692:, or fig endosepsis. The wasps carry this disease on their wings and body. Because the fungus grows on the ostiole, the fungus is transmitted to the wasps' bodies when the wasp emerges from the syconium through the ostiole. Fig endosepsis is not transmitted transovarily by the fig wasp. The wasps become contaminated with spores of the fungus as they contact plant surfaces upon emergence. Studies show that wasps on upper surfaces of the leaves were infected with this fungus in higher levels than other wasps. Wasps who were higher up in the tree or further out on a branch also showed more fungus on their wings and bodies. This led to the conclusion that contamination increases as the wasps walk on leaves, petioles, and fruits before they reach the opening to the syconium. This fungus affects both males and females. The fungus shows to be more evident in spring caprifigs that are pollinated with 5 to 10 winter caprifigs than when spring caprifigs are pollinated with only one winter caprifig. Also, the incidences of this fungus are higher when there is a high population of wasps with limited figs. The more wasps that pass through one ostiole, the more likely the wasp will contract
455:—where the actual attractive substances come from). If a wasp detects the signal, it will lower its antennae and search for the entrance to the fig. By using its sense of smell and taste, the wasp can trace the actual entrance into a fig once the desired fig has been located. But if the wasp does not detect a signal, it will not enter the fig. Instead, it will move on and search for another receptive fig. Fig wasps have a short lifespan, and selection favored them by immediate attraction towards receptive plants, easily distinguishable from a few meters. Due to the difference between male and female trees, male tree figs are more attractive than female tree figs as a result of selection.
301:, approximately only 2 millimetres (0.079 in) in length. The females are black wasps and seem shiny, while the males are smaller than the females. The males are wingless, whereas females have wings that are transparent and very thin. When the female wasps enter the opening of a fig, their wings and antennae detach. Upon dissecting a fig, the wings of the wasps can be seen at the opening of the fig. Additionally, adult wasps, larvae, and eggs are found within the fig. The wasps are free-living and their lifespan spans from a few days to weeks.
528:
trees, so they use that relationship to prey on wasps. This concept is called associative learning of odor because the ants are indirectly finding these wasps by associating the smell of the fig with the wasps. However, some ants do not respond to the odor of figs for different reasons. For instance, the fig could be a non-pollinator and therefore not release any chemical substance. In the case where the ants cannot detect odors, the wasps will not be predated upon.
46:
414:. This is beneficial for wasps which do not have very long ovipositors and can only parasitize ovaries of female flowers with short styles found only on male trees. All female flowers on male trees with parasitized ovaries means the ovaries contain wasp eggs and produce larva instead of seeds. On the other hand, female flowers on male trees with non-parasitized ovaries will produce seeds, helping in pollination and reproduction of that flower.
212:
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much more active and larger in the springtime. The spring and winter caprifigs have a life cycle related to each other as to maximize resources and output of figs and wasps. Winter, or delayed, caprifigs are usually observed to occur on male trees. Spring, or undelayed, caprifigs usually occur on female trees. Because female trees are lethal, wasps prefer these delayed caprifigs of male trees.
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Males emerge first from their cocoon and begin looking for females to mate with. Sometimes mating occurs before the female has finished emerging from its cocoon. Then, males start enlarging the fig's opening. Some fall from the fig to the ground. They have no wings and die shortly after. The enlarged
422:
Female flowers on female trees have long styles. Therefore, wasps cannot parasitize these ovaries because their ovipositors are too short to reach the bottom of the syconium. Because wasp eggs cannot be laid in these female flowers, all female flowers on female trees produce seeds instead of larvae.
