387:
of disease control and yields, sanitation and three applications of
Ridomil 72 plus (12% metalaxyl + 60% copper-1-oxide) fungicide showed a better control compared to sanitation alone and sanitation with one or two fungicide applications. However, reduced in fungicide application was shown to be significantly less effective than the recommended standard fungicide application. It was suggested that the understanding regarding the source of inoculum, the amount of infective inoculum production and how the disease is disseminated is important in order to identify the appropriate and economical method in fungicide application as well as for an effective control of the disease. For example, the application of fungicide on the trunk will help farmers to control the spread of the disease up in the canopy, as it is difficult to reach the canopy during fungicide application. This will eventually save more time, labor and cost for disease management.
264:
spore trap, where a small amount of spores were found in the trap - most likely due to realative humidity capturing the spores in micrometer sized droplets suspended in the air. Conversely, the dispersal of inoculum via rain is considered an effective mechanism in spreading the inoculum. It was assumed that under close canopy, less water will reach the sporulating pods to spread the inoculum, however, rain drops from leaves and branches could also splash the inoculum to the surroundings. Infected pods lying on the ground or litter could also spread the inoculum, yet greater infection was observed on pods located under infected pods hanging on the tree compared to pods at the same level of infected pods. It was reported that splash of wind-blown droplets from the infected pods are also able to infect pods on different trees nearby
364:
scattered healthy pod on the ground should also be removed, as it will be infected and become the source of inoculum later. Sanitation is one cultural method to control for black pod disease. Sanitation practices include weed removal, pruning, thinning and removal of infected and mummified pods every two weeks in order to eliminate the source for inoculum. Phytosanitary pod removal was observed to significantly reduce disease occurrences by 9–11% to 22–31%, where this practice removes the source for secondary inoculum. However, increase in disease incidence after raining season was observed to be most likely due to the spread of inoculum from survival site by the rain. The application of
396:
the application of fungicide on the trunk would protect pods from infection, therefore reduce primary and secondary infection rate, both on the trunk and in the canopy. In addition, the application of systemic (potassium phosphonate) with one and double injection (20 ml and 40 ml of fungicide for each injection frequency), and semi-systemic (metalaxyl) fungicide showed better control compared to contact fungicides (copper based fungicide) in both locations that were used in the experiment.
405:
382:(Aliete) and control treatment. On top of that, the timing of fungicide application has some positive effect on the final pod yield where this plot produced greater yield than the unsprayed plot. The application was done before August, which is before the main disease epidemic that usually occurs in September and October. The recommended standard for fungicide application to control black pod disease caused by
472:
of Upper Amazon X Trinidad, and an international cultivar from Papua New Guinea and Latin
America were provided through International Cocoa Genebank, Trinidad. Based on the information provided by farmers and leaf disc tests to assess resistance, the local cultivars selected from farmers field showed
386:
for a season is 6 to 8 times of application in every 3–4 weeks. However, the adoption of recommended application was very low among farmers in Ghana. Therefore, an experiment with a reduced number of fungicide applications demonstrated that there was 25 to 45% reduction in disease incidence. In terms
347:
Several cultural practices to manage black pod disease could be implemented in cocoa plantation. A spacing of 3.1 x 3.1m and pruning of trees are recommended for cocoa planting in order to allow more light and air flow around the trees. This will reduce the level of humidity that is causing black pod
254:
The spread of infection to pods above bare soil was shown to be greater relative to pods above litter. The reason for this is due to the splash of rain from bare soil spreads the inoculum to pods. However, litter under the tree prevented water droplets from splashing the soil particles as well as the
240:
is found in
Central and Western Africa. During the cooler wetter times of the year, there is a spike in the incidents of black pod disease as when compared to the hotter more dry times of the year. The disease has a spike in growth shortly after a rainfall. The humid weather that is associated with
395:
In Ghana, a study that combined the sanitation and fungicide application showed a significant reduction in the percentage of disease incidence, where greater black pod incident were observed from pods on the trunk than the canopy in control treatment (no fungicide application). This suggested that
263:
The spread of spores through air from infected pods was observed, and some assumptions regarding this mechanism of dispersion has been made in previous studies, however it has remained uncertain due to unreliable results from an experiment that collected some spores in the air using the volumetric
119:
survival during the dry season, where the pathogen will grow and continue to infect other developing pods The infection occurs at any stage of pod development, where it causes wilting and dying of young pods and destroyed the beans of mature pods. The fully infected pods (the mummified pod), which
477:
compared to others. Thus, it was concluded that there are some potentially resistant varieties available in this area. In addition, further work towards developing black pod-resistant varieties is being done by CEPLAC (Executive Plan of Cocoa
Farming) agency in Brazil and hopefully more breeding
109:
Black pod disease starts when the infected pod shows some little yellow spots, which eventually turn brown and enlarge to a dark brown or black lesion within five days. The lesion is fast growing and covers the entire pod after eight days of infection. The infection does not only occur on the pod
363:
as documented by
Aryantha et al. (2000). More frequent ripe pod harvest (i.e. twice a week) and removal of infected pod on the ground was demonstrated to significantly reduced disease occurrence and improve pod yield compared to less frequent harvest and removal (i.e. once a month). In addition,
192:
infects the bark, flowers, and trees with cankers. These cankers will often exude a reddish gum reducing the life of the tree, in turn, reducing the yield of the plant. The most devastating place the pathogen attacks is in the flowers, as these flowers are where the cocoa fruit will set. An
101:
The symptom of black pod disease is a necrotic lesion on the cocoa pod that is brown or black in color, which eventually enlarges to cover the whole pod. White mycelia growth on lesions that appear several days after infection is a sign of the causal pathogen of black pod disease, which is
412:
Heavy application of chemical fungicide eventually leads to resistance in pathogens and causes soil and water pollution. Hence, more sustainable and environmental friendly method should be established and implemented, such as biological control. Several species of fungi from the genera of
377:
The application of copper fungicide has been shown to significantly reduce the number of black pod incidents in
Nigeria. Metalaxyl (Ridomil) and cuprous oxide (Perenox) were identified to be successful in increasing the number of harvested healthy pod compared to the application of
348:
disease. The removal of pods with black pod symptom should also be done in favor to eliminate the source of inoculum. In another study, the utilization of litter mulch under cocoa plantation has been reported in Papua New Guinea, which has some negative effect on the population of
451:. This endophyte species survives on cocoa pods, and has the ability to establish a long endophytic association with the host (about 3.5 months). Nevertheless, the protection against black pod via biological control is not as effective as the control using chemical fungicides.
486:
The United States chocolate industry consumes 1.4 billion dollars of cocoa and supplies 68,450 jobs throughout the United States. With this industry being so important not only in the US but also all over the world, the elimination of black pod disease is of high importance.
88:
The pathogen can be found anywhere on the cocoa trees, but is most notable for the black mummified appearance it gives to the fruit of the cocoa tree. Preventing the spread of the pathogen prior to infection is the best means of control. The pathogen can be greatly reduced if
329:
is the most common vector for black pod as it was found 50 to 60% of black pod occurrences. These invertebrates consume the outer layer of the infected pods and incidentally ingest the mycelium and spores of the pathogen, thus spread the pathogen to other healthy pods.
114:
through water, ants and other insects occurs at this stage and will infect other healthy pods nearby. Direct contact of a black pod with healthy pods also leads to the spread of disease. In addition, the infected flower cushion and mummified pods are the locations for
368:
following sanitation is commonly performed for an effective control of disease, as sanitation practice alone would not eliminate the source of inoculum and still causes greater black pod incident compared to sanitation followed by at least one fungicide application
85:. It is mostly found in tropical areas where cocao trees grow, and its spores are spread via the heavy rainfalls that can occur in tropical climates. Annually, the pathogen can cause a yield loss of up to 1/3, and up to 10% of total trees can be lost completely.
356:
showed rapid decline in pathogen recovery of colonized cocoa tissue after 18 weeks, relative to grass ground cover. An explanation for this is due to higher moisture content and microbial activity of other microbes under leaf litter that reduces the survival of
296:
removes the outer layer of cocoa pod and uses this material to construct the tent. Therefore, this ant effectively spread the disease by transporting the spores from the infected pods on the ground or on trees to healthy pods. Several other ant species namely
255:
inoculum beneath the litter to the above pods. Furthermore, it was also reported that pods near the ground showed greater infections compared to higher pods due to greater soil was splashed and stick on the lower pods, therefore causes more infections.
338:
There are several methods available in order to control black pod disease such as cultural, chemical and biological control. In addition, the cultivation of varieties that resistant to black pod is an alternative in order to reduce disease incidence.
179:
has been detected in the roots of shade trees of
Western Africa. While these trees can also be affected by the pathogen it is because of the market value of the cocoa trees that all emphasis and research on the disease is done on cocoa trees.
140:
also caused canker on bark, flower cushion and chupóns, and cankers on the base could extend to the main roots. Cankers were identified as one of the inoculum sources for black pod disease. Furthermore, the pattern of infection caused by
468:. For example, a study in Cameroon assessed the performance of local cocoa cultivars (the southern and northern Cameroon cultivar) compared to the local and international gene bank cultivars. The local genebank cultivar consisted of
463:
infection, and the establishment and utilization of resistant varieties most likely depends on the region. Numerous breeding programs have been established worldwide in order to screen and test local hybrids for resistance to
320:
Other invertebrates that were reported to be associated with spreading the disease are several species of beetle, snail, caterpillar and millipedes. Fecal samples from these organisms were found to contain viable spores of
313:, another type of tent-building ant that uses soil as building materials for tent construction was identified as the most important agent to spread the inoculum in Nigeria. Soil was identified as the source of inoculum for
1168:
Efombagn, M.I.B.; S. Nyassé; O. Sounigo; M. Kolesnikova-Allen; A.B. Eskes (2007). "Participatory cocoa (Theobroma cacao) selection in
Cameroon: Phytophthora pod rot resistant accessions identified in farmers' fields".
696:
Opoku, I.Y.; A.Y. Akrofi; A.A. Appiah (2007). "Assessment of sanitation and fungicide application directed at cocoa tree trunks for the control of
Phytophthora black pod infections in pods growing in the canopy".
292:
was thought to be the most important vector that is responsible for black pod losses due to its building tent behavior as well as its dominancy within the area under particular condition. In Ghana,
110:
surface, but also invades inside the pod affecting the beans. The growth of white mycelia on the black pod is visible after 11 days and the sporulation is initiated. The dispersal of sporangia or
950:
Taylor, B.; M.J. Griffin (1981). "The role and relative importance of different ant species in the dissemination of black pod disease of cocoa". In P.H. Gregory and A.C. Maddison (ed.).
241:
this pathogen and all other black pod disease pathogens is needed as the sporangia forms and starts distributing spores through rainfall, splashing water, and running water.
435:
where this fungus has the potential to reduce black pod incidence under field conditions in
Cameroon. It was reported that moderate black pod cases (47%) occurred in the
1242:
1059:"Impact of environmental factors, chemical fungicide and biological control on cacao pod production dynamics and black pod disease (Phytophthora megakarya) in Cameroon"
797:
1035:
Dennis, J.J.C.; J.K. Konam (1994). "Phytophthora palmivora cultural control methods and their relationship to disease epidemiology on cocoa in Papua New Guinea".
651:
Dennis, J.J.C.; J.K. Konam (1994). "Phytophthora palmivora cultural control methods and their relationship to disease epidemiology on cocoa in Papua New Guinea".
504:
1119:
1000:
Aryantha, I.P.; R. Cross; D.I. Guest (2000). "Suppression of Phytophthora cinnamomi in potting mixes amended with uncomposted and composted animal manures".
965:
Konam, J.K.; D.I. Guest (2002). "Leaf litter mulch reduces the survival of Phytophthora palmivora under cocoa trees in Papua New Guinea".
1057:
Deberdt, P.; C.V. Mfegue; P.R. Tondje; M.C. Bon; M. Ducamp; C. Hurard; B.A.D. Begoude; M. Ndoumbe-Nkeng; P.K. Hebbar; C. Cilas (2008).
735:
Ward, M.R.; A.C. Maddison; A.A. Adebayo (1981). "The epidemic on sprayed cocoa at Gambari". In P. H. Gregory and A. C. Maddison (ed.).
317:
and therefore, it was implied that this ant species might use the infected soil to build tents, which infects healthy pods on trees.
750:
Opoku, I.Y.; A.Y. Akrofi; A.A. Appiah (2002). "Shade trees are alternative hosts of the cocoa pathogen Phytophthora megakarya".
201:
Seven different pathogens have been named to cause black pod disease across world. All of the pathogens are found in the genus
536:
Brasier, C. M.; M.J. Griffin; A.C. Maddison (1981). "Cocoa black pod Phytophthoras". In P.H. Gregory and A.C. Maddison) (ed.).
1197:
1120:"Trichoderma martiale sp. nov., a new endophyte from sapwood of Theobroma cacao with a potential for biological control"
801:
447:
Samuels, sp. nov. was identified as an endophyte on cocoa, which has the ability to reduce black pod symptoms caused by
1088:
Krauss, U.; W. Soberanis (2002). "Effect of fertilization and biocontrol application frequency on cocoa pod diseases".
145:
starts from the ground and moves up to the canopy, however there is no distinct pattern of disease infection caused by
511:
845:
Thorold, C.A. (1952). "Airborne dispersal of Phytophthora palmivora, causing black pod disease in Theobroma cacao".
827:
Maddison, A.C.; M.J. Griffin (1981). "Detection and movement of inoculum". In P.H. Gregory and A.C. Maddison (ed.).
1147:
209:
While all of these pathogens can cause black pod disease, the two major pathogens responsible for black pod are
280:
274:
1247:
478:
program focusing on black pod resistant will be established to produce commercialized resistant varieties.
359:
272:
The dispersal of the disease is also associated with the invertebrate vectors. Tent building ants such as
45:
39:
1252:
624:
1118:
Hanada, R.E; T.J. Souza; A.W.V. Pomella; K. P. Hebbar; J. O. Pereira; A. Ismaiel; G.J. Samuels (2008).
908:
854:
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infected flower will produce infected fruit, which will turn black and be unsuitable for processing.
1223:
443:
also has been documented to reduce black pod incidence in Peru. In Brazil, a new species known as
982:
932:
878:
714:
612:
93:
is allowed to stay on the ground, otherwise, chemical control can be used for more severe cases.
404:
1139:
1017:
924:
870:
575:
379:
352:, and therefore could reduce the pod infection especially at the beginning of raining season.
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treatment compared to untreated trees (71%) and chemical fungicide (1.73%). Another species,
1178:
1131:
1097:
1070:
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974:
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862:
777:
Dakwa, J.T (1973). "The relationship between black pod incidence and the weather in Ghana".
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could be surviving in the roots of a few species of shade trees found in cocoa plantations.
637:
171:
58:
912:
858:
207:
P. capsici, P. citrophthora, P. megasperma, P. katsurae, P. palmivora, and P. megakarya.
205:(a plant-damaging Oomycetes). The seven species responsible for black pod disease are;
1201:
428:
1101:
899:
Evans, H.C. (1971). "Transmission of Phytophthora pod rot of cocoa by invertebrates".
763:
558:
Guest, D. (2007). "Black Pod: Diverse pathogens with a global impact on cocoa yield".
1236:
1074:
616:
132:, but the occurrence is faster and generally produces greater amount of spores. Both
986:
936:
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718:
510:. Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher Education Center, CATIE. Archived from
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90:
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82:
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67:
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were identified to be beneficial endophytes to control black pod caused by
928:
111:
796:
Bowers, J.H.; B.A. Bailey; P.K. Hebbar; S. Sanogo; R.D. Lumsden (2001).
1037:
11th International Cocoa Research Conference. Cocoa Producers Alliance
653:
11th International Cocoa Research Conference. Cocoa Producers Alliance
920:
866:
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Epidemiology of Phytophthora on Cocoa in Nigeria, Phytopathological
284:
were reported as the primary vector in disseminating the spores of
120:
then become dehydrated, are capable of providing the inoculum of
954:. UK: Commonwealth Mycological Institute, Kew. pp. 114–131.
739:. UK: Commonwealth Mycological Institute, Kew. pp. 145–162.
169:
Black pod disease, while its name indicates that it is found in
459:
There is no specific variety of cocoa that shows resistance to
831:. UK: Commonwealth Mycological Institute, Kew. pp. 31–49.
540:. UK: Commonwealth Mycological Institute, Kew. pp. 18–30.
225:
are found in Central and South America, while others such as
798:"The impact of plant diseases on world chocolate production"
305:
were also responsible for the spread of the disease besides
149:
was reported. This pattern of infection could be due to
822:
820:
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1224:"Current Industrial Reports: MA311D - Confectionery"
66:
52:
34:
26:
21:
408:Chris Tonaldo applying chemical fungicide on cocoa
1196:ICCO - International Cocoa Organization. (2013).
952:Epidemiology of Phytophthora on Cocoa in Nigeria
737:Epidemiology of Phytophthora on Cocoa in Nigeria
672:Epidemiology of Phytophthora on Cocoa in Nigeria
538:Epidemiology of Phytophthora on cocoa in Nigeria
840:
838:
674:. UK: Commonwealth Mycological Institute, Kew.
288:from infected pods to healthy pods in Ghana.
259:Air and water dispersal from sporulating pods
8:
505:"Catalog: Cacao Diseases in Central America"
503:Philip-Mora, Wilbert; Rolando Cerda (2009).
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229:is found in Central and Western Africa.
175:, also has different hosts. For example,
1243:Water mould plant pathogens and diseases
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403:
325:. It was reported that beetle of family
800:. Plant Health Progress. Archived from
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157:that were found to survive in soil and
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427:from soil was observed as a potential
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7:
670:Gregory, P.H; A.C. Maddison (1981).
14:
97:Disease cycle, symptoms and signs
1075:10.1016/j.biocontrol.2007.10.026
596:Luseni, M.M.; S. Kroma (2012).
1222:U.S. Bureau of Census (2010).
1:
1102:10.1016/s1049-9644(02)00007-5
764:10.1016/s0261-2194(02)00013-3
391:Cultural and chemical control
1183:10.1016/j.cropro.2006.12.008
1136:10.1016/j.mycres.2008.06.022
598:"Black pod disease of cacao"
299:C. africana, C. clariventris
1014:10.1094/PHYTO.2000.90.7.775
128:causes the same symptom as
1269:
30:Black pod disease of cocoa
711:10.1007/s10658-006-9082-8
609:10.1079/pwkb.20127801283
572:10.1094/phyto-97-12-1650
967:Australas. Plant Pathol
311:Camponotus acvapimensis
281:Camponotus acvapimensis
275:Crematogaster striatula
81:is a fungal disease of
632:Cite journal requires
473:greater resistance to
425:Trichoderma asperellum
409:
360:Phytophthora cinnamomi
124:for at least 3 years.
46:Phytophthora megakarya
40:Phytophthora palmivora
16:Disease of cocoa trees
603:. www.plantwise.org.
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699:Eur. J. Plant Pathol
445:Trichoderma martiale
188:In the cocoa trees,
1198:"Pest and Diseases"
913:1971Natur.232..346E
859:1952Natur.170..718T
779:Ghana J. Agric. Sci
1090:Biological Control
1063:Biological Control
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400:Biological control
334:Disease management
245:Inoculum dispersal
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853:(4330): 718–719.
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455:Resistant variety
380:fosetyl aluminium
79:Black pod disease
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27:Common names
22:Black pod disease
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1253:Phytophthora
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521:20 November
416:Trichoderma
354:Leaf litter
327:Nitidulidae
303:C. depressa
233:Environment
184:Cocoa trees
91:leaf litter
83:Cocoa trees
1237:Categories
1208:2013-11-21
1154:2018-12-29
1124:Mycol. Res
1043:(953–957).
808:2013-11-22
659:: 953–957.
491:References
482:Importance
441:T. virens,
219:P. capsici
1171:Crop Prot
1096:: 82–89.
785:: 93–102.
752:Crop Prot
617:254006087
470:F1 hybrid
366:fungicide
112:zoospores
68:EPPO Code
1144:18672059
1022:18944498
987:40787476
875:13002424
580:18943728
197:Pathogen
937:4181889
929:5094846
909:Bibcode
883:4264153
855:Bibcode
719:6620069
56:cocoa (
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901:Nature
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72:PHYTPL
983:S2CID
933:S2CID
879:S2CID
715:S2CID
613:S2CID
601:(PDF)
515:(PDF)
508:(PDF)
165:Hosts
53:Hosts
1140:PMID
1018:PMID
925:PMID
871:PMID
638:help
576:PMID
523:2013
431:for
301:and
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