63:
2664:
274:
2898:
2923:
2913:
2014:
1632:
1648:
The Carnot efficiency gives the efficiency of an ideal thermodynamic cycle, operating between two reservoirs of different temperatures, as such it provides a theoretical maximum to the efficiency of any heat engine. For this reason, a geothermal power plant producing hot geofluid at 180°C (≈450 K)
264:
Two secondary cycles are operated in tandem, each with a separate working fluid and boiling point. This improves efficiency by reducing the exergetic losses of the heat introduction process, by ensuring a closer match between the geofluid cooling curve and the working fluids' heating curves.
255:
The working fluid is evaporated at two different pressure levels, and thus temperatures. This improves efficiency by reducing exergetic losses in the primary heat exchanger by maintaining a closer match between the geofluid cooling curve and the working fluid heating curve.
1788:
715:
1300:
1491:
389:
1018:
1485:) is a measure of the conversion of the heat provided to the cycle into useful work. When accounting for real life losses and inefficiencies, real binary cycle geothermal plants have a first law efficiency of between 10-13%.
241:
As of
December 2014, there were 203 binary cycle geothermal power plants across 15 countries worldwide, representing 35% of all geothermal power plants, but only generating 10.4% of total geothermal power (about 1250 MW).
2009:{\displaystyle \eta _{\text{II}}^{\text{util}}={\frac {{\dot {W}}_{\text{net}}}{{\dot {E}}_{\text{geofluid}}}}={\frac {{\dot {W}}_{\text{turbine}}-{\dot {W}}_{\text{pump}}}{{\dot {m}}_{\text{geofluid}}*}}}
1710:
576:
152:, thus cooling in the process. The cold geofluid is then reinjected into the geothermal reservoir via a separate wellbore, where it is reheated. The primary cycle is considered an "open" cycle.
1627:{\displaystyle \eta _{\text{I}}^{\text{th}}={\frac {{\dot {W}}_{\text{net}}}{{\dot {Q}}_{\text{PHE}}}}={\frac {{\dot {W}}_{\text{turbine}}-{\dot {W}}_{\text{pump}}}{{\dot {Q}}_{\text{PHE}}}}}
1161:
2168:
A saturation dome that resembles an inverted U - this prevents liquid drop out in the turbine, which reduces efficiency, damages the turbine blades and thus reduces the turbine's lifetime.
754:
2051:
1406:
848:
427:
2171:
High thermal conductivity - improves the heat transfer in the primary heat exchanger and the condenser, reducing the total heat transfer area required and therefore cost of the plant.
1057:
1339:
497:
468:
291:
1144:
918:
50:
Binary cycles permit electricity generation even from low temperature geothermal resources (<180°C) that would otherwise produce insufficient quantities of steam to make
1086:
559:
2165:
A critical temperature and pressure above the cycle maximum temperature and pressure - most of the heat is transferred at the maximum temperature, increasing efficiency.
2134:
2107:
2080:
1767:
1740:
1462:
1435:
1368:
1115:
904:
877:
810:
783:
526:
96:, which use a single open cycle, a binary cycle has two separate cycles operating in tandem, hence binary cycle. The primary cycle extracts heat from the
2615:
2161:
The working fluid plays a pivotal role in any binary cycle and must be selected with care. Some criteria for selecting a suitable fluid are given below.
2756:
160:
Cold high-pressure working fluid is heated and vapourised in a heat exchanger by the hot geofluid. The hot high-pressure vapour is expanded in a
2806:
2801:
2338:
2215:
2771:
277:
Schematic of a Binary Cycle. Streams a & c are geofluid. Streams 1, 2, 3 & 4 are working fluid. Streams x & y are coolant
1655:
2140:, in kJ/kg/K and the absolute temperature, in K, of the geofluid at the local reference condition. This could be local ambient,
2766:
2706:
238:. It was rated at 670 kW and ran for an unknown number of years, proving the concept of binary cycle geothermal power plants.
2847:
2608:
148:, if necessary assisted by a pump. On the surface, the hot geofluid transfers some of its heat to the secondary cycle, via a
710:{\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}_{\text{condenser}}={\dot {m}}_{\text{wf}}*(h_{2}-h_{3})={\dot {m}}_{\text{coolant}}*(h_{y}-h_{x})}
561:
is the specific enthalpy of the working fluid at the turbine outlet, assuming isentropic expansion in the turbine, in kJ/kg
54:
economically viable. However, due to the lower temperatures binary cycles have low overall efficiencies of about 10-13%.
2731:
2681:
2776:
2751:
2711:
1779:
2432:
Geothermal energy as a source of electricity. A worldwide survey of the design and operation of geothermal power plants
1295:{\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}_{\text{PHX}}={\dot {m}}_{\text{wf}}*(h_{1}-h_{4})={\dot {m}}_{\text{geofluid}}*(h_{a}-h_{c})}
2873:
2796:
2791:
2781:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2701:
1482:
1155:
The equation below can be used to determine the primary heat exchanger duty and mass flow rate of geofluid required.
2947:
2902:
2842:
2786:
2686:
2227:
2221:
723:
2020:
1375:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2696:
2691:
2601:
2187:
817:
396:
165:
1088:
is the specific enthalpy of the working fluid at the feed pump outlet, assuming isentropic compression, in kJ/kg
2183:
1464:
are the specific enthalpy of the geofluid at the primary heat exchanger inlet and outlet respectively, in kJ/kg
384:{\displaystyle {\dot {W}}_{\text{turbine}}={\dot {m}}_{\text{wf}}*\eta _{\text{turbine}}*(h_{1}-h_{\text{2s}})}
227:
121:
1026:
1473:
There are a number of different definitions of efficiency that may be considered; these are discussed below.
1308:
2926:
2832:
2156:
475:
437:
89:
2530:
2544:
2269:
1782:) is a measure of the utilisation of the ideally maximum work available and conversion into useful work.
1122:
1013:{\displaystyle {\dot {W}}_{\text{pump}}={\dot {m}}_{\text{wf}}*(h_{\text{4s}}-h_{3})/\eta _{\text{pump}}}
2330:
2279:
2252:
2233:
176:
62:
812:
are the specific enthalpy of the working fluid at the condenser inlet and outlet respectively, in kJ/kg
570:
The equation below can be used to determine the condenser duty and mass flow rate of coolant required.
2141:
281:
The performance of a simple binary cycle and its individual components can be calculated as follows:
2643:
1064:
537:
231:
125:
97:
32:
2922:
2912:
2531:"Mammoth Pacific Geothermal Power Plant Honored with Environmental Award from State of California"
2648:
2387:
Ronald DiPippo (January 2015). "Geothermal power plants: Evolution and performance assessments".
207:
The earliest example of a binary cycle geothermal power plant is thought to have been located on
113:
2663:
2638:
2624:
2404:
2334:
1643:
24:
906:
are the specific enthalpy of coolant at the condenser inlet and outlet respectively, in kJ/kg
2837:
2761:
2653:
2443:
2435:
2412:
2396:
2344:
144:
The geothermal reservoir's hot in-situ fluid (or geofluid) is produced to the surface via a
93:
51:
2112:
2085:
2058:
1745:
1718:
1440:
1413:
1370:
is the specific enthalpy of the working fluid at the primary heat exchanger inlet, in kJ/kg
1346:
1093:
882:
855:
788:
761:
504:
2868:
2362:
2462:
Geothermal Power Plants: Principles, Applications, Case
Studies and Environmental Impact
2327:
Geothermal Power Plants: Principles, Applications, Case
Studies and Environmental Impact
2883:
2878:
273:
149:
105:
40:
2400:
183:, the main difference being the choice of working fluid; an organic fluid (commonly a
2941:
2916:
2576:
2274:
223:
taking place at the same time, not much is known about this particular installation.
133:
129:
1341:
is the rate of heat added to the working fluid within the primary heat exchanger, kW
2284:
2257:
2191:
220:
216:
180:
226:
Another binary cycle geothermal power plant was taken into operation in 1967 near
2558:
2822:
2475:
188:
184:
117:
109:
44:
219:
as the working fluid at an effective capacity of 250 kW. However, owing to the
2509:
2179:
1117:
is the specific enthalpy of the working fluid at the feed pump inlet, in kJ/kg
2408:
1059:
is the rate of work done by the pump to repressurise the working fluid, in kW
2863:
2447:
2416:
2348:
1649:
and rejecting heat at 25°C (≈298 K) has a maximum efficiency of just 34%.
756:
is the rate of heat removed from the working fluid in the condenser, in kW
2206:
There are numerous binary cycle power stations in commercial production.