431:
There is also a difference in winter and spring caprifigs (male figs) and their availability to receive eggs and become pollinated. Spring caprifigs usually produce more wasps than winter caprifigs because of better and more resources available for them. This implies that the fig wasp population is
445:
stimuli drive the wasp to a fig that is available to receive wasp eggs. This olfactory stimulus is specific for the wasps' host fig (in this case, F. carica) and enables the wasps to distinguish between their host and other fig species. Figs in their receptive phase emit a compound called pentane
527:
One of the main predators of these wasps is ants. Ants find these wasps using chemical signals such as odor cues. The ants use the fig-fig wasp mutualism to find the fig wasps by detecting an odor that comes from the figs of the male trees. They know that most fig wasps are located on male fig
560:
These nematodes then invade, feed, and reproduce inside the floret tissues. Larvae finish development with nematode still inside the hemocoel. After fertilization, females emerge from a syconium with nematodes still in hemocoel along with pollen flakes along her body. Because this nematode is
401:
wasp that has retrieved pollen from another syconium. Female wasps oviposit in the syconium for hatching. When these larvae emerge as adults, they carry the pollen accumulated in the syconium out of the fig to another nearby syconium. Thus, when wasps lay their eggs, they are also actually
389:. Both of them live in close physical association and benefit from one another. The fig serves as a "nest" for fig wasps, a place to lay and grow their eggs. For the fig, the fig wasps act as agents of pollination where pollens are carried to other plants for reproduction. Specifically,
485:
from a deposited egg destroys a female flower when it feeds on its growing seed. When wasps emerge from the syconium, they rush to the nearest syconia. This rush creates a large number of wasps all competing to enter an adjacent syconium. Due to this rush,
490:
will become less effective as more pollen falls off of the wasp bodies. Offspring number depends on number of pollinator wasps per syconium. The number of offspring is low when the entry number of wasps in a syconium is high. On average, each wasp has 3
33:
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at least 5 meters away. Upon sensing these signals from a specific syconium, the wasp will approach that fig. Before entering, the wasps will assess the fig by holding up their heads and antennae next to the opening of the syconium (the
423:
This feature of female flowers on female trees is the explanation why it is nearly impossible for wasps to emerge from a female fig tree. Fig wasps cannot perform oviposition in there and they can be dangerously stuck in that syconium.
440:
Once fig wasps emerge from the syconium, they have to figure out the fig in which they want to deposit their eggs. They need to make sure that the fig they find is available and acceptable for breeding. In the case of B. psenes,
464:
opening enables the females to leave the syconium in search of a new one where to oviposit. Mating occurs within the syconium and laying eggs occurs in a syconium different than the one where mating occurred.
369:. When an adult wasp is mature, it mates with another wasp within the syconium. After mating, females emerge from the fig and search for a new nearby fig in which to lay their eggs. The female then
264:
occurs between fig and fig wasps, which creates a need for specific species of figs to be pollinated by specific species of wasps. The origin of mutualism is also the beginning of the fig wasp
834:
L. F. Kjellberg; P.-H. Gouyon; M. Ibrahim; M. Raymond; G. Valdeyron (July 1987). "The
Stability of the Symbiosis between Dioecious Figs and Their Pollinators: A Study of
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a year; one for each of the different seasonal caprifigs. Also, reproductive success depends heavily on transmission of strong signals by plant.
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Each species of fig is pollinated by a specific species of fig wasp. This kind of interaction between these two different organism is known as
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only live for a few days or weeks, and at maximum, much less than a month. These wasps lay fertilized eggs in female flowers of the
250:, these wasps breed in figs, and the adults live for only a few days or weeks. They locate the fig they wish to pollinate through
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in each flower's style. This can lead to some flowers not being pollinated because some styles are too long. Each
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to breed, it is found in regions where this fig species grows. The wasp is native to the
Palaearctic, including
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The wasps breed inside the fig. Later, the female lays its eggs in the ovaries of another fig by sticking its
1088:
Schatz, Bertrand; Martine
Hossaert-Mckey (2010). "Ants Use Odour Cues to Exploit Fig–fig Wasp Interactions".
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935:"Phylogenetic Relationships, Historical Biogeography and Character Evolution of Fig-pollinating Wasps"
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pollinating that syconium. A major difference between male and female fig trees can also be observed.
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so it usually dies when cleptoparasitized. While the nematodes as parasites are not lethal to
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tissue. The mother produces this hyperplastic tissue when she lays the eggs in the syconium.
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primarily found in the hemocoel of a female wasp, males are not associated with nematodes.
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oviposit at the outside of the florets. This layering of ovipositing causes the larvae of
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365:. The larvae become adults around the same time male fig flowers are ready to produce
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Machado, C. A.; E. Jousselin; F. Kjellberg; S. G. Compton; E. A. Herre (2001).
894:"Chemosensory Attraction of Fig Wasps to Substances Produced by Receptive Figs"
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626:. The cleptoparasite is actually another wasp. By being a cleptoparasite,
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wasp oviposits her egg inside the syconium, nematodes are also deposited.
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Populations, Availability of
Caprifigs, and Fig Endosepsis Cause by
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all the food source instead of sharing the food like the nematodes.
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to do the work and acquire food with little or no cost to itself.
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729:(Aphelenchoididae) with fig inflorescences, the fig pollinator
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725:
Vovlas, Nicola; Alessandra
Larizza (1996). "Relationships of
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into a new syconium. From there, the short life cycle of a
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these cleptoparasites are lethal because they are taking
1059:(11). The American Phytopathological Society: 1254–263.
939:
Proceedings of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences
1010:
Prat, Roger; Rubinstein, Jean-Pierre (13 Feb 2014).
904:(2). The Netherlands Entomological Society: 185–91.
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Hossaert-Mckey, M.; M. Gibernau; J. E. Frey (1994).
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has a mutualistic relationship with the fig species
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592:Caution: Mostly incorrect. Needs expert revision.
280:are very similar. Both of these genera pollinate
678:Some wasps carry a disease that is carried by
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565:is a very efficient host of these nematodes.
410:Male trees contain female flowers with short
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987:Eisen, Gustav (1891). "The Introduction of
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397:. This fig can only be pollinated by the
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1036:Michailides, T. J.; D. P. Morgan (1994).
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588:needs attention from an expert in biology
329:has been widely introduced to facilitate
268:. In the phylogenetic tree, the genus of
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898:Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata
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638:wasps oviposit in the syconium, while
598:may be able to help recruit an expert.
757:"Blastophaga psenes (Linnaeus, 1758)"
7:
1312:a4014b48-64a5-4ded-b237-1cd5d1f9c6eb
945:(1468). The Royal Society: 685–94.
658:struggles to compete for food with
549:These parasites are carried in the
739:Fundamental and Applied Nematology
14:
654:cannot emerge from the syconium.
586:This section on cleptoparasitism
1125:
577:
44:
499:Interactions with other species
357:hatch, they develop in the fig
224:is a wasp species in the genus
215:Winged female and wingless male
646:to put pressure on the larvae
427:Winter versus spring caprifigs
290:Description and identification
1:
1016:Fig (Ficus carica, Moraceae)
1446:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
1110:10.1016/j.actao.2009.10.008
590:. The specific problem is:
553:of the female wasp. When a
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682:trees. This disease is a
257:Taxonomy and phylogenetics
1018:. Biologie et Multimédia.
993:Zoe: A Biological Journal
733:, and its cleptoparasite
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146:
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41:Scientific classification
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305:Distribution and habitat
240:and the closely related
1441:Wasps described in 1758
508:When they are hatched,
951:10.1098/rspb.2000.1418
727:Schistonchus caprifici
545:Schistonchus caprifici
246:. Without a colony or
216:
1065:10.1094/Phyto-84-1254
735:Philotrypesis caricae
624:Philotrypesis caricae
539:are parasitized by a
214:
180:Blastophaga grossorum
1307:Fauna Europaea (new)
1044:Fusarