued that an individual might act as a helper if there was a high probabilistic expectation of being helped by the recipients at some later date. If, however, the recipients did not reciprocate when it
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in coral reefs. They live in colonies of about 300 individuals with one reproductive female. Other colony members defend the colony against intruders, forage, and care for the young. Eusociality in this system entails an adaptive division of labor which results in enhanced reproductive output of the
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Altruism in animals describes a range of behaviors performed by animals that may be to their own disadvantage but which benefit others. The costs and benefits are measured in terms of reproductive fitness, or expected number of offspring. So by behaving altruistically, an organism reduces the number
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There is an alternate strategy for identifying fit mates which does not rely on one gender having exaggerated sexual ornaments or other handicaps, but is generally applicable to most, if not all sexual creatures. It derives from the concept that the change in appearance and functionality caused by a
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has to be evolutionarily costly. Thus, if a (low fitness) liar were to use the highly costly signal, which seriously eroded its real fitness, it would find it difficult to maintain a semblance of normality. Zahavi borrowed the term "handicap principle" from sports handicapping systems. These systems
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Biological market theory is an extension of the idea of reciprocal altruism, as a mechanism to explain altruistic acts between unrelated individuals in a more flexible system of exchanging commodities. The term 'biological market' was first used by Ronald Noe and
Hammerstein in 1994 to refer to all
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Also known as the "buddy-system", mutual affection between two parties prompts similar behavior in both directions without need to track of daily give-and-take, so long as the overall relationship remains satisfactory. This is one of the most common mechanisms of reciprocity in nature, this kind is
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Contrary to the mainstream dogma, a recently published article . using agent-based models demonstrates that several crucial mechanisms, such as kin selection, punishment, multilevel selection, and spatial structure, cannot rescue the evolution of cooperation. The new findings revive a long-standing
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will generally stand out in a population. This is because that altered appearance and functionality will be unusual, peculiar, and different from the norm within that population. The norm against which these unusual features are judged is made up of fit attributes that have attained their plurality
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However, in 1981 Axelrod and
Hamilton noted that if the same contestants in the PDG meet repeatedly (the so-called Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma game, IPD) then tit-for-tat (foreshadowed by Robert Triver's reciprocal altruism theory) is a robust strategy which promotes altruism. In "tit-for-tat" both
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acts on the individual, and that it is the individual's fitness (number of offspring and grand-offspring produced compared to the rest of the population) that drives evolution. A group advantage (e.g. hunting in a pack) that is disadvantageous to the individual (who might be harmed during the hunt,
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was possible to do so, the altruistic interaction with these recipients would be permanently terminated. But if the recipients did not cheat then the reciprocal altruism would continue indefinitely to both parties' advantage. This model was considered by many (e.g. West-Eberhard and
Dawkins) to be
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Cooperative hunting by wolves allows them to tackle much larger and more nutritious prey than any individual wolf could handle. However, such cooperation could, potentially, be exploited by selfish individuals who do not expose themselves to the dangers of the hunt, but nevertheless share in the
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Also known as, "what have you done for me lately?" Individuals keep track of the benefits they exchange with particular partners, which helps them decide to whom to return favors. This mechanism is typical of chimpanzees and very common among human relationships. Yet some opposing experimental
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Also known as, "If you're nice, I'll be nice too." This mechanism of reciprocity is similar to the heuristic of the golden rule, "Treat others how you would like to be treated." Parties mirror one another's attitudes, exchanging favors on the spot. Instant attitudinal reciprocity occurs among
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of another individual while decreasing their own. Altruism in this sense is different from the philosophical concept of altruism, in which an action would only be called "altruistic" if it was done with the conscious intention of helping another. In the behavioural sense, there is no such
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the interactions between organisms in which different organisms function as 'traders' that exchange goods and services such as food and water, grooming, warning calls, shelter, etc. Biological market theory consists of five formal characteristics which present a basis for altruism.
650:. If the parent guarding the nest of eggs is removed, a usually male replacement unrelated to the parents guards the nest from predators and prevents fungal growth that would kill off the brood. There is no clear benefit to the male so the act may be considered altruistic.
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have been observed engaging in intervention behaviour when their group members were threatened. They did not distinguish between kin and non-kin members. It has been theorized that they may do this to promote group cohesion and reduce social disruption within the
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351:, while less adaptive attributes will be in the minority or frankly rare. Since the overwhelming majority of mutant features are maladaptive, and it is impossible to predict evolution's future direction, sexual creatures would be expected to
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requirement. As such, it is not evaluated in moral terms—it is the consequences of an action for reproductive fitness that determine whether the action is considered altruistic, not the intentions, if any, with which the action is performed.
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In numerous bird species, a breeding pair receives support in raising its young from other "helper" birds, including help with the feeding of its fledglings. Some will even go as far as protecting an unrelated bird's young from
174:, (1871). The concept of group selection has had a chequered and controversial history in evolutionary biology but the uncritical 'good of the species' tradition came to an abrupt halt in the 1960s, due largely to the work of
111:, and are not considered true altruism. Beyond the physical exertions that in some species mothers and in some species fathers undertake to protect their young, extreme examples of sacrifice may occur. One example is
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within colonies is high, which is an indication that colonies in this species represent close kin groups. The existence of such groups is an important prerequisite of explanations of social evolution based on
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103:, on occasion, some animals do behave in ways that reduce their individual fitness but increase the fitness of other individuals in the population; this is a functional definition of altruism. Research in
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242:, and any prolonged series of the iterated prisoner's dilemma game, in which alternative strategies arise at random, gives rise to a chaotic sequence of strategy changes that never ends.
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until starved, at which point they aggregate and form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body.
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There is competition among the members of the chosen class to be the most attractive partner. This competition by 'outbidding' causes an increase in the value of the commodity offered.
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In the light of the
Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma Game failing to provide a full answer to the evolution of cooperation or altruism, several alternative explanations have been proposed.
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give alarm calls to warn fellow monkeys of the presence of predators, even though in doing so they attract attention to themselves, increasing their personal chance of being attacked.
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In its original form the
Prisoner's Dilemma Game (PDG) described two awaiting trial prisoners, A and B, each faced with the choice of betraying the other or remaining silent. The "
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to the beneficiary and the benefit granted to the beneficiary minus the cost to the sacrificer. Should this sum be greater than zero a fitness gain will result from the sacrifice.
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Fang, Suqin; Clark, Randy T.; Zheng, Ying; Iyer-Pascuzzi, Anjali S.; Weitz, Joshua S.; Kochian, Leon V.; Edelsbrunner, Herbert; Liao, Hong; Benfey, Philip N. (February 12, 2013).
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Bshary R, Noë R (2003). "Biological markets: the ubiquitous influence of partner choice on the dynamics of cleaner fish-client reef fish interactions.". In
Hammerstein P (ed.).
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have small territories, which the majority of reef fish species actively visit to invite inspection of their surface, gills, and mouth. Clients benefit from the removal of
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because it is prone to invasion by cheats for the same reason that cooperative hunting can be invaded and replaced by cheats. However, Trivers did make reference to the
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bring meat back to members of the pack not present at the kill; in harsh conditions, the breeding pair of wolves take the greatest share to continue to produce pups.
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The existence of altruism in nature is at first sight puzzling, because altruistic behaviour reduces the likelihood that an individual will reproduce. The idea that
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with the entire colony, and so this behaviour is evolutionarily beneficial (not necessarily for the individual ant but for the continuation of its genetic make-up).
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research suggests that calculated or contingent reciprocity does not spontaneously arise in laboratory experimental settings, despite patterns of behavior.
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363:. Once a population has become as homogeneous in appearance as is typical of most species, its entire repertoire of behaviours will also be rendered
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has been applied to social behaviour, including altruism. Cases of animals helping individuals to whom they are closely related can be explained by
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Parker PG, Snow AA, Schug MD, Booton GC, Fuerst PA (1998). "What molecules can tell us about populations: Choosing and using a molecular marker".
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Noe R, Voelkl B (2013). "Cooperation and biological markets: The power of partner choice.". In
Sterelny K, Joyce R, Calcott B, Fraser B (eds.).
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while cleaners benefit from the access to a food source. Some particularly choosy client species have large home ranges that cover several
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support sick or injured members of their pod, swimming under them for hours at a time and pushing them to the surface so they can breathe.
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An individual's gene complement (or genome) can be represented by the letters of the alphabet. Each letter is represented twice: A
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3066:"Humpback whales interfering when mammal-eating killer whales attack other species: Mobbing behavior and interspecific altruism?"
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295:. Both are costly in fitness terms, and both are generally conspicuous to other members of the population or species. This led
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334:, showing details of appearance and colouration that are shared by all African pygmy kingfishers to a high degree of fidelity.
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Koeslag JH (May 1990). "Koinophilia groups sexual creatures into species, promotes stasis, and stabilizes social behaviour".
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The applicability of biological market theory with its emphasis on partner choice is evident in the interactions between the
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316:, provenly faster horses are given heavier weights to carry under their saddles than inherently slower horses. Similarly, in
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A male peacock with its beautiful but clumsy, aerodynamically unsound tail—a handicap, comparable to a race horse's handicap.
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Daniels RA (August 1979). "Nest Guard
Replacement in the Antarctic Fish Harpagifer bispinis: Possible Altruistic Behavior".
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which, 10 years later, would restore interest in
Trivers' reciprocal altruism theory, but under the title of "tit-for-tat".
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Koeslag JH, Terblanche E (October 2003). "Evolution of cooperation: cooperation defeats defection in the cornfield model".
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commonly regurgitate blood to share with unlucky or sick roost mates that have been unable to find a meal, often forming a
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203:, which is based on the notion that an individual shares only half its genes with each offspring, but also with each full
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puzzle in the evolution theory. In addition, the work has potential therapeutic benefits for numerous incurable diseases
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Barelii C, Reichard U, Mundry R (2011). "Is grooming used as a commodity in wild white-handed gibbons, Hylobates lar?".
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with food will, in response to a gesture, share their food with others of the group. Chimpanzees will help humans and
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are aimed at reducing disparities in performance, thereby making the outcome of contests less predictable. In a horse
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Murphy, Guillermo P.; Swanton, Clarence J.; Van Acker, Rene C.; Dudley, Susan A. (July 2017). Gibson, David (ed.).
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Koeslag JH (November 1997). "Sex, the Prisoner's Dilemma Game, and the evolutionary inevitability of cooperation".
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Commodities on offer can be advertised. As in commercial advertisements there is a potential for false information.
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Bordereau C, Robert A, Van Tuyen V, Peppuy A (1997). "Suicidal defensive behavior by frontal gland dehiscence in
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Pereira ME, Izard MK (1989). "Lactation and care for unrelated infants in forest-living ringtailed Lemurs".
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Commodities are exchanged between individuals that differ in the degree of control over those commodities.
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Grafen A (1984). "Natural selection, kin selection and group selection". In Krebs JR, Davies NB (eds.).
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early in the breeding process selects against altruism in an individual, but using mixed individual and
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2334:"The conditional defector strategies can violate the most crucial supporting mechanisms of cooperation"
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3183:"Avian altruism: African birds sacrifice self-interest to help their kin – white-fronted bee eaters"
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at the expense of the individual insect. This can be attributed to the fact that ants share their
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4002:
3688:
3634:
3572:
3554:
3479:
3225:
3129:
3107:"Context-dependent third-party intervention in agonistic encounters of male Przewalski horses"
2992:
2955:
2899:
2837:
2766:
2692:
2628:
2587:
2564:
2554:
2531:
2428:
2371:
2314:
2263:
2216:
2051:
2006:
1981:
1935:
1882:
1836:
1732:
1707:
1679:
1629:
1561:
1556:
Emlen ST (1984). "Cooperative breeding in birds and mammals.". In Krebs JR, Davies NB (eds.).
1501:
1476:
1453:
1297:
1291:
1216:
1161:
1141:
1110:
1102:
1059:
1009:
930:
771:
549:
348:
308:
300:
200:
187:
84:
49:
2895:
2885:
2808:"Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) do not develop contingent reciprocity in an experimental task"
1625:
1617:
6067:
6008:
5939:
5797:
5740:
5466:
5411:
5278:
5111:
4597:
4164:
4142:
3950:
3678:
3624:
3616:
3562:
3544:
3471:
3428:
3378:
3319:
3302:
3264:
3217:
3121:
3085:
2984:
2827:
2819:
2756:
2746:
2667:
2620:
2523:
2485:
2361:
2353:
2306:
2255:
2208:
2162:
2078:
2043:
1973:
1927:
1874:
1826:
1816:
1769:
1671:
1590:
1530:
1445:
1379:
1333:
1254:
1237:
1175:
1092:
918:
826:
603:
470:
321:
288:
1956:
Zahavi A (August 1977). "The cost of honesty (further remarks on the handicap principle)".
291:
displayed by some animals, particularly certain bird species, such as, amongst others, the
277:
carry the largest weights, so the size of the handicap is a measure of the animal's quality
6807:
6698:
6663:
6572:
6460:
6354:
6310:
6290:
6163:
5879:
5858:
5613:
5421:
5361:
5346:
5331:
5316:
5285:
5238:
4958:
4409:
4398:
4352:
4295:
4244:
4024:
3828:
3025:
1317:
1287:
1005:
Political Activists in America: The Identity Construction Model of Political Participation
759:
751:
599:
528:
340:
183:
166:
3745:
2948:
2236:"The genomic landscape underlying phenotypic integrity in the face of gene flow in crows"
954:
919:
3674:
3612:
3540:
3467:
3424:
3374:
3315:
3213:
3081:
2742:
2349:
2302:
2251:
2204:
2039:
1969:
1913:
1870:
1812:
1765:
1667:
1441:
1250:
1030:
6300:
6280:
6190:
5883:
5775:
5650:
5386:
5341:
5336:
5218:
5126:
4798:
4670:
3972:
3967:
3905:
3883:
3629:
3596:
3567:
3524:
2832:
2807:
2761:
2726:
2366:
2333:
2166:
2000:
1363:
1097:
1080:
609:
553:
524:
454:
211:
196:
2310:
2235:
2212:
2047:
6890:
6802:
6745:
6735:
6295:
6115:
6075:
6071:
6062:
5905:
5874:
5863:
5853:
5780:
5682:
5576:
5391:
5381:
5376:
5371:
5300:
5233:
5141:
5000:
4878:
4837:
4683:
4577:
4452:
4437:
4105:
4100:
3475:
2881:
2527:
1977:
1931:
1831:
1796:
1449:
1391:
1345:
715:
575:
517:
often have one standing guard to warn while the rest feed in case of predator attack.
317:
192:
126:
108:
80:
57:
3700:
3595:
Murphy, Guillermo P.; Van Acker, Rene; Rajcan, Istvan; Swanton, Clarence J. (2017).
3390:
3331:
3276:
3004:
2640:
2497:
2275:
2234:
Poelstra JW, Vijay N, Bossu CM, Lantz H, Ryll B, MĂĽller I, et al. (June 2014).
2174:
2090:
1602:
1542:
1195:
1122:
976:
27:
Behaviour that increases the fitness of another while decreasing the fitness of self
6592:
5893:
5870:
5416:
5366:
5326:
5295:
5248:
4995:
4943:
4888:
4721:
4716:
4457:
4068:
3237:
3141:
1781:
1266:
821:
733:
702:
569:
565:
532:
462:
296:
121:; another example is a male spider allowing a female fertilized by him to eat him.
2511:
2489:
2389:
3221:
3125:
2751:
2607:
Baker CM (January 1, 1984). "Social care behaviour of captive slender mongooses (
1213:
Adaptation and Natural Selection: A Critique of Some Current Evolutionary Thought
1051:
1003:
6731:
6643:
6587:
6425:
6210:
5909:
5728:
5356:
5321:
5022:
4893:
4674:
4622:
4157:
3987:
3893:
3851:
786:
728:
710:
352:
231:
170:
might explain the evolution of altruism was first broached by Darwin himself in
117:
3294:
2357:
1801:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
307:. If a signal is to remain reliable, and generally resistant to falsification,
32:
6678:
6673:
6390:
6125:
5665:
4883:
4784:
4706:
4693:
4582:
4442:
4127:
4014:
3992:
3945:
3940:
3888:
3856:
3382:
3042:
2823:
2672:
2655:
2624:
1383:
1337:
677:
673:
446:
112:
3692:
3558:
2632:
2568:
2535:
2108:. Cape Town: Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund. pp. 176, 193.
1106:
6340:
5017:
4868:
4612:
4432:
4095:
3843:
3683:
3658:
3549:
3454:
Hamilton WD (July 1964). "The genetical evolution of social behaviour. II".
2803:
2259:
1821:
1675:
508:
458:
3768:
An article about dogs caring for other species' young (cats, tigers, etc.).
3659:"Kin recognition, multilevel selection and altruism in crop sustainability"
3638:
3576:
3501:
3229:
3133:
2996:
2988:
2841:
2770:
2432:
2375:
2318:
2267:
2082:
1878:
1428:
Hamilton WD (July 1964). "The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I".
1114:
646:, a species of fish, live in social groups in the harsh environment of the
17:
5517:
3483:
3268:
2220:
2055:
1939:
1886:
1840:
1683:
1581:
Eberhard MJ (1975). "The evolution of social behaviour by kin selection".
1457:
1395:
1081:"The Adaptive Dynamics of Altruism in Spatially Heterogeneous Populations"
1008:. University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University Press. p. 101.
672:
release a sticky secretion by fatally rupturing a specialized gland. This
584:
of all ages and of both sexes will take care of infants unrelated to them.
6792:
6552:
6257:
5228:
5223:
5198:
5097:
4920:
4268:
4122:
1985:
776:
706:
514:
429:
Supply and demand determine the bartering value of commodities exchanged.
343:
96:
3620:
2424:
2069:
Johnstone RA, Grafen A (1993). "Dishonesty and the handicap principle".
1900:
Zahavi A (September 1975). "Mate selection-a selection for a handicap".
705:
within their colonies due to close genetic relatedness among nestmates.
6693:
5263:
4562:
4462:
4310:
4305:
4019:
3771:
1322:"Burying the Vehicle Commentary on Wilson & Sober: Group Selection"
1187:
587:
520:
398:
monkeys, and people often rely on it with strangers and acquaintances.
292:
65:
41:
3440:
3350:"Colony defense and behavioral differentiation in the eusocial shrimp
3090:
3065:
1258:
697:
breeders and inclusive fitness benefits for the nonbreeding helpers.
3323:
1773:
1654:
Axelrod R, Hamilton WD (March 1981). "The evolution of cooperation".
739:
693:
593:
581:
559:
545:
539:
477:
287:
There are striking parallels between altruistic acts and exaggerated
2153:
Langlois JH, Roggman L (1990). "Attractive faces are only average".
1368:"E Pluribus Unum? Commentary on Wilson & Sober: Group Selection"
1079:
Galliard, Jean-François Le; Ferriére, Regis; Dieckmann, Ulf (2003).
596:
have been seen adopting orphans who lost their parents to predators.
255:
3432:
1594:
1534:
1179:
5166:
4518:
4327:
4226:
435:
326:
154:
31:
5273:
4477:
1414:
http://edge.org/conversation/the-false-allure-of-group-selection
681:
498:
423:
Trading partners are chosen from a number of potential partners.
5521:
5070:
3775:
1560:. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications. pp. 328–329.
612:
have been observed protecting other species from killer whales.
531:. A similar information system has been observed to be used by
115:(the consumption of the mother by her offspring) in the spider
1731:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 168–169, 181–183.
692:
is a species of eusocial marine snapping shrimp that lives in
502:
135:
When apparent altruism is not between kin, it may be based on
3105:
Krueger K, Schneider G, Flauger B, Heinze J (December 2015).
2950:
How monkeys see the world: Inside the mind of another species
2806:; Henrich J; Mareno MC; Lambeth SP; Schapiro SJ (July 2009).
2465:. Vol. 9. Cambridge, MA US: MIT Press. pp. 167–184.
1475:. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications. pp. 70–71.
602:
will rescue a member of the herd captured by predators. (See
542:
threaten predators and cover the rear as the troop retreats.
99:(the study of behavior), and more generally in the study of
5066:
3525:"Genotypic recognition and spatial responses by rice roots"
2551:
The expanding circle: ethics, evolution, and moral progress
1521:
Trivers RL (1971). "The evolution of reciprocal altruism".
2002:
The handicap principle: a missing piece of Darwin's puzzle
2026:
Grafen A (June 1990). "Biological signals as handicaps".
1496:
Smith JM (1989). "Evolution in structured populations.".
353:
prefer mates with the fewest unusual or minority features
3750:
1727:
Smith JM (1989). "Evolution in structured populations".
48:
refers to behaviour by an individual that increases the
56:
The term altruism was coined by the French philosopher
562:
have been observed aiding injured or disabled bonobos.
3157:"Birds' Cooperative Breeding Sheds Light on Altruism"
2411:
de Waal FB (April 2005). "How animals do business?".
1706:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 180–206.
1500:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 173–175.
389:
present in humans, primates, and many other mammals.
2450:. Cambridge, MA US: The MIT Press. pp. 131–151.
172:
The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex
87:
may help at the nest, then gain parental territory.
6719:
6601:
6490:
6483:
6381:
6256:
6124:
6048:
5950:
5756:
5749:
5612:
5451:
5430:
5309:
5104:
4936:
4861:
4765:
4692:
4648:
4503:
4407:
4224:
4183:
4052:
3842:
3751:
International Union for the Study of Social Insects
2390:"Altruism | Define Altruism at Dictionary.com"
1752:Godfray HC (1992). "The evolution of forgiveness".
125:describes the benefit of such altruism in terms of
2947:
2691:(in German). Reutlingen, Germany: Oertel+Spörer.
3720:"The meme of altruism and degrees of personhood"
1423:
1421:
1164:(1971). "The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism".
727:An example of altruism is found in the cellular
186:. These evolutionary theorists pointed out that
3529:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2186:
2184:
1852:
1850:
1697:
1695:
1693:
1649:
1647:
1645:
79:Altruistic behaviours appear most obviously in
2725:Yamamoto S, Humle T, Tanaka M (October 2009).
2715:(N.Y.: Dell publishers, 1961), pp. 80-81, 136.
2117:
2115:
1951:
1949:
1050:Davies NB, Krebs JR, West SA (April 9, 2012).
5533:
5438:Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour
5082:
3787:
3343:
3341:
3288:
3286:
2553:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
2463:Genetic and cultural evolution of cooperation
1558:Behavioural Ecology. An Evolutionary Approach
1473:Behavioural Ecology. An Evolutionary Approach
1235:(1964). "Group selection and kin selection".
948:
946:
476:Researchers tested whether wild white-handed
76:, meaning "other people" or "somebody else".
8:
3756:Quick Guide: Kin Selection (Current Biology)
3348:Duffy JE, Morrison CL, Macdonald KS (2002).
3017:Davidson College, biology department (2001)
1624:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp.
925:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp.
2586:. university of Chicago press. p. 58.
1058:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 307–333.
527:about feeding grounds by droppings left on
6487:
5753:
5540:
5526:
5518:
5443:International Society for Applied Ethology
5089:
5075:
5067:
3794:
3780:
3772:
2785:"Human-like Altruism Shown In Chimpanzees"
2727:"Chimpanzees help each other upon request"
1618:"You scratch my back, I'll ride on yours."
511:support elderly, sick, or injured animals.
68:of egoism. He derived it from the Italian
3682:
3628:
3566:
3548:
3089:
3041:Budzinski D, Schlosberg J (May 3, 2007).
2831:
2760:
2750:
2671:
2584:Wolves: Behavior,Ecology and conservation
2365:
2124:The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection
1921:
1830:
1820:
1096:
957:. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
6704:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
5028:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
1797:"Chaos and the evolution of cooperation"
3761:Quick Guide: Altruism (Current Biology)
3053:from the original on December 13, 2021.
2687:Hohmann U, Bartussek I, Böer B (2001).
909:
838:
72:, which in turn was derived from Latin
3727:Journal of Personal Cyberconsciousness
1056:An Introduction to Behavioural Ecology
303:rendered evolutionarily stable by his
6196:Psychological effects of Internet use
4791:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
3652:
3650:
3648:
3590:
3588:
3586:
2921:"Reciprocal Altruism in Vampire Bats"
921:Selection: The Mechanism of Evolution
7:
3295:"Eusociality in a coral-reef shrimp"
3028:, article retrieved March 11, 2009.
2104:Hockey PA, Dean WR, Ryan PG (2005).
1140:(9th ed.). Sinauer Associates.
738:. These protists live as individual
6176:Digital media use and mental health
3362:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
2005:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1410:The False Allure of Group Selection
151:Implications in evolutionary theory
5807:Automatic and controlled processes
4196:Evolutionary developmental biology
2167:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1990.tb00079.x
2142:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1098:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2003.tb00211.x
199:. Kin selection is an instance of
25:
6216:Smartphones and pedestrian safety
2660:Evolution: Education and Outreach
1032:A Grammar of the Italian Language
6867:
6854:
6842:
6841:
6241:Mobile phones and driving safety
5502:
5501:
5050:
5041:
5040:
2140:The Evolution of Human Sexuality
2106:Roberts Birds of Southern Africa
1795:Nowak M, Sigmund K (June 1993).
266:
254:
6144:Computer-mediated communication
4853:Extended evolutionary synthesis
4042:Gene-centered view of evolution
3500:. Reference.com. Archived from
3255:Haviland soldiers (Isoptera)".
3208:(4408). New York, N.Y.: 831–3.
2977:American Journal of Primatology
2954:. University of Chicago Press.
2946:Cheney DL, Seyfarth RM (1990).
1167:The Quarterly Review of Biology
1035:. London: John Murray. p.
817:Gene-centered view of evolution
6421:Empathising–systemising theory
5724:female intrasexual competition
5661:Evolutionarily stable strategy
5147:Bee learning and communication
4981:Hologenome theory of evolution
4848:History of molecular evolution
4074:Evolutionarily stable strategy
3963:Last universal common ancestor
3456:Journal of Theoretical Biology
3019:Bottlenose Dolphins – Altruism
2291:Journal of Theoretical Biology
2193:Journal of Theoretical Biology
2028:Journal of Theoretical Biology
1958:Journal of Theoretical Biology
1902:Journal of Theoretical Biology
1859:Journal of Theoretical Biology
1430:Journal of Theoretical Biology
807:Evolutionarily stable strategy
701:are exceptionally tolerant of
299:to suggest that both might be
1:
6781:Standard social science model
5834:Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis
4775:Renaissance and Enlightenment
2512:"Animal behaviour monographs"
2490:10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.07.012
2448:Cooperation and its evolution
2311:10.1016/s0022-5193(03)00188-7
2213:10.1016/s0022-5193(05)80297-8
2048:10.1016/S0022-5193(05)80088-8
1372:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
1326:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
1215:. Princeton University Press.
750:When it comes to altruism in
556:without any reward in return.
6629:Missing heritability problem
6221:Social aspects of television
5844:Evolution of nervous systems
5812:Computational theory of mind
4986:Missing heritability problem
4613:Gamete differentiation/sexes
3476:10.1016/0022-5193(64)90039-6
3222:10.1126/science.205.4408.831
3126:10.1016/j.beproc.2015.10.009
2752:10.1371/journal.pone.0007416
2654:Allchin D (September 2009).
2528:10.1016/0003-3472(67)90034-6
2522:(4): 401–402. October 1967.
1978:10.1016/0022-5193(77)90061-3
1932:10.1016/0022-5193(75)90111-3
1450:10.1016/0022-5193(64)90038-4
6875:Evolutionary biology portal
3155:Brown D (August 17, 2007).
2856:"October 7, 2005, Hour Two"
2656:"The evolution of morality"
1583:Quarterly Review of Biology
1523:Quarterly Review of Biology
981:Online Etymology Dictionary
676:altruistically defends the
130:coefficient of relationship
6928:
6836:Evolutionary psychologists
6709:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
6624:Human–animal communication
6336:Ovulatory shift hypothesis
6186:Imprinted brain hypothesis
6154:Human–computer interaction
4618:Life cycles/nuclear phases
4170:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
3601:Royal Society Open Science
2919:Perry J (April 19, 2002).
2392:. Dictionary.reference.com
2358:10.1038/s41598-022-18797-2
2126:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
443:bluestreak cleaner wrasses
195:theory, due originally to
6830:
6756:Environmental determinism
6727:Cultural selection theory
6614:Evolutionary epistemology
6528:evolutionary neuroscience
6201:Rank theory of depression
5703:Parent–offspring conflict
5555:
5497:
5204:Evolutionary neuroscience
5036:
4116:Parent–offspring conflict
3921:Earliest known life forms
3809:
3383:10.1007/s00265-002-0455-5
2824:10.1007/s10071-009-0218-z
2673:10.1007/s12052-009-0167-7
2625:10.1515/mamm.1984.48.1.43
1412:. Edge, Jun 19, 2012.
1384:10.1017/s0140525x00036219
1338:10.1017/s0140525x00036207
1296:. New York: Basic Books.
655:Examples in invertebrates
6649:Cultural group selection
6533:Biocultural anthropology
6226:Societal impacts of cars
6159:Media naturalness theory
5849:Fight-or-flight response
5157:Behavioral endocrinology
4969:Cultural group selection
4833:The eclipse of Darwinism
4805:On the Origin of Species
4780:Transmutation of species
3024:January 6, 2010, at the
2892:Harvard University Press
797:Co-operation (evolution)
529:commonly shared latrines
411:Biological market theory
357:African pygmy kingfisher
332:African pygmy kingfisher
141:evolutionary game theory
6912:Evolutionary psychology
6849:Evolutionary psychology
6813:Sociocultural evolution
6654:Dual inheritance theory
6111:Personality development
5572:Theoretical foundations
5549:Evolutionary psychology
5352:Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt
5132:Animal sexual behaviour
4974:Dual inheritance theory
4813:History of paleontology
3684:10.1111/1365-2745.12787
3550:10.1073/pnas.1222821110
2332:Ibrahim, Ahmed (2022).
2260:10.1126/science.1253226
1822:10.1073/pnas.90.11.5091
1676:10.1126/science.7466396
660:Some termites, such as
488:Examples in vertebrates
225:Prisoner's Dilemma Game
221:evolutionarily unstable
6771:Social constructionism
6766:Psychological nativism
6741:Biological determinism
6689:Recent human evolution
6684:Punctuated equilibrium
6507:Behavioral epigenetics
6502:evolutionary economics
6471:Variability hypothesis
6416:Emotional intelligence
6149:Engineering psychology
5839:Evolution of the brain
5291:Tool use by non-humans
5244:Philosophical ethology
5189:Comparative psychology
5137:Animal welfare science
4662:Punctuated equilibrium
3983:Non-adaptive radiation
3931:Evolutionary arms race
3766:"Mutt-ernal Instincts"
3253:Globitermes sulphureus
3181:Fackelmann KA (1989).
2989:10.1002/ajp.1350180204
2083:10.1006/anbe.1993.1253
1879:10.1006/jtbi.1997.0496
1352:on September 15, 2006.
1282:God's utility function
663:Globitermes sulphureus
482:Khao Yai National Park
450:
375:Reciprocity mechanisms
335:
248:The handicap principle
161:
37:
36:Olive baboons grooming
6798:Multilineal evolution
6761:Nature versus nurture
6720:Theoretical positions
6568:Functional psychology
6563:Evolutionary medicine
6538:Biological psychiatry
6246:Texting while driving
6236:Lead–crime hypothesis
6096:Cognitive development
6081:Caregiver deprivation
5592:Gene selection theory
4954:Evolutionary medicine
4828:Mendelian inheritance
4536:Biological complexity
4524:Programmed cell death
4216:Phenotypic plasticity
3936:Evolutionary pressure
3926:Evidence of evolution
3824:Timeline of evolution
3269:10.1007/s000400050049
3114:Behavioural Processes
3070:Marine Mammal Science
2927:on September 20, 2009
1729:Evolutionary Genetics
1498:Evolutionary Genetics
1398:on December 27, 2007.
955:"Biological altruism"
802:Evolution of morality
439:
365:evolutionarily stable
330:
273:The best horses in a
240:evolutionarily stable
158:
143:and specifically the
35:
6751:Cultural determinism
6558:Evolutionary biology
6543:Cognitive psychology
6491:Academic disciplines
6139:Cognitive ergonomics
6106:Language acquisition
6086:Childhood attachment
5899:Wason selection task
5793:Behavioral modernity
5582:Cognitive revolution
5565:Evolutionary thought
5397:William Homan Thorpe
5162:Behavioural genetics
5122:Animal consciousness
5117:Animal communication
4928:Teleology in biology
4823:Blending inheritance
4201:Genetic assimilation
4064:Artificial selection
3803:Evolutionary biology
3746:Biological Altruism
2609:Herpestes sanguineus
723:Examples in protists
669:Camponotus saundersi
6818:Unilineal evolution
6583:Population genetics
6368:Sexy son hypothesis
6306:Hormonal motivation
6286:Concealed ovulation
5827:Dual process theory
5698:Parental investment
5152:Behavioural ecology
4991:Molecular evolution
4949:Ecological genetics
4818:Transitional fossil
4608:Sexual reproduction
4448:endomembrane system
4377:pollinator-mediated
4333:dolphins and whales
4111:Parental investment
3675:2017JEcol.105..930M
3621:10.1098/rsos.160879
3613:2017RSOS....460879M
3541:2013PNAS..110.2670F
3504:on November 8, 2012
3468:1964JThBi...7...17H
3425:1998Ecol...79..361P
3375:2002BEcoS..51..488D
3316:1996Natur.381..512D
3214:1979Sci...205..831D
3161:The Washington Post
3082:2017MMamS..33....7P
2862:on October 13, 2005
2743:2009PLoSO...4.7416Y
2413:Scientific American
2350:2022NatSR..1215157I
2303:2003JThBi.224..399K
2252:2014Sci...344.1410P
2205:1990JThBi.144...15K
2040:1990JThBi.144..517G
1970:1977JThBi..67..603Z
1914:1975JThBi..53..205Z
1871:1997JThBi.189...53K
1813:1993PNAS...90.5091N
1766:1992Natur.355..206G
1668:1981Sci...211.1390A
1442:1964JThBi...7....1H
1408:Pinker, S. (2012).
1251:1964Natur.201.1145S
1245:(4924): 1145–1147.
1029:Ciciloni F (1825).
812:Evolutionary ethics
782:Reciprocal altruism
648:Antarctic Peninsula
643:Harpagifer bispinis
617:Przewalski's horses
216:reciprocal altruism
105:evolutionary theory
6897:Behavioral ecology
6776:Social determinism
6659:Fisher's principle
6619:Great ape language
6609:Cultural evolution
6578:Philosophy of mind
6411:Division of labour
6373:Westermarck effect
6321:Mating preferences
6231:Distracted driving
5965:Literary criticism
5822:Domain specificity
5802:modularity of mind
5481:Behavioral Ecology
5402:Nikolaas Tinbergen
5194:Emotion in animals
5172:Cognitive ethology
4964:Cultural evolution
4079:Fisher's principle
4008:Handicap principle
3998:Parallel evolution
3862:Adaptive radiation
3663:Journal of Ecology
3400:on August 3, 2015.
3352:Synalpheus regalis
3064:Pitman RL (2017).
3043:"Battle at Kruger"
2338:Scientific Reports
1702:Sigmund K (1993).
1616:Dawkins R (1989).
792:Cheating (biology)
746:Examples in plants
709:data reveals that
689:Synalpheus regalis
666:and ants, such as
451:
336:
305:handicap principle
180:John Maynard Smith
176:George C. Williams
162:
147:as social theory.
145:prisoner's dilemma
38:
6884:
6883:
6862:Psychology portal
6826:
6825:
6669:Hologenome theory
6639:Unit of selection
6634:Primate cognition
6548:Cognitive science
6479:
6478:
6350:Sexual attraction
6326:Mating strategies
6091:Cinderella effect
6021:Moral foundations
5925:Visual perception
5817:Domain generality
5786:Facial expression
5734:Sexual dimorphism
5693:Natural selection
5639:Hamiltonian spite
5515:
5514:
5407:Jakob von UexkĂĽll
5177:Comfort behaviour
5064:
5063:
4680:Uniformitarianism
4633:Sex-determination
4138:Sexual dimorphism
4133:Natural selection
4037:Unit of selection
4003:Signalling theory
3310:(6582): 512–514.
3293:Duffy JE (1996).
3091:10.1111/mms.12343
2961:978-0-226-10246-7
2905:978-0-674-35660-3
2698:978-3-88627-301-0
2593:978-0-226-51696-7
2560:978-1-4008-3843-1
2549:Singer P (2011).
2138:Symons D (1979).
2122:Fisher R (1930).
2012:978-0-19-510035-8
1999:Zahavi A (1997).
1760:(6357): 206–207.
1567:978-0-632-00998-5
1482:978-0-632-00998-5
1303:978-0-465-06990-3
1293:River Out of Eden
1259:10.1038/2011145a0
1136:Alcock A (2009).
1065:978-1-4443-3949-9
953:Okasha S (2008).
936:978-0-19-856972-5
772:Inclusive fitness
762:favors altruism.
471:cleaning stations
457:and its "client"
349:natural selection
201:inclusive fitness
188:natural selection
85:Florida scrub jay
81:kin relationships
16:(Redirected from
6919:
6871:
6858:
6845:
6844:
6488:
6484:Related subjects
6271:Adult attachment
5798:Cognitive module
5754:
5741:Social selection
5715:Costly signaling
5710:Sexual selection
5597:Modern synthesis
5542:
5535:
5528:
5519:
5505:
5504:
5467:Animal Cognition
5460:Animal Behaviour
5412:Wolfgang Wickler
5112:Animal cognition
5091:
5084:
5077:
5068:
5054:
5044:
5043:
4843:Modern synthesis
4603:Multicellularity
4598:Mosaic evolution
4483:auditory ossicle
4165:Social selection
4148:Flowering plants
4143:Sexual selection
3796:
3789:
3782:
3773:
3734:
3724:
3718:Stoel A (2012).
3705:
3704:
3686:
3654:
3643:
3642:
3632:
3592:
3581:
3580:
3570:
3552:
3535:(7): 2670–2675.
3520:
3514:
3513:
3511:
3509:
3494:
3488:
3487:
3451:
3445:
3444:
3408:
3402:
3401:
3399:
3393:. Archived from
3358:
3345:
3336:
3335:
3324:10.1038/381512a0
3299:
3290:
3281:
3280:
3257:Insectes Sociaux
3248:
3242:
3241:
3197:
3191:
3190:
3178:
3172:
3171:
3169:
3167:
3152:
3146:
3145:
3111:
3102:
3096:
3095:
3093:
3061:
3055:
3054:
3038:
3032:
3030:Archived version
3015:
3009:
3008:
2972:
2966:
2965:
2953:
2943:
2937:
2936:
2934:
2932:
2923:. Archived from
2916:
2910:
2909:
2878:
2872:
2871:
2869:
2867:
2858:. Archived from
2852:
2846:
2845:
2835:
2812:Animal Cognition
2799:
2793:
2792:
2781:
2775:
2774:
2764:
2754:
2722:
2716:
2709:
2703:
2702:
2684:
2678:
2677:
2675:
2651:
2645:
2644:
2604:
2598:
2597:
2582:Mech LD (2003).
2579:
2573:
2572:
2546:
2540:
2539:
2516:Animal Behaviour
2508:
2502:
2501:
2478:Animal Behaviour
2473:
2467:
2466:
2458:
2452:
2451:
2443:
2437:
2436:
2408:
2402:
2401:
2399:
2397:
2386:
2380:
2379:
2369:
2329:
2323:
2322:
2286:
2280:
2279:
2246:(6190): 1410–4.
2231:
2225:
2224:
2188:
2179:
2178:
2150:
2144:
2143:
2135:
2129:
2127:
2119:
2110:
2109:
2101:
2095:
2094:
2066:
2060:
2059:
2023:
2017:
2016:
1996:
1990:
1989:
1953:
1944:
1943:
1925:
1897:
1891:
1890:
1854:
1845:
1844:
1834:
1824:
1792:
1786:
1785:
1774:10.1038/355206a0
1749:
1743:
1742:
1724:
1718:
1717:
1699:
1688:
1687:
1662:(4489): 1390–6.
1651:
1640:
1639:
1622:The Selfish Gene
1613:
1607:
1606:
1578:
1572:
1571:
1553:
1547:
1546:
1518:
1512:
1511:
1493:
1487:
1486:
1468:
1462:
1461:
1425:
1416:
1406:
1400:
1399:
1394:. Archived from
1360:
1354:
1353:
1348:. Archived from
1314:
1308:
1307:
1279:See the chapter
1277:
1271:
1270:
1229:
1223:
1206:
1200:
1199:
1158:
1152:
1151:
1133:
1127:
1126:
1100:
1076:
1070:
1069:
1047:
1041:
1040:
1026:
1020:
1019:
1002:Teske N (2009).
999:
993:
992:
990:
988:
983:. Douglas Harper
977:"altruism (n .)"
973:
967:
966:
964:
962:
950:
941:
940:
924:
914:
898:
843:
827:Rescue behaviour
604:Battle at Kruger
322:sexual selection
289:sexual ornaments
270:
258:
101:social evolution
21:
6927:
6926:
6922:
6921:
6920:
6918:
6917:
6916:
6887:
6886:
6885:
6880:
6822:
6808:Neoevolutionism
6715:
6699:Species complex
6664:Group selection
6602:Research topics
6597:
6573:Neuropsychology
6475:
6461:Substance abuse
6383:Sex differences
6377:
6291:Coolidge effect
6252:
6164:Neuroergonomics
6129:
6120:
6044:
5946:
5880:Folk psychology
5761:
5745:
5615:
5608:
5551:
5546:
5516:
5511:
5493:
5447:
5426:
5422:Solly Zuckerman
5362:Karl von Frisch
5347:Richard Dawkins
5332:John B. Calhoun
5317:Patrick Bateson
5305:
5239:Pain in animals
5100:
5095:
5065:
5060:
5032:
4959:Group selection
4932:
4857:
4761:
4688:
4650:Tempo and modes
4644:
4499:
4403:
4220:
4179:
4055:
4048:
4025:Species complex
3838:
3829:History of life
3805:
3800:
3742:
3737:
3722:
3717:
3713:
3711:Further reading
3708:
3656:
3655:
3646:
3594:
3593:
3584:
3522:
3521:
3517:
3507:
3505:
3496:
3495:
3491:
3453:
3452:
3448:
3410:
3409:
3405:
3397:
3356:
3347:
3346:
3339:
3297:
3292:
3291:
3284:
3250:
3249:
3245:
3199:
3198:
3194:
3180:
3179:
3175:
3165:
3163:
3154:
3153:
3149:
3109:
3104:
3103:
3099:
3063:
3062:
3058:
3040:
3039:
3035:
3026:Wayback Machine
3016:
3012:
2974:
2973:
2969:
2962:
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2853:
2849:
2801:
2800:
2796:
2783:
2782:
2778:
2724:
2723:
2719:
2713:African Ganesis
2711:Robert Ardrey,
2710:
2706:
2699:
2686:
2685:
2681:
2653:
2652:
2648:
2606:
2605:
2601:
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2326:
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2190:
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2147:
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2132:
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2120:
2113:
2103:
2102:
2098:
2068:
2067:
2063:
2025:
2024:
2020:
2013:
1998:
1997:
1993:
1955:
1954:
1947:
1923:10.1.1.586.3819
1899:
1898:
1894:
1856:
1855:
1848:
1794:
1793:
1789:
1751:
1750:
1746:
1739:
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1610:
1580:
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1568:
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1520:
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1508:
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1494:
1490:
1483:
1470:
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1427:
1426:
1419:
1407:
1403:
1362:
1361:
1357:
1316:
1315:
1311:
1304:
1286:
1278:
1274:
1231:
1230:
1226:
1207:
1203:
1160:
1159:
1155:
1148:
1138:Animal Behavior
1135:
1134:
1130:
1078:
1077:
1073:
1066:
1049:
1048:
1044:
1028:
1027:
1023:
1016:
1001:
1000:
996:
986:
984:
975:
974:
970:
960:
958:
952:
951:
944:
937:
917:Bell G (2008).
916:
915:
911:
907:
902:
901:
896:
892:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
848:
844:
840:
835:
768:
760:group selection
748:
725:
699:S. regalis
657:
638:
627:
610:Humpback whales
600:African buffalo
495:
490:
449:
413:
404:
395:
386:
377:
301:fitness signals
282:
281:
280:
279:
278:
271:
263:
262:
259:
250:
249:
214:introduced his
184:Richard Dawkins
167:group selection
153:
123:Hamilton's rule
93:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6925:
6923:
6915:
6914:
6909:
6904:
6899:
6889:
6888:
6882:
6881:
6879:
6878:
6865:
6852:
6839:
6831:
6828:
6827:
6824:
6823:
6821:
6820:
6815:
6810:
6805:
6800:
6795:
6790:
6785:
6784:
6783:
6778:
6773:
6768:
6763:
6758:
6753:
6748:
6743:
6729:
6723:
6721:
6717:
6716:
6714:
6713:
6712:
6711:
6706:
6701:
6696:
6691:
6686:
6681:
6676:
6671:
6666:
6661:
6656:
6651:
6646:
6636:
6631:
6626:
6621:
6616:
6611:
6605:
6603:
6599:
6598:
6596:
6595:
6590:
6585:
6580:
6575:
6570:
6565:
6560:
6555:
6550:
6545:
6540:
6535:
6530:
6513:
6504:
6494:
6492:
6485:
6481:
6480:
6477:
6476:
6474:
6473:
6468:
6463:
6458:
6453:
6448:
6443:
6438:
6433:
6428:
6423:
6418:
6413:
6408:
6403:
6398:
6393:
6387:
6385:
6379:
6378:
6376:
6375:
6370:
6365:
6352:
6343:
6338:
6333:
6328:
6323:
6318:
6313:
6308:
6303:
6298:
6293:
6288:
6283:
6278:
6273:
6268:
6262:
6260:
6254:
6253:
6251:
6250:
6249:
6248:
6243:
6238:
6233:
6223:
6218:
6213:
6208:
6203:
6198:
6193:
6191:Mind-blindness
6188:
6183:
6178:
6173:
6168:
6167:
6166:
6161:
6156:
6151:
6146:
6135:
6133:
6122:
6121:
6119:
6118:
6113:
6108:
6103:
6098:
6093:
6088:
6083:
6078:
6065:
6060:
6054:
6052:
6046:
6045:
6043:
6042:
6037:
6036:
6035:
6025:
6024:
6023:
6013:
6012:
6011:
6006:
6001:
5991:
5986:
5985:
5984:
5974:
5973:
5972:
5967:
5956:
5954:
5948:
5947:
5945:
5944:
5943:
5942:
5937:
5932:
5922:
5917:
5912:
5903:
5902:
5901:
5896:
5886:
5884:theory of mind
5877:
5868:
5867:
5866:
5861:
5856:
5846:
5841:
5836:
5831:
5830:
5829:
5824:
5819:
5814:
5809:
5795:
5790:
5789:
5788:
5783:
5778:
5767:
5765:
5751:
5747:
5746:
5744:
5743:
5738:
5737:
5736:
5731:
5726:
5717:
5707:
5706:
5705:
5695:
5690:
5685:
5680:
5679:
5678:
5668:
5663:
5658:
5653:
5651:Baldwin effect
5648:
5647:
5646:
5641:
5636:
5626:
5620:
5618:
5610:
5609:
5607:
5606:
5601:
5600:
5599:
5594:
5589:
5584:
5579:
5569:
5568:
5567:
5556:
5553:
5552:
5547:
5545:
5544:
5537:
5530:
5522:
5513:
5512:
5510:
5509:
5498:
5495:
5494:
5492:
5491:
5484:
5477:
5474:Animal Welfare
5470:
5463:
5455:
5453:
5449:
5448:
5446:
5445:
5440:
5434:
5432:
5428:
5427:
5425:
5424:
5419:
5414:
5409:
5404:
5399:
5394:
5389:
5387:Desmond Morris
5384:
5379:
5374:
5369:
5364:
5359:
5354:
5349:
5344:
5342:Marian Dawkins
5339:
5337:Charles Darwin
5334:
5329:
5324:
5319:
5313:
5311:
5307:
5306:
5304:
5303:
5298:
5293:
5288:
5283:
5282:
5281:
5276:
5271:
5266:
5256:
5251:
5246:
5241:
5236:
5231:
5226:
5221:
5219:Human ethology
5216:
5211:
5206:
5201:
5196:
5191:
5186:
5185:
5184:
5174:
5169:
5164:
5159:
5154:
5149:
5144:
5139:
5134:
5129:
5127:Animal culture
5124:
5119:
5114:
5108:
5106:
5102:
5101:
5096:
5094:
5093:
5086:
5079:
5071:
5062:
5061:
5059:
5058:
5048:
5037:
5034:
5033:
5031:
5030:
5025:
5020:
5015:
5010:
5009:
5008:
4998:
4993:
4988:
4983:
4978:
4977:
4976:
4971:
4966:
4956:
4951:
4946:
4940:
4938:
4934:
4933:
4931:
4930:
4925:
4924:
4923:
4918:
4913:
4912:
4911:
4901:
4896:
4891:
4886:
4881:
4871:
4865:
4863:
4859:
4858:
4856:
4855:
4850:
4845:
4840:
4835:
4830:
4825:
4820:
4815:
4810:
4809:
4808:
4799:Charles Darwin
4796:
4795:
4794:
4782:
4777:
4771:
4769:
4763:
4762:
4760:
4759:
4754:
4749:
4744:
4739:
4737:Non-ecological
4734:
4729:
4724:
4719:
4714:
4709:
4704:
4698:
4696:
4690:
4689:
4687:
4686:
4677:
4668:
4654:
4652:
4646:
4645:
4643:
4642:
4637:
4636:
4635:
4630:
4625:
4620:
4615:
4605:
4600:
4595:
4590:
4585:
4580:
4575:
4570:
4565:
4560:
4555:
4554:
4553:
4543:
4538:
4533:
4528:
4527:
4526:
4521:
4510:
4508:
4501:
4500:
4498:
4497:
4496:
4495:
4490:
4488:nervous system
4485:
4480:
4475:
4467:
4466:
4465:
4460:
4455:
4450:
4445:
4440:
4430:
4425:
4420:
4414:
4412:
4405:
4404:
4402:
4401:
4396:
4391:
4386:
4381:
4380:
4379:
4369:
4368:
4367:
4362:
4361:
4360:
4355:
4345:
4340:
4335:
4330:
4325:
4324:
4323:
4318:
4308:
4298:
4293:
4292:
4291:
4281:
4276:
4271:
4266:
4265:
4264:
4254:
4249:
4248:
4247:
4237:
4231:
4229:
4222:
4221:
4219:
4218:
4213:
4208:
4203:
4198:
4193:
4187:
4185:
4181:
4180:
4178:
4177:
4172:
4167:
4162:
4161:
4160:
4155:
4150:
4140:
4135:
4130:
4125:
4120:
4119:
4118:
4113:
4103:
4098:
4093:
4092:
4091:
4081:
4076:
4071:
4066:
4060:
4058:
4050:
4049:
4047:
4046:
4045:
4044:
4034:
4029:
4028:
4027:
4022:
4012:
4011:
4010:
4000:
3995:
3990:
3988:Origin of life
3985:
3980:
3975:
3973:Microevolution
3970:
3968:Macroevolution
3965:
3960:
3955:
3954:
3953:
3943:
3938:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3918:
3913:
3908:
3906:Common descent
3903:
3902:
3901:
3891:
3886:
3884:Baldwin effect
3881:
3880:
3879:
3874:
3864:
3859:
3854:
3848:
3846:
3840:
3839:
3837:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3821:
3816:
3810:
3807:
3806:
3801:
3799:
3798:
3791:
3784:
3776:
3770:
3769:
3763:
3758:
3753:
3748:
3741:
3740:External links
3738:
3736:
3735:
3714:
3712:
3709:
3707:
3706:
3669:(4): 930–934.
3644:
3582:
3515:
3489:
3446:
3433:10.2307/176939
3419:(2): 361–382.
3403:
3369:(5): 488–495.
3337:
3282:
3263:(3): 289–297.
3243:
3192:
3173:
3147:
3097:
3056:
3033:
3010:
2983:(2): 101–108.
2967:
2960:
2938:
2911:
2904:
2873:
2847:
2794:
2776:
2717:
2704:
2697:
2679:
2666:(4): 590–601.
2646:
2599:
2592:
2574:
2559:
2541:
2503:
2484:(4): 801–809.
2468:
2453:
2438:
2403:
2381:
2324:
2297:(3): 399–410.
2281:
2226:
2180:
2161:(2): 115–121.
2145:
2130:
2111:
2096:
2077:(4): 759–764.
2061:
2018:
2011:
1991:
1945:
1892:
1846:
1807:(11): 5091–4.
1787:
1744:
1738:978-0198542155
1737:
1719:
1712:
1689:
1641:
1635:978-0192860927
1634:
1608:
1595:10.1086/408298
1573:
1566:
1548:
1535:10.1086/406755
1513:
1507:978-0198542155
1506:
1488:
1481:
1463:
1417:
1401:
1378:(4): 617–618.
1355:
1332:(4): 616–617.
1309:
1302:
1272:
1224:
1209:Williams, G.C.
1201:
1180:10.1086/406755
1153:
1147:978-0878932252
1146:
1128:
1071:
1064:
1042:
1021:
1014:
994:
968:
942:
935:
908:
906:
903:
900:
899:
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
846:
837:
836:
834:
831:
830:
829:
824:
819:
814:
809:
804:
799:
794:
789:
784:
779:
774:
767:
764:
747:
744:
724:
721:
720:
719:
685:
656:
653:
652:
651:
637:
634:
633:
632:
626:
623:
622:
621:
613:
607:
597:
591:
585:
579:
576:Vervet monkeys
573:
563:
557:
543:
536:
518:
512:
506:
494:
491:
489:
486:
455:cleaner wrasse
440:
434:
433:
430:
427:
424:
421:
412:
409:
403:
400:
394:
391:
385:
384:Symmetry-based
382:
376:
373:
361:Ispidina picta
272:
265:
264:
260:
253:
252:
251:
247:
246:
245:
244:
212:Robert Trivers
197:W. D. Hamilton
152:
149:
92:
89:
60:in French, as
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6924:
6913:
6910:
6908:
6905:
6903:
6900:
6898:
6895:
6894:
6892:
6877:
6876:
6870:
6866:
6864:
6863:
6857:
6853:
6851:
6850:
6840:
6838:
6837:
6833:
6832:
6829:
6819:
6816:
6814:
6811:
6809:
6806:
6804:
6803:Neo-Darwinism
6801:
6799:
6796:
6794:
6791:
6789:
6788:Functionalism
6786:
6782:
6779:
6777:
6774:
6772:
6769:
6767:
6764:
6762:
6759:
6757:
6754:
6752:
6749:
6747:
6746:Connectionism
6744:
6742:
6739:
6738:
6737:
6736:indeterminism
6733:
6730:
6728:
6725:
6724:
6722:
6718:
6710:
6707:
6705:
6702:
6700:
6697:
6695:
6692:
6690:
6687:
6685:
6682:
6680:
6677:
6675:
6672:
6670:
6667:
6665:
6662:
6660:
6657:
6655:
6652:
6650:
6647:
6645:
6642:
6641:
6640:
6637:
6635:
6632:
6630:
6627:
6625:
6622:
6620:
6617:
6615:
6612:
6610:
6607:
6606:
6604:
6600:
6594:
6591:
6589:
6586:
6584:
6581:
6579:
6576:
6574:
6571:
6569:
6566:
6564:
6561:
6559:
6556:
6554:
6551:
6549:
6546:
6544:
6541:
6539:
6536:
6534:
6531:
6529:
6525:
6521:
6517:
6514:
6512:
6508:
6505:
6503:
6499:
6496:
6495:
6493:
6489:
6486:
6482:
6472:
6469:
6467:
6464:
6462:
6459:
6457:
6456:Schizophrenia
6454:
6452:
6449:
6447:
6444:
6442:
6441:Mental health
6439:
6437:
6434:
6432:
6429:
6427:
6424:
6422:
6419:
6417:
6414:
6412:
6409:
6407:
6404:
6402:
6399:
6397:
6394:
6392:
6389:
6388:
6386:
6384:
6380:
6374:
6371:
6369:
6366:
6364:
6360:
6356:
6353:
6351:
6347:
6344:
6342:
6339:
6337:
6334:
6332:
6329:
6327:
6324:
6322:
6319:
6317:
6316:Mate guarding
6314:
6312:
6309:
6307:
6304:
6302:
6299:
6297:
6294:
6292:
6289:
6287:
6284:
6282:
6279:
6277:
6276:Age disparity
6274:
6272:
6269:
6267:
6264:
6263:
6261:
6259:
6255:
6247:
6244:
6242:
6239:
6237:
6234:
6232:
6229:
6228:
6227:
6224:
6222:
6219:
6217:
6214:
6212:
6209:
6207:
6206:Schizophrenia
6204:
6202:
6199:
6197:
6194:
6192:
6189:
6187:
6184:
6182:
6179:
6177:
6174:
6172:
6169:
6165:
6162:
6160:
6157:
6155:
6152:
6150:
6147:
6145:
6142:
6141:
6140:
6137:
6136:
6134:
6132:
6131:Mental health
6127:
6126:Human factors
6123:
6117:
6116:Socialization
6114:
6112:
6109:
6107:
6104:
6102:
6099:
6097:
6094:
6092:
6089:
6087:
6084:
6082:
6079:
6077:
6076:paternal bond
6073:
6069:
6066:
6064:
6061:
6059:
6056:
6055:
6053:
6051:
6047:
6041:
6038:
6034:
6031:
6030:
6029:
6026:
6022:
6019:
6018:
6017:
6014:
6010:
6007:
6005:
6002:
6000:
5997:
5996:
5995:
5992:
5990:
5987:
5983:
5980:
5979:
5978:
5975:
5971:
5968:
5966:
5963:
5962:
5961:
5958:
5957:
5955:
5953:
5949:
5941:
5940:NaĂŻve physics
5938:
5936:
5933:
5931:
5928:
5927:
5926:
5923:
5921:
5918:
5916:
5913:
5911:
5907:
5906:Motor control
5904:
5900:
5897:
5895:
5892:
5891:
5890:
5887:
5885:
5881:
5878:
5876:
5872:
5869:
5865:
5864:Ophidiophobia
5862:
5860:
5857:
5855:
5854:Arachnophobia
5852:
5851:
5850:
5847:
5845:
5842:
5840:
5837:
5835:
5832:
5828:
5825:
5823:
5820:
5818:
5815:
5813:
5810:
5808:
5805:
5804:
5803:
5799:
5796:
5794:
5791:
5787:
5784:
5782:
5781:Display rules
5779:
5777:
5774:
5773:
5772:
5769:
5768:
5766:
5764:
5759:
5755:
5752:
5748:
5742:
5739:
5735:
5732:
5730:
5727:
5725:
5721:
5718:
5716:
5713:
5712:
5711:
5708:
5704:
5701:
5700:
5699:
5696:
5694:
5691:
5689:
5686:
5684:
5683:Kin selection
5681:
5677:
5674:
5673:
5672:
5669:
5667:
5664:
5662:
5659:
5657:
5654:
5652:
5649:
5645:
5642:
5640:
5637:
5635:
5632:
5631:
5630:
5627:
5625:
5622:
5621:
5619:
5617:
5611:
5605:
5602:
5598:
5595:
5593:
5590:
5588:
5585:
5583:
5580:
5578:
5577:Adaptationism
5575:
5574:
5573:
5570:
5566:
5563:
5562:
5561:
5558:
5557:
5554:
5550:
5543:
5538:
5536:
5531:
5529:
5524:
5523:
5520:
5508:
5500:
5499:
5496:
5490:
5489:
5485:
5483:
5482:
5478:
5476:
5475:
5471:
5469:
5468:
5464:
5462:
5461:
5457:
5456:
5454:
5450:
5444:
5441:
5439:
5436:
5435:
5433:
5429:
5423:
5420:
5418:
5415:
5413:
5410:
5408:
5405:
5403:
5400:
5398:
5395:
5393:
5392:Thomas Sebeok
5390:
5388:
5385:
5383:
5382:Konrad Lorenz
5380:
5378:
5377:Julian Huxley
5375:
5373:
5372:Heini Hediger
5370:
5368:
5365:
5363:
5360:
5358:
5355:
5353:
5350:
5348:
5345:
5343:
5340:
5338:
5335:
5333:
5330:
5328:
5325:
5323:
5320:
5318:
5315:
5314:
5312:
5308:
5302:
5301:Zoomusicology
5299:
5297:
5294:
5292:
5289:
5287:
5284:
5280:
5277:
5275:
5272:
5270:
5267:
5265:
5262:
5261:
5260:
5257:
5255:
5252:
5250:
5247:
5245:
5242:
5240:
5237:
5235:
5234:Neuroethology
5232:
5230:
5227:
5225:
5222:
5220:
5217:
5215:
5212:
5210:
5207:
5205:
5202:
5200:
5197:
5195:
5192:
5190:
5187:
5183:
5180:
5179:
5178:
5175:
5173:
5170:
5168:
5165:
5163:
5160:
5158:
5155:
5153:
5150:
5148:
5145:
5143:
5142:Anthrozoology
5140:
5138:
5135:
5133:
5130:
5128:
5125:
5123:
5120:
5118:
5115:
5113:
5110:
5109:
5107:
5103:
5099:
5092:
5087:
5085:
5080:
5078:
5073:
5072:
5069:
5057:
5053:
5049:
5047:
5039:
5038:
5035:
5029:
5026:
5024:
5021:
5019:
5016:
5014:
5011:
5007:
5004:
5003:
5002:
5001:Phylogenetics
4999:
4997:
4994:
4992:
4989:
4987:
4984:
4982:
4979:
4975:
4972:
4970:
4967:
4965:
4962:
4961:
4960:
4957:
4955:
4952:
4950:
4947:
4945:
4942:
4941:
4939:
4935:
4929:
4926:
4922:
4919:
4917:
4914:
4910:
4907:
4906:
4905:
4904:Structuralism
4902:
4900:
4897:
4895:
4892:
4890:
4887:
4885:
4882:
4880:
4879:Catastrophism
4877:
4876:
4875:
4872:
4870:
4867:
4866:
4864:
4860:
4854:
4851:
4849:
4846:
4844:
4841:
4839:
4838:Neo-Darwinism
4836:
4834:
4831:
4829:
4826:
4824:
4821:
4819:
4816:
4814:
4811:
4807:
4806:
4802:
4801:
4800:
4797:
4793:
4792:
4788:
4787:
4786:
4783:
4781:
4778:
4776:
4773:
4772:
4770:
4768:
4764:
4758:
4755:
4753:
4752:Reinforcement
4750:
4748:
4745:
4743:
4740:
4738:
4735:
4733:
4730:
4728:
4725:
4723:
4720:
4718:
4715:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4700:
4699:
4697:
4695:
4691:
4685:
4684:Catastrophism
4681:
4678:
4676:
4675:Macromutation
4672:
4671:Micromutation
4669:
4667:
4663:
4659:
4656:
4655:
4653:
4651:
4647:
4641:
4638:
4634:
4631:
4629:
4626:
4624:
4621:
4619:
4616:
4614:
4611:
4610:
4609:
4606:
4604:
4601:
4599:
4596:
4594:
4591:
4589:
4586:
4584:
4581:
4579:
4578:Immune system
4576:
4574:
4571:
4569:
4566:
4564:
4561:
4559:
4556:
4552:
4549:
4548:
4547:
4544:
4542:
4539:
4537:
4534:
4532:
4529:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4516:
4515:
4512:
4511:
4509:
4507:
4502:
4494:
4491:
4489:
4486:
4484:
4481:
4479:
4476:
4474:
4471:
4470:
4468:
4464:
4461:
4459:
4456:
4454:
4451:
4449:
4446:
4444:
4441:
4439:
4438:symbiogenesis
4436:
4435:
4434:
4431:
4429:
4426:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4416:
4415:
4413:
4411:
4406:
4400:
4397:
4395:
4392:
4390:
4387:
4385:
4382:
4378:
4375:
4374:
4373:
4370:
4366:
4363:
4359:
4356:
4354:
4351:
4350:
4349:
4346:
4344:
4341:
4339:
4336:
4334:
4331:
4329:
4326:
4322:
4319:
4317:
4314:
4313:
4312:
4309:
4307:
4304:
4303:
4302:
4299:
4297:
4294:
4290:
4287:
4286:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4263:
4260:
4259:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4246:
4243:
4242:
4241:
4238:
4236:
4233:
4232:
4230:
4228:
4223:
4217:
4214:
4212:
4209:
4207:
4204:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4189:
4188:
4186:
4182:
4176:
4173:
4171:
4168:
4166:
4163:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4146:
4145:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4124:
4121:
4117:
4114:
4112:
4109:
4108:
4107:
4106:Kin selection
4104:
4102:
4101:Genetic drift
4099:
4097:
4094:
4090:
4087:
4086:
4085:
4082:
4080:
4077:
4075:
4072:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4061:
4059:
4057:
4051:
4043:
4040:
4039:
4038:
4035:
4033:
4030:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4017:
4016:
4013:
4009:
4006:
4005:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3959:
3956:
3952:
3949:
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3947:
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3939:
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3927:
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3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3900:
3897:
3896:
3895:
3892:
3890:
3887:
3885:
3882:
3878:
3875:
3873:
3870:
3869:
3868:
3865:
3863:
3860:
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3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3811:
3808:
3804:
3797:
3792:
3790:
3785:
3783:
3778:
3777:
3774:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3752:
3749:
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3732:
3728:
3721:
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3710:
3702:
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3660:
3653:
3651:
3649:
3645:
3640:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3610:
3607:(1): 160879.
3606:
3602:
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3583:
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3574:
3569:
3564:
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3556:
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3503:
3499:
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3469:
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3422:
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3407:
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3396:
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3364:
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3355:
3353:
3344:
3342:
3338:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3309:
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3304:
3296:
3289:
3287:
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3270:
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3258:
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3247:
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3227:
3223:
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3211:
3207:
3203:
3196:
3193:
3188:
3184:
3177:
3174:
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3158:
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3148:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3119:
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3101:
3098:
3092:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3060:
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3037:
3034:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3020:
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3011:
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2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
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2971:
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2963:
2957:
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2951:
2942:
2939:
2926:
2922:
2915:
2912:
2907:
2901:
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2893:
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2883:
2877:
2874:
2861:
2857:
2851:
2848:
2843:
2839:
2834:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2818:(4): 587–97.
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2798:
2795:
2790:
2786:
2780:
2777:
2772:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2737:(10): e7416.
2736:
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2721:
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2665:
2661:
2657:
2650:
2647:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
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2603:
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2595:
2589:
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2545:
2542:
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2521:
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2483:
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2464:
2457:
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2449:
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2439:
2434:
2430:
2426:
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2335:
2328:
2325:
2320:
2316:
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2308:
2304:
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2296:
2292:
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2277:
2273:
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2257:
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2249:
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2241:
2237:
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2222:
2218:
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2206:
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2185:
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2172:
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2164:
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2149:
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2112:
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2100:
2097:
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2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2065:
2062:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2034:(4): 517–46.
2033:
2029:
2022:
2019:
2014:
2008:
2004:
2003:
1995:
1992:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1952:
1950:
1946:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1908:(1): 205–14.
1907:
1903:
1896:
1893:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1853:
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1847:
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1828:
1823:
1818:
1814:
1810:
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1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1748:
1745:
1740:
1734:
1730:
1723:
1720:
1715:
1713:9780198546658
1709:
1705:
1704:Games of Life
1698:
1696:
1694:
1690:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1650:
1648:
1646:
1642:
1637:
1631:
1627:
1623:
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1464:
1459:
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1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
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1239:
1234:
1228:
1225:
1222:
1221:0-691-02357-3
1218:
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1210:
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1173:
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1143:
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1132:
1129:
1124:
1120:
1116:
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1108:
1104:
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1086:
1082:
1075:
1072:
1067:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1046:
1043:
1038:
1034:
1033:
1025:
1022:
1017:
1015:9780271035468
1011:
1007:
1006:
998:
995:
987:September 19,
982:
978:
972:
969:
956:
949:
947:
943:
938:
932:
928:
923:
922:
913:
910:
904:
842:
839:
832:
828:
825:
823:
820:
818:
815:
813:
810:
808:
805:
803:
800:
798:
795:
793:
790:
788:
785:
783:
780:
778:
775:
773:
770:
769:
765:
763:
761:
757:
753:
745:
743:
741:
737:
735:
734:Dictyostelium
730:
722:
717:
716:kin selection
712:
708:
704:
700:
695:
691:
690:
686:
683:
679:
675:
671:
670:
665:
664:
659:
658:
654:
649:
645:
644:
640:
639:
635:
629:
628:
624:
618:
614:
611:
608:
605:
601:
598:
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592:
589:
586:
583:
580:
577:
574:
571:
567:
564:
561:
558:
555:
551:
547:
544:
541:
537:
534:
533:common ravens
530:
526:
522:
519:
516:
513:
510:
507:
504:
500:
497:
496:
492:
487:
485:
483:
479:
474:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
448:
444:
438:
431:
428:
425:
422:
419:
418:
417:
410:
408:
401:
399:
392:
390:
383:
381:
374:
372:
368:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
345:
342:
333:
329:
325:
323:
319:
315:
314:handicap race
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
285:
276:
275:handicap race
269:
257:
243:
241:
235:
233:
228:
226:
222:
217:
213:
208:
206:
202:
198:
194:
193:kin selection
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
168:
157:
150:
148:
146:
142:
138:
133:
131:
128:
124:
120:
119:
114:
110:
109:kin selection
106:
102:
98:
90:
88:
86:
82:
77:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
58:Auguste Comte
54:
51:
47:
43:
34:
30:
19:
6873:
6860:
6847:
6834:
6593:Sociobiology
6451:Neuroscience
6431:Intelligence
5977:Anthropology
5930:Color vision
5915:Multitasking
5894:Flynn effect
5889:Intelligence
5871:Folk biology
5628:
5614:Evolutionary
5486:
5479:
5472:
5465:
5458:
5417:E. O. Wilson
5367:Jane Goodall
5327:Donald Broom
5296:Zoosemiotics
5249:Sociobiology
5013:Polymorphism
4996:Astrobiology
4944:Biogeography
4899:Saltationism
4889:Orthogenesis
4874:Alternatives
4803:
4789:
4722:Cospeciation
4717:Cladogenesis
4666:Saltationism
4623:Mating types
4546:Color vision
4531:Avian flight
4453:mitochondria
4191:Canalisation
4069:Biodiversity
3866:
3814:Introduction
3730:
3726:
3666:
3662:
3604:
3600:
3532:
3528:
3518:
3506:. Retrieved
3502:the original
3492:
3462:(1): 17–52.
3459:
3455:
3449:
3416:
3412:
3406:
3395:the original
3366:
3360:
3351:
3307:
3301:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3246:
3205:
3201:
3195:
3187:Science News
3186:
3176:
3164:. Retrieved
3160:
3150:
3117:
3113:
3100:
3073:
3069:
3059:
3046:
3036:
3013:
2980:
2976:
2970:
2949:
2941:
2929:. Retrieved
2925:the original
2914:
2887:Good Natured
2886:
2876:
2864:. Retrieved
2860:the original
2850:
2815:
2811:
2802:Brosnan SF;
2797:
2789:ScienceDaily
2788:
2779:
2734:
2730:
2720:
2712:
2707:
2689:Der Waschbär
2688:
2682:
2663:
2659:
2649:
2619:(1): 43–52.
2616:
2612:
2608:
2602:
2583:
2577:
2550:
2544:
2519:
2515:
2506:
2481:
2477:
2471:
2462:
2456:
2447:
2441:
2419:(4): 54–61.
2416:
2412:
2406:
2394:. Retrieved
2384:
2344:(1): 15157.
2341:
2337:
2327:
2294:
2290:
2284:
2243:
2239:
2229:
2199:(1): 15–35.
2196:
2192:
2158:
2155:Psychol. Sci
2154:
2148:
2139:
2133:
2123:
2105:
2099:
2074:
2070:
2064:
2031:
2027:
2021:
2001:
1994:
1964:(3): 603–5.
1961:
1957:
1905:
1901:
1895:
1865:(1): 53–61.
1862:
1858:
1804:
1800:
1790:
1757:
1753:
1747:
1728:
1722:
1703:
1659:
1655:
1621:
1611:
1586:
1582:
1576:
1557:
1551:
1526:
1522:
1516:
1497:
1491:
1472:
1466:
1433:
1429:
1404:
1396:the original
1375:
1371:
1358:
1350:the original
1329:
1325:
1312:
1292:
1280:
1275:
1242:
1236:
1227:
1204:
1174:(1): 35–57.
1171:
1165:
1156:
1137:
1131:
1088:
1084:
1074:
1055:
1045:
1031:
1024:
1004:
997:
985:. Retrieved
980:
971:
959:. Retrieved
920:
912:
841:
822:Sociobiology
749:
732:
729:slime moulds
726:
703:conspecifics
698:
687:
667:
661:
641:
570:buddy system
566:Vampire bats
554:conspecifics
525:conspecifics
475:
452:
414:
405:
396:
387:
378:
369:
360:
337:
318:amateur golf
297:Amotz Zahavi
286:
283:
236:
229:
209:
165:
163:
134:
116:
94:
78:
73:
69:
61:
55:
45:
39:
29:
6732:Determinism
6644:Coevolution
6588:Primatology
6426:Gender role
6331:Orientation
6211:Screen time
6068:Affectional
6050:Development
5729:Mate choice
5656:By-products
5624:Adaptations
5587:Cognitivism
5357:Dian Fossey
5322:Marc Bekoff
5310:Ethologists
5023:Systematics
4894:Mutationism
4712:Catagenesis
4640:Snake venom
4573:Eusociality
4551:in primates
4541:Cooperation
4469:In animals
4289:butterflies
4262:Cephalopods
4252:Brachiopods
4184:Development
4158:Mate choice
3911:Convergence
3894:Coevolution
3852:Abiogenesis
3733:(1): 27–36.
3076:(1): 7–58.
2931:October 10,
2894:. pp.
2071:Anim. Behav
1436:(1): 1–16.
1091:(1): 1–17.
787:Koinophilia
711:relatedness
550:chimpanzees
480:males from
445:cleaning a
393:Attitudinal
182:as well as
137:reciprocity
118:Stegodyphus
18:Bioaltruism
6891:Categories
6679:Population
6674:Lamarckism
6520:behavioral
6498:Behavioral
6446:Narcissism
6391:Aggression
6181:Hypophobia
6171:Depression
6058:Attachment
6040:Universals
6004:Psychology
5982:Biological
5970:Musicology
5960:Aesthetics
5859:Basophobia
5666:Exaptation
5644:Reciprocal
5259:Structures
5254:Stereotypy
4884:Lamarckism
4862:Philosophy
4785:David Hume
4747:Peripatric
4742:Parapatric
4727:Ecological
4707:Anagenesis
4702:Allopatric
4694:Speciation
4658:Gradualism
4583:Metabolism
4443:chromosome
4433:Eukaryotes
4211:Modularity
4128:Population
4054:Population
4015:Speciation
3993:Panspermia
3946:Extinction
3941:Exaptation
3916:Divergence
3889:Cladistics
3877:Reciprocal
3857:Adaptation
3498:"Altruism"
2866:October 9,
1364:Dennett DC
1162:Trivers RL
905:References
736:mucoroides
731:, such as
674:autothysis
631:predators.
447:potato cod
402:Calculated
341:non-silent
309:the signal
113:matriphagy
6524:cognitive
6516:Affective
6401:Cognition
6355:Sexuality
6341:Pair bond
6101:Education
5758:Cognition
5676:Inclusive
5616:processes
5604:Criticism
5488:Behaviour
5431:Societies
5269:Honeycomb
5018:Protocell
4869:Darwinism
4757:Sympatric
4506:processes
4394:Tetrapods
4343:Kangaroos
4269:Dinosaurs
4206:Inversion
4175:Variation
4096:Gene flow
4089:Inclusive
3899:Mutualism
3844:Evolution
3693:0022-0477
3559:0027-8424
3166:April 23,
3120:: 54–62.
2882:de Waal F
2633:1864-1547
2569:733058004
2536:0003-3472
1918:CiteSeerX
1529:: 35–57.
1392:146359497
1346:143378724
1318:Dawkins R
1288:Dawkins R
1107:1558-5646
1085:Evolution
833:Foot note
756:selection
509:Mongooses
503:wild dogs
467:parasites
459:reef fish
64:, for an
62:altruisme
6907:Altruism
6902:Ethology
6793:Memetics
6553:Ethology
6511:genetics
6346:Physical
6311:Jealousy
6266:Activity
6072:maternal
6028:Religion
6016:Morality
5994:Language
5875:taxonomy
5688:Mismatch
5634:Cheating
5629:Altruism
5507:Category
5452:Journals
5279:Instinct
5229:Learning
5224:Instinct
5199:Ethogram
5182:Grooming
5105:Branches
5098:Ethology
5046:Category
4921:Vitalism
4916:Theistic
4909:Spandrel
4593:Morality
4588:Monogamy
4463:plastids
4428:Flagella
4384:Reptiles
4365:sea cows
4348:primates
4257:Molluscs
4235:Bacteria
4123:Mutation
4056:genetics
4032:Taxonomy
3978:Mismatch
3958:Homology
3872:Cheating
3867:Altruism
3701:90467342
3639:28280587
3577:23362379
3508:July 20,
3391:25384748
3332:33166806
3277:19770804
3230:17814861
3134:26478251
3051:Archived
3022:Archived
3005:85433858
2997:31964040
2884:(1996).
2842:19259709
2771:19826478
2731:PLOS ONE
2641:84868529
2613:Mammalia
2498:53190848
2433:15915815
2425:26060958
2376:36071078
2319:12941597
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2175:18557871
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1543:19027999
1366:(1994).
1320:(1994).
1290:(1995).
1233:Smith JM
1196:19027999
1123:13266199
1115:12643563
961:July 20,
777:Altruism
766:See also
707:Allozyme
594:Walruses
588:Dolphins
521:Raccoons
515:Meerkats
463:Cleaners
347:through
344:mutation
210:In 1971
127:Wright's
97:ethology
91:Overview
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6694:Species
6466:Suicide
6301:Fantasy
6281:Arousal
6063:Bonding
5952:Culture
5776:Display
5763:Emotion
5671:Fitness
5560:History
5209:Feeding
4937:Related
4767:History
4628:Meiosis
4563:Empathy
4558:Emotion
4458:nucleus
4399:Viruses
4389:Spiders
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4284:Insects
4084:Fitness
4020:Species
3819:Outline
3671:Bibcode
3630:5319353
3609:Bibcode
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3464:Bibcode
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3210:Bibcode
3202:Science
3142:3647491
3078:Bibcode
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2833:2698971
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546:Gibbons
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160:spoils.
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5750:Areas
5286:Swarm
5214:Hover
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4519:Death
4514:Aging
4493:brain
4279:Fungi
4240:Birds
4153:Fungi
3951:Event
3834:Index
3723:(PDF)
3697:S2CID
3437:JSTOR
3398:(PDF)
3387:S2CID
3357:(PDF)
3328:S2CID
3298:(PDF)
3273:S2CID
3234:S2CID
3138:S2CID
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2896:20–21
2637:S2CID
2494:S2CID
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2087:S2CID
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