2175:
529:
168:. To close the loop, the cold low-pressure liquid is repressurised via a
2137:
196:
161:
235:
208:
88:
In contrast to conventional geothermal power generation methods like
2593:
2439:
2369:. U.S. DOE Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE). 2010-07-06
132:, the main difference being the heat source and the choice of cycle
212:
192:
61:
430:
169:
145:
101:
36:
2597:
1705:{\displaystyle \eta _{\text{Carnot}}=1-{\frac {T_{C}}{T_{H}}}}
120:. Thermodynamically, binary cycle power plants are similar to
2363:"Geothermal Technologies Program: Hydrothermal Power Systems"
1769:
are the hot and cold absolute temperature respectively, in K
31:. The primary cycle extracts the geothermal energy from the
100:
and provides this to the secondary cycle, which converts
66:
Process diagram of a binary cycle geothermal power plant
2495:
Thermodynamics: An
Engineering Approach, Seventh Edition
215:, between 1940-1943. The plant is thought to have used
2115:
2088:
2061:
2023:
1791:
1748:
1721:
1658:
1494:
1443:
1416:
1378:
1349:
1311:
1164:
1125:
1096:
1067:
1029:
921:
885:
858:
820:
791:
764:
726:
579:
540:
507:
478:
440:
399:
294:
2856:
2815:
2671:
2631:
532:
of the working fluid at the turbine inlet, in kJ/kg
2136:are the specific enthalpy, in kJ/kg, the specific
2128:
2101:
2074:
2045:
2008:
1761:
1734:
1704:
1626:
1456:
1429:
1400:
1362:
1333:
1294:
1138:
1109:
1080:
1051:
1012:
898:
871:
842:
804:
777:
748:
709:
553:
520:
491:
462:
421:
383:
23:is a method for generating electrical power from
2493:Çengel, Yunus A. & Michael A. Boles (2002).
175:The two main secondary cycle configurations are
470:is the mass flow rate of working fluid, in kg/s
2320:
2609:
2367:Geothermal Technologies Program: Technologies
2318:
2316:
2314:
2312:
2310:
2308:
2306:
2304:
2302:
2300:
749:{\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}_{\text{condenser}}}
27:and employs two separate fluid cycles, hence
8:
2046:{\displaystyle {\dot {E}}_{\text{geofluid}}}
1401:{\displaystyle {\dot {m}}_{\text{geofluid}}}
429:is the rate of work done by the turbine, in
2497:. Boston: McGraw-Hill. pp. Chapter 10.
843:{\displaystyle {\dot {m}}_{\text{coolant}}}
422:{\displaystyle {\dot {W}}_{\text{turbine}}}
2616:
2602:
2594:
1408:is the mass flow rate of geofluid, in kg/s
499:is the turbine efficiency, non-dimensional
2120:
2114:
2093:
2087:
2066:
2060:
2037:
2026:
2025:
2022:
1991:
1978:
1962:
1946:
1933:
1914:
1903:
1902:
1893:
1882:
1881:
1871:
1860:
1859:
1855:
1844:
1833:
1832:
1825:
1814:
1813:
1810:
1801:
1796:
1790:
1753:
1747:
1726:
1720:
1694:
1684:
1678:
1663:
1657:
1616:
1605:
1604:
1596:
1585:
1584:
1574:
1563:
1562:
1558:
1547:
1536:
1535:
1528:
1517:
1516:
1513:
1504:
1499:
1493:
1448:
1442:
1421:
1415:
1392:
1381:
1380:
1377:
1354:
1348:
1325:
1314:
1313:
1310:
1283:
1270:
1254:
1243:
1242:
1229:
1216:
1200:
1189:
1188:
1178:
1167:
1166:
1163:
1130:
1124:
1101:
1095:
1072:
1066:
1043:
1032:
1031:
1028:
1004:
995:
986:
973:
957:
946:
945:
935:
924:
923:
920:
890:
884:
863:
857:
850:is the mass flow rate of coolant, in kg/s
834:
823:
822:
819:
796:
790:
769:
763:
740:
729:
728:
725:
698:
685:
669:
658:
657:
644:
631:
615:
604:
603:
593:
582:
581:
578:
545:
539:
512:
506:
483:
477:
454:
443:
442:
439:
413:
402:
401:
398:
372:
359:
343:
330:
319:
318:
308:
297:
296:
293:
172:. The secondary cycle is a closed cycle.
1052:{\displaystyle {\dot {W}}_{\text{pump}}}
272:
2296:
1334:{\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}_{\text{PHX}}}
1146:is the pump efficiency, non-dimensional
164:before being cooled and condensed in a
2053:is the exergy rate of geofluid, in kW.
492:{\displaystyle \eta _{\text{turbine}}}
463:{\displaystyle {\dot {m}}_{\text{wf}}}
2570:
2568:
77: Secondary Cycle - Working fluid
7:
1778:The second law efficiency (from the
43:to drive the generator and generate
2464:. Amsterdam: Butterworth-Heinemann.
1481:The first law efficiency (from the
1139:{\displaystyle \eta _{\text{pump}}}
35:, and secondary cycle converts the
2174:Environmental compatibility - non-
14:
2401:10.1016/J.GEOTHERMICS.2014.07.005
2921:
2911:
2897:
2896:
2662:
2559:"Te Huka Geothermal Power Plant"
2480:United States, Patent No.3795103
16:Type of geothermal power station
2239:Kirchstockach (Munich), Germany
2197:Low cost and readily available.
2000:
1997:
1971:
1952:
1926:
1923:
1289:
1263:
1235:
1209:
992:
966:
704:
678:
650:
624:
378:
352:
71: Primary Cycle - Geofluid
1:
1081:{\displaystyle h_{\text{4s}}}
554:{\displaystyle h_{\text{2s}}}
2561:. Global Energy Observatory.
1780:Second law of thermodynamics
2874:Energy return on investment
2224:, California, United States
1483:First law of thermodynamics
2964:
2843:Enhanced geothermal system
2228:Steamboat Springs (Nevada)
2154:
2144:or reinjection conditions.
1641:
2892:
2660:
2508:Ormat Technologies, Inc.
2188:ozone depletion potential
2533:. Ormat. 20 August 2009.
2184:global warming potential
2460:Ronald DiPippo (2008).
2430:Ronald DiPippo (1980),
2325:Ronald DiPippo (2016).
2258:Geothermie Unterhaching
2157:Working fluid selection
2151:Working fluid selection
2270:Geothermal electricity
2130:
2103:
2076:
2047:
2010:
1763:
1736:
1706:
1628:
1458:
1431:
1402:
1364:
1335:
1296:
1151:Primary Heat Exchanger
1140:
1111:
1082:
1053:
1014:
900:
873:
844:
806:
779:
750:
711:
555:
522:
493:
464:
423:
385:
278:
199:mixture respectively.
177:Organic Rankine cycles
85:
2331:Butterworth-Heinemann
2280:Organic Rankine cycle
2253:Husavik Power station
2234:Te Huka Power Station
2210:Organic Rankine cycle
2131:
2129:{\displaystyle T_{0}}
2104:
2102:{\displaystyle s_{0}}
2077:
2075:{\displaystyle h_{0}}
2048:
2011:
1774:Second law efficiency
1764:
1762:{\displaystyle T_{H}}
1737:
1735:{\displaystyle T_{C}}
1707:
1629:
1459:
1457:{\displaystyle h_{c}}
1432:
1430:{\displaystyle h_{a}}
1403:
1365:
1363:{\displaystyle h_{4}}
1336:
1297:
1141:
1112:
1110:{\displaystyle h_{3}}
1083:
1054:
1015:
901:
899:{\displaystyle h_{y}}
874:
872:{\displaystyle h_{x}}
845:
807:
805:{\displaystyle h_{3}}
780:
778:{\displaystyle h_{2}}
751:
712:
556:
523:
521:{\displaystyle h_{1}}
494:
465:
424:
386:
276:
65:
2333:. pp. 193–240.
2113:
2086:
2059:
2021:
1789:
1746:
1719:
1656:
1492:
1477:First law efficiency
1441:
1414:
1376:
1347:
1309:
1162:
1123:
1094:
1065:
1027:
919:
883:
856:
818:
789:
762:
724:
577:
538:
505:
476:
438:
397:
292:
130:Rankine Power Cycles
128:in that they employ
126:nuclear power plants
98:geothermal reservoir
25:geothermal resources
2644:Geothermal gradient
2545:"Steamboat Springs"
2510:"Binary Technology"
2194:, chemically inert.
1806:
1509:
2649:Geothermal heating
2476:"DUAL FLUID CYCLE"
2242:Traunreut, Germany
2126:
2099:
2072:
2043:
2006:
1792:
1759:
1732:
1702:
1624:
1495:
1454:
1427:
1398:
1360:
1331:
1292:
1136:
1107:
1078:
1049:
1010:
896:
869:
840:
802:
775:
746:
707:
551:
518:
489:
460:
419:
381:
279:
86:
52:flash power plants
2948:Geothermal energy
2935:
2934:
2639:Geothermal energy
2632:Geothermal energy
2625:Geothermal energy
2340:978-0-08-100879-9
2040:
2034:
2004:
1917:
1911:
1896:
1890:
1874:
1868:
1850:
1847:
1841:
1828:
1822:
1804:
1799:
1700:
1666:
1644:Carnot efficiency
1638:Carnot efficiency
1622:
1619:
1613:
1599:
1593:
1577:
1571:
1553:
1550:
1544:
1531:
1525:
1507:
1502:
1395:
1389:
1328:
1322:
1257:
1251:
1203:
1197:
1181:
1175:
1133:
1075:
1046:
1040:
1007:
976:
960:
954:
938:
932:
837:
831:
743:
737:
672:
666:
618:
612:
596:
590:
548:
486:
457:
451:
416:
410:
375:
346:
333:
327:
311:
305:
2955:
2927:Renewable energy
2925:
2915:
2900:
2899:
2838:District heating
2666:
2654:Geothermal power
2618:
2611:
2604:
2595:
2588:
2587:
2585:
2583:
2572:
2563:
2562:
2555:
2549:
2548:
2541:
2535:
2534:
2527:
2521:
2520:
2518:
2516:
2505:
2499:
2498:
2490:
2484:
2483:
2472:
2466:
2465:
2457:
2451:
2450:
2427:
2421:
2420:
2384:
2378:
2377:
2375:
2374:
2359:
2353:
2352:
2329:(4th ed.).
2322:
2135:
2133:
2132:
2127:
2125:
2124:
2108:
2106:
2105:
2100:
2098:
2097:
2081:
2079:
2078:
2073:
2071:
2070:
2052:
2050:
2049:
2044:
2042:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2035:
2027:
2015:
2013:
2012:
2007:
2005:
2003:
1996:
1995:
1983:
1982:
1967:
1966:
1951:
1950:
1938:
1937:
1919:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1912:
1904:
1899:
1898:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1891:
1883:
1876:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1869:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1849:
1848:
1845:
1843:
1842:
1834:
1830:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1823:
1815:
1811:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1768:
1766:
1765:
1760:
1758:
1757:
1741:
1739:
1738:
1733:
1731:
1730:
1711:
1709:
1708:
1703:
1701:
1699:
1698:
1689:
1688:
1679:
1668:
1667:
1664:
1633:
1631:
1630:
1625:
1623:
1621:
1620:
1617:
1615:
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1606:
1602:
1601:
1600:
1597:
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1594:
1586:
1579:
1578:
1575:
1573:
1572:
1564:
1559:
1554:
1552:
1551:
1548:
1546:
1545:
1537:
1533:
1532:
1529:
1527:
1526:
1518:
1514:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1463:
1461:
1460:
1455:
1453:
1452:
1436:
1434:
1433:
1428:
1426:
1425:
1407:
1405:
1404:
1399:
1397:
1396:
1393:
1391:
1390:
1382:
1369:
1367:
1366:
1361:
1359:
1358:
1340:
1338:
1337:
1332:
1330:
1329:
1326:
1324:
1323:
1315:
1301:
1299:
1298:
1293:
1288:
1287:
1275:
1274:
1259:
1258:
1255:
1253:
1252:
1244:
1234:
1233:
1221:
1220:
1205:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1198:
1190:
1183:
1182:
1179:
1177:
1176:
1168:
1145:
1143:
1142:
1137:
1135:
1134:
1131:
1116:
1114:
1113:
1108:
1106:
1105:
1087:
1085:
1084:
1079:
1077:
1076:
1073:
1058:
1056:
1055:
1050:
1048:
1047:
1044:
1042:
1041:
1033:
1019:
1017:
1016:
1011:
1009:
1008:
1005:
999:
991:
990:
978:
977:
974:
962:
961:
958:
956:
955:
947:
940:
939:
936:
934:
933:
925:
905:
903:
902:
897:
895:
894:
878:
876:
875:
870:
868:
867:
849:
847:
846:
841:
839:
838:
835:
833:
832:
824:
811:
809:
808:
803:
801:
800:
784:
782:
781:
776:
774:
773:
755:
753:
752:
747:
745:
744:
741:
739:
738:
730:
716:
714:
713:
708:
703:
702:
690:
689:
674:
673:
670:
668:
667:
659:
649:
648:
636:
635:
620:
619:
616:
614:
613:
605:
598:
597:
594:
592:
591:
583:
560:
558:
557:
552:
550:
549:
546:
528:is the specific
527:
525:
524:
519:
517:
516:
498:
496:
495:
490:
488:
487:
484:
469:
467:
466:
461:
459:
458:
455:
453:
452:
444:
428:
426:
425:
420:
418:
417:
414:
412:
411:
403:
390:
388:
387:
382:
377:
376:
373:
364:
363:
348:
347:
344:
335:
334:
331:
329:
328:
320:
313:
312:
309:
307:
306:
298:
221:Second World War
82:
76:
70:
2963:
2962:
2958:
2957:
2956:
2954:
2953:
2952:
2938:
2937:
2936:
2931:
2888:
2869:Capacity factor
2857:Energy concepts
2852:
2811:
2667:
2658:
2627:
2622:
2592:
2591:
2581:
2579:
2574:
2573:
2566:
2557:
2556:
2552:
2543:
2542:
2538:
2529:
2528:
2524:
2514:
2512:
2507:
2506:
2502:
2492:
2491:
2487:
2474:
2473:
2469:
2459:
2458:
2454:
2440:10.2172/5165898
2429:
2428:
2424:
2386:
2385:
2381:
2372:
2370:
2361:
2360:
2356:
2341:
2324:
2323:
2298:
2293:
2266:
2249:
2230:, United States
2212:
2204:
2159:
2153:
2116:
2111:
2110:
2089:
2084:
2083:
2062:
2057:
2056:
2024:
2019:
2018:
1987:
1974:
1958:
1942:
1929:
1901:
1900:
1880:
1858:
1857:
1831:
1812:
1787:
1786:
1776:
1749:
1744:
1743:
1722:
1717:
1716:
1690:
1680:
1659:
1654:
1653:
1646:
1640:
1603:
1583:
1561:
1560:
1534:
1515:
1490:
1489:
1479:
1471:
1444:
1439:
1438:
1417:
1412:
1411:
1379:
1374:
1373:
1350:
1345:
1344:
1312:
1307:
1306:
1279:
1266:
1241:
1225:
1212:
1187:
1165:
1160:
1159:
1153:
1126:
1121:
1120:
1097:
1092:
1091:
1068:
1063:
1062:
1030:
1025:
1024:
1000:
982:
969:
944:
922:
917:
916:
913:
886:
881:
880:
859:
854:
853:
821:
816:
815:
792:
787:
786:
765:
760:
759:
727:
722:
721:
694:
681:
656:
640:
627:
602:
580:
575:
574:
568:
541:
536:
535:
508:
503:
502:
479:
474:
473:
441:
436:
435:
400:
395:
394:
368:
355:
339:
317:
295:
290:
289:
287:
271:
262:
253:
248:
205:
158:
156:Secondary cycle
142:
84:
80:
78:
74:
72:
68:
60:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2961:
2959:
2951:
2950:
2940:
2939:
2933:
2932:
2930:
2929:
2919:
2906:
2893:
2890:
2889:
2887:
2886:
2884:Energy subsidy
2881:
2879:Energy storage
2876:
2871:
2866:
2860:
2858:
2854:
2853:
2851:
2850:
2845:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2825:
2819:
2817:
2813:
2812:
2810:
2809:
2804:
2802:United Kingdom
2799:
2794:
2789:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2769:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2749:
2744:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2679:
2675:
2673:
2669:
2668:
2661:
2659:
2657:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2635:
2633:
2629:
2628:
2623:
2621:
2620:
2613:
2606:
2598:
2590:
2589:
2575:Turboden Spa.
2564:
2550:
2536:
2522:
2500:
2485:
2467:
2452:
2422:
2379:
2354:
2339:
2295:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2288:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2265:
2262:
2261:
2260:
2255:
2248:
2245:
2244:
2243:
2240:
2237:
2236:, New Zealand
2231:
2225:
2219:
2211:
2208:
2203:
2200:
2199:
2198:
2195:
2172:
2169:
2166:
2155:Main article:
2152:
2149:
2148:
2147:
2146:
2145:
2123:
2119:
2096:
2092:
2069:
2065:
2054:
2033:
2030:
2002:
1999:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1970:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1954:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1925:
1922:
1910:
1907:
1889:
1886:
1879:
1867:
1864:
1854:
1840:
1837:
1821:
1818:
1809:
1795:
1775:
1772:
1771:
1770:
1756:
1752:
1729:
1725:
1713:
1712:
1697:
1693:
1687:
1683:
1677:
1674:
1671:
1662:
1642:Main article:
1639:
1636:
1635:
1634:
1612:
1609:
1592:
1589:
1582:
1570:
1567:
1557:
1543:
1540:
1524:
1521:
1512:
1498:
1478:
1475:
1470:
1467:
1466:
1465:
1451:
1447:
1424:
1420:
1409:
1388:
1385:
1371:
1357:
1353:
1342:
1321:
1318:
1303:
1302:
1291:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1262:
1250:
1247:
1240:
1237:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1208:
1196:
1193:
1186:
1174:
1171:
1152:
1149:
1148:
1147:
1129:
1118:
1104:
1100:
1089:
1071:
1060:
1039:
1036:
1021:
1020:
1003:
998:
994:
989:
985:
981:
972:
968:
965:
953:
950:
943:
931:
928:
912:
909:
908:
907:
893:
889:
866:
862:
851:
830:
827:
813:
799:
795:
772:
768:
757:
736:
733:
718:
717:
706:
701:
697:
693:
688:
684:
680:
677:
665:
662:
655:
652:
647:
643:
639:
634:
630:
626:
623:
611:
608:
601:
589:
586:
567:
564:
563:
562:
544:
533:
515:
511:
500:
482:
471:
450:
447:
433:
409:
406:
380:
371:
367:
362:
358:
354:
351:
342:
338:
326:
323:
316:
304:
301:
286:
283:
270:
267:
261:
258:
252:
249:
247:
244:
217:Ethyl Chloride
204:
201:
157:
154:
150:heat exchanger
141:
138:
79:
73:
67:
59:
56:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2960:
2949:
2946:
2945:
2943:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2904:
2895:
2894:
2891:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2861:
2859:
2855:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2820:
2818:
2814:
2808:
2807:United States
2805:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2745:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2677:
2676:
2674:
2670:
2665:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2636:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2619:
2614:
2612:
2607:
2605:
2600:
2599:
2596:
2578:
2571:
2569:
2565:
2560:
2554:
2551:
2546:
2540:
2537:
2532:
2526:
2523:
2511:
2504:
2501:
2496:
2489:
2486:
2481:
2477:
2471:
2468:
2463:
2456:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2426:
2423:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2383:
2380:
2368:
2364:
2358:
2355:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2321:
2319:
2317:
2315:
2313:
2311:
2309:
2307:
2305:
2303:
2301:
2297:
2290:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2275:Working fluid
2273:
2271:
2268:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2250:
2246:
2241:
2238:
2235:
2232:
2229:
2226:
2223:
2222:Mammoth Lakes
2220:
2217:
2214:
2213:
2209:
2207:
2201:
2196:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2170:
2167:
2164:
2163:
2162:
2158:
2150:
2143:
2139:
2121:
2117:
2094:
2090:
2067:
2063:
2055:
2031:
2028:
2017:
2016:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1979:
1975:
1968:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1934:
1930:
1920:
1908:
1905:
1887:
1884:
1877:
1865:
1862:
1852:
1838:
1835:
1819:
1816:
1807:
1793:
1785:
1784:
1783:
1781:
1773:
1754:
1750:
1727:
1723:
1715:
1714:
1695:
1691:
1685:
1681:
1675:
1672:
1669:
1660:
1652:
1651:
1650:
1645:
1637:
1610:
1607:
1590:
1587:
1580:
1568:
1565:
1555:
1541:
1538:
1522:
1519:
1510:
1496:
1488:
1487:
1486:
1484:
1476:
1474:
1468:
1449:
1445:
1422:
1418:
1410:
1386:
1383:
1372:
1355:
1351:
1343:
1319:
1316:
1305:
1304:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1271:
1267:
1260:
1248:
1245:
1238:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1217:
1213:
1206:
1194:
1191:
1184:
1172:
1169:
1158:
1157:
1156:
1150:
1127:
1119:
1102:
1098:
1090:
1069:
1061:
1037:
1034:
1023:
1022:
1001:
996:
987:
983:
979:
970:
963:
951:
948:
941:
929:
926:
915:
914:
910:
891:
887:
864:
860:
852:
828:
825:
814:
797:
793:
770:
766:
758:
734:
731:
720:
719:
699:
695:
691:
686:
682:
675:
663:
660:
653:
645:
641:
637:
632:
628:
621:
609:
606:
599:
587:
584:
573:
572:
571:
565:
542:
534:
531:
513:
509:
501:
480:
472:
448:
445:
434:
432:
407:
404:
393:
392:
391:
369:
365:
360:
356:
349:
340:
336:
324:
321:
314:
302:
299:
284:
282:
275:
268:
266:
259:
257:
251:Dual pressure
250:
245:
243:
239:
237:
233:
229:
228:Petropavlovsk
224:
222:
218:
214:
210:
202:
200:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
181:Kalina cycles
178:
173:
171:
167:
163:
155:
153:
151:
147:
140:Primary cycle
139:
137:
135:
134:working fluid
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
112:) to drive a
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
83: Coolant
64:
57:
55:
53:
48:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
2908:
2901:
2848:Hot dry rock
2833:Desalination
2828:Binary cycle
2827:
2816:Technologies
2580:. Retrieved
2577:"Geothermal"
2553:
2539:
2525:
2513:. Retrieved
2503:
2494:
2488:
2479:
2470:
2461:
2455:
2431:
2425:
2392:
2388:
2382:
2371:. Retrieved
2366:
2357:
2326:
2285:Kalina cycle
2247:Kalina cycle
2205:
2202:Power plants
2160:
1777:
1647:
1480:
1472:
1154:
569:
288:
280:
263:
254:
240:
225:
206:
174:
159:
143:
116:and produce
87:
58:Introduction
49:
29:binary cycle
28:
21:binary cycle
20:
18:
2823:Aquaculture
2772:Philippines
2767:New Zealand
2707:El Salvador
2395:: 291–307.
2389:Geothermics
2216:Olkaria III
2180:carciogenic
269:Performance
234:peninsula,
189:refrigerant
185:hydrocarbon
118:electricity
110:Heat Engine
45:electricity
2672:By country
2448:Q112817289
2417:Q112813717
2373:2010-11-02
2349:Q112793147
2291:References
1469:Efficiency
260:Dual fluid
246:Variations
122:coal-fired
2864:Base load
2757:Lithuania
2732:Indonesia
2682:Australia
2409:0375-6505
2192:flammable
2032:˙
1985:−
1969:∗
1956:−
1940:−
1921:∗
1909:˙
1888:˙
1878:−
1866:˙
1839:˙
1820:˙
1794:η
1676:−
1661:η
1611:˙
1591:˙
1581:−
1569:˙
1542:˙
1523:˙
1497:η
1387:˙
1320:˙
1277:−
1261:∗
1249:˙
1223:−
1207:∗
1195:˙
1173:˙
1128:η
1038:˙
1002:η
980:−
964:∗
952:˙
930:˙
911:Feed Pump
829:˙
742:condenser
735:˙
692:−
676:∗
664:˙
638:−
622:∗
610:˙
595:condenser
588:˙
566:Condenser
481:η
449:˙
408:˙
366:−
350:∗
341:η
337:∗
325:˙
303:˙
232:Kamchatka
179:(ORC) or
170:feed pump
166:condenser
114:generator
90:dry-steam
33:reservoir
2942:Category
2909:Portals:
2903:Category
2777:Portugal
2712:Ethiopia
2444:Wikidata
2413:Wikidata
2345:Wikidata
2264:See also
2142:wet-bulb
2039:geofluid
1916:geofluid
1846:geofluid
1394:geofluid
1256:geofluid
530:enthalpy
146:wellbore
2797:Ukraine
2782:Romania
2752:Lebanon
2727:Iceland
2722:Hungary
2717:Germany
2702:Denmark
2678:Armenia
2582:30 June
2515:30 June
2482:. 1974.
2218:, Kenya
2138:entropy
1873:turbine
1576:turbine
836:coolant
671:coolant
485:turbine
415:turbine
345:turbine
310:turbine
285:Turbine
230:on the
203:History
197:ammonia
191:) or a
162:turbine
2917:Energy
2792:Turkey
2787:Russia
2762:Mexico
2687:Canada
2446:
2415:
2407:
2347:
2337:
2190:, non-
2186:, low
2182:, low
2178:, non-
2109:&
1742:&
1665:Carnot
1437:&
879:&
785:&
236:Russia
209:Ischia
81:
75:
69:
2747:Kenya
2742:Japan
2737:Italy
2697:China
2692:Chile
2176:toxic
213:Italy
193:water
108:(see
104:into
94:flash
39:into
2584:2022
2517:2022
2405:ISSN
2335:ISBN
1895:pump
1803:util
1598:pump
1132:pump
1045:pump
1006:pump
937:pump
106:work
102:heat
41:work
37:heat
2436:doi
2397:doi
1827:net
1618:PHE
1549:PHE
1530:net
1327:PHX
1180:PHX
187:or
124:or
92:or
2944::
2567:^
2478:.
2442:,
2434:,
2411:.
2403:.
2393:53
2391:.
2365:.
2343:.
2299:^
2082:,
1798:II
1506:th
1202:wf
1074:4s
975:4s
959:wf
617:wf
547:2s
456:wf
431:kW
374:2s
332:wf
211:,
136:.
47:.
19:A
2617:e
2610:t
2603:v
2586:.
2547:.
2519:.
2438::
2419:.
2399::
2376:.
2351:.
2122:0
2118:T
2095:0
2091:s
2068:0
2064:h
2029:E
2001:]
1998:)
1993:0
1989:s
1980:a
1976:s
1972:(
1964:0
1960:T
1953:)
1948:0
1944:h
1935:a
1931:h
1927:(
1924:[
1906:m
1885:W
1863:W
1853:=
1836:E
1817:W
1808:=
1755:H
1751:T
1728:C
1724:T
1696:H
1692:T
1686:C
1682:T
1673:1
1670:=
1608:Q
1588:W
1566:W
1556:=
1539:Q
1520:W
1511:=
1501:I
1450:c
1446:h
1423:a
1419:h
1384:m
1356:4
1352:h
1317:Q
1290:)
1285:c
1281:h
1272:a
1268:h
1264:(
1246:m
1239:=
1236:)
1231:4
1227:h
1218:1
1214:h
1210:(
1192:m
1185:=
1170:Q
1103:3
1099:h
1070:h
1035:W
997:/
993:)
988:3
984:h
971:h
967:(
949:m
942:=
927:W
892:y
888:h
865:x
861:h
826:m
798:3
794:h
771:2
767:h
732:Q
705:)
700:x
696:h
687:y
683:h
679:(
661:m
654:=
651:)
646:3
642:h
633:2
629:h
625:(
607:m
600:=
585:Q
543:h
514:1
510:h
446:m
405:W
379:)
370:h
361:1
357:h
353:(
322:m
315:=
300:W
195:-
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