82:
78:, where it was most popular. It established itself very quickly, and the lack of natural predators or other controls meant that it spread rapidly, flowering for longer periods and growing to a larger size than it did in Europe. Gorse is an extremely hardy plant which forms dense thickets over what was once native forest or productive farmland; any attempts to destroy it by burning or spraying often result in rapid, widespread regrowth. The seeds are produced in great numbers and can remain dormant in the soil for extended periods of time.
17:
271:
187:
149:
97:
In the years that followed the research of the late 1920s, more objections to biological control were raised by environmentalists, including the concept that it is risky to introduce any new species to an already compromised ecosystem, even to destroy a previously introduced one. Further, it has been
93:
Although gorse was identified as a major weed in New
Zealand in 1859 and declared a weed by Parliament as early as 1900, its agricultural uses meant that biological control was not considered as a means of controlling the invasive species until the 1920s. Even then, the search for possible agents was
213:
population from the United
Kingdom was introduced to New Zealand in 1989, but did not do well in regions with higher precipitation and temperatures. Five new populations from Spain and Portugal which were selected to better match the climate in these regions proved to be more successful. The mite is
102:
have noted that gorse is a useful 'nursery' plant for native seedlings; it supplies the shelter and high nitrogen content in the soil that they need to mature, then, being less shade tolerant, gives way when a young native forest has been established. This approach has been applied successfully at
73:
Gorse was introduced to New
Zealand by missionaries during the early stages of European colonization and quickly became a popular hedge plant, remaining in widespread use as fence material until the 1950s, when it was largely superseded by wire and posts. It is still a common fence material on the
158:
While the adult weevil does visible damage to the foliage of the gorse plant by feeding on it, this is not significant enough to stunt growth in any measurable way; instead, this agent is effective because its larvae are hatched within the gorse seed pod and feed on the seeds, destroying them.
123:
argue that the forest that results is different to that which would have grown without the presence of gorse, and that this alteration is not "natural". Hawke's Bay
Regional Council holds the view that cultivating native forest in this fashion is risky and cannot be recommended, although the
205:
is a host-specific mite that lives in colonies under sheets of silk on gorse plants. It damages the plant by feeding on its tissues, and can reduce its growth and flowering activity dramatically. It is regarded as the most effective biological control agent for gorse in Europe.
174:
only reduced the annual seed crop by about 35%. Despite this, its apparent success — regular destruction of around 90% of the seeds produced in the spring — contributed to the delay in investigating further biological control agents until much later in the century.
166:, as it was then known, would be an effective control agent; on the strength of these recommendations, it was imported into New Zealand that year. Widespread release of the weevil was carried out between 1931 and 1947. However, gorse in New Zealand is
638:
136:
Since 1928, seven agents have been released in New
Zealand. Results have been mixed, but in general neither the seed-feeding nor foliage-feeding insects are doing enough damage to be viable as a stand-alone control agent.
258:
larvae feed on young gorse. While first imported in 1983, it was not immediately released due to concerns it was not host-specific. Despite being released multiple times since 1990, establishment has been very limited.
241:
is widely established, but has not spread far beyond its release sites because winged individuals are relatively rare. It feeds on gorse foliage at all stages of its life cycle and can decrease growth by around 10-20%.
307:
is a moth whose larvae feed on mature gorse foliage in the winter. After significant difficulty in cultivating this species in the laboratory, it was released once in 1993 and has not established in New
Zealand.
648:
333:
While animals like sheep and cattle have not been deliberately introduced to curb the growth of gorse, controlled grazing can effectively limit its growth, whether in pastures or
325:
likewise feed on gorse foliage. It has been released twice, three years after its introduction in 1995, but it is not yet known if it is established.
643:
125:
616:
98:
argued that gorse has uses beyond its colonial origins as a fence plant, for example as a source of food for bees in the early spring. Members of
813:
742:
682:
470:
Price, Larry W. (23 Feb 2005). "Hedges and
Shelterbelts on the Canterbury Plains, New Zealand: Transformation of an Antipodean landscape".
341:
have been used for control of gorse and other weeds since around 1927, and are able to eliminate large areas of gorse within four years.
901:
289:
populations. It has now become established in New
Zealand, and the two agents together can reduce the annual seed crop by up to 90%.
896:
81:
94:
restricted to those which would control growth by damaging the reproductive system, and would not affect the foliage.
504:
Barker, Kezia (1 January 2008). "Flexible boundaries in biosecurity: accommodating gorse in
Aotearoa New Zealand".
99:
285:
larvae feed on gorse seeds. As it is bivoltine, it was selected for release in 1992 to complement the existing
238:
639:"Protecting and restoring our natural heritage - A practical guide - Native ecosystems and their management"
222:
48:
201:
191:
112:
22:
303:
254:
216:
417:
351:
377:, is not recommended; they are not sufficiently host-specific, and may cause damage to other plants.
367:
68:
824:
611:
361:
321:
443:
Isern, Thomas D. (1 January 2007). "A good servant but a tyrannous master: Gorse in New
Zealand".
692:
551:
30:
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to limit the growth and prevalence of a pest. The early research into the biological control of
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108:
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16:
270:
483:
43:
906:
890:
596:
579:
356:
763:"Impact of Exapion ulicis (Forster) (Coleoptera: Apionidae) on gorse seed viability"
580:"Large-scale disturbances, biological control and the dynamics of gorse populations"
186:
870:
373:
359:, as well as utilising indigenous species or other naturally damaging species like
334:
56:
762:
735:
The biological control of weeds book : a New Zealand guide = Te whakapau taru
111:, with succession through gorse taking a much shorter time than through the usual
456:
170:, and the univoltine weevil was only effective during the spring. As a result,
38:
781:
547:
879:
789:
675:
Biological control options for invasive weeds of New Zealand protected areas
167:
148:
52:
425:
Proceedings of the X International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds
116:
534:
Popay, Ian; Roger Field (1996). "Grazing Animals as Weed Control Agents".
294:
226:, the latter of which was deliberately introduced to counter mite pests.
555:
365:. Distribution of the two indigenous species known to damage gorse,
517:
338:
269:
185:
147:
80:
34:
737:. Lincoln, N.Z: Manaaki Whenua, Landcare Research New Zealand.
59:
in New Zealand was among the first of such programs worldwide.
41:
have existed since the introduction of the gorse seed weevil (
418:"The Biological Control Program Against Gorse in New Zealand"
214:
now established throughout New Zealand, despite predation by
677:. Vol. 199. Wellington, N.Z.: Dept. of Conservation.
854:"Gorse: a subject for biological control in New Zealand"
162:
Research in the United Kingdom in 1928 suggested that
814:"Gorse Thrips: Weed Biological Control Pamphlet No.9"
472:Annals of the Association of American Geographers
416:Hill, R. L.; A. H. Gourlay; S. V. Fowler (2000).
349:Research has been done into using fungi like
8:
761:Sixtus, C.R.; G.D. Hill; R.R Scott (2003).
869:
595:
51:is the use of natural mechanisms such as
756:
754:
644:Department of Conservation (New Zealand)
438:
436:
434:
128:provides a practical guide to doing so.
15:
858:N.Z Journal of Experimental Agriculture
728:
726:
724:
722:
720:
718:
716:
714:
617:Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand
529:
527:
499:
497:
495:
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411:
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385:
852:MacCarter, L.E.; Gaynor, D.L. (1980).
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237:Introduced in 1990, the host-specific
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668:
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7:
578:Rees, M.; R. L. Hill (April 2001).
484:10.1111/j.1467-8306.1993.tb01925.x
119:. However, experts like ecologist
14:
823:. September 2005. Archived from
597:10.1046/j.1365-2664.2001.00598.x
315:(gorse colonial hard shoot moth)
89:being overgrown by native trees
871:10.1080/03015521.1980.10426282
1:
673:Froude, Victoria Ann (2002).
319:The larvae of the univoltine
770:New Zealand Plant Protection
457:10.1016/j.soscij.2006.12.015
923:
902:Environment of New Zealand
782:10.30843/nzpp.2003.56.6092
612:"Mānuka, kānuka and gorse"
584:Journal of Applied Ecology
506:Environment and Planning A
445:The Social Science Journal
126:Department of Conservation
66:
26:web on gorse in Wellington
548:10.1017/S0890037X00045942
132:Biological control agents
100:Environment Bay of Plenty
231:Sericothrips staphylinus
897:Biological pest control
249:(gorse soft shoot moth)
223:Phytoseiulus persimilis
49:Biological pest control
733:Hayes, Lynley (1996).
277:
202:Tetranychus lintearius
196:
195:on gorse in Wellington
180:Tetranychus lintearius
155:
90:
27:
273:
247:Agonopterix umbellana
189:
151:
84:
19:
864:(3 and 4): 321–330.
368:Anisoplaca ptyoptera
345:Future possibilities
69:Gorse in New Zealand
362:Ditylenchus dipsaci
313:Pempelia genistella
182:(gorse spider mite)
144:(gorse seed weevil)
651:on 8 November 2011
278:
199:Native to Europe,
197:
156:
91:
31:Biological control
28:
744:978-0-478-09306-3
684:978-0-478-22266-1
217:Stethorus bifidus
76:Canterbury Plains
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647:. Archived from
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512:(7): 1598–1614.
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352:Fusarium tumidum
266:(gorse pod moth)
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846:Further reading
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536:Weed Technology
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355:as a potential
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329:Grazing animals
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304:S. grandipennis
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264:Cydia succedana
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109:Banks Peninsula
105:Hinewai Reserve
87:Hinewai Reserve
71:
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701:|journal=
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590:(2): 364–377.
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542:(1): 217–231.
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478:(1): 119–140.
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451:(1): 179–186.
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233:(gorse thrips)
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192:T. linteariuss
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142:Exapion ulicis
139:
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67:Main article:
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44:Exapion ulicis
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830:on 4 May 2012
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33:programs for
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24:
23:T. lintearius
18:
861:
857:
832:. Retrieved
825:the original
821:weeds.org.au
820:
795:17 September
793:. Retrieved
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653:. Retrieved
649:the original
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633:
621:. Retrieved
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374:Oemona hirta
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297:grandipennis
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282:C. succedana
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275:C. succedana
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255:A. umbellana
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239:gorse thrips
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164:Apion ulicis
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57:common gorse
42:
29:
21:
834:6 September
776:: 206–210.
655:9 September
623:9 September
47:) in 1928.
39:New Zealand
891:Categories
427:: 909–917.
381:References
63:Background
880:0301-5521
790:1179-352X
703:ignored (
693:cite book
337:forests.
287:E. ulicis
172:E. ulicis
168:bivoltine
153:E. ulicis
121:Ian Popay
85:Gorse in
53:predation
295:Scythris
556:3987805
878:
788:
741:
681:
554:
117:kānuka
113:mānuka
828:(PDF)
817:(PDF)
766:(PDF)
552:JSTOR
421:(PDF)
339:Goats
35:gorse
907:Ulex
876:ISSN
836:2011
797:2011
786:ISSN
739:ISBN
705:help
679:ISBN
657:2011
625:2011
371:and
220:and
866:doi
778:doi
592:doi
544:doi
514:doi
480:doi
453:doi
115:or
107:on
37:in
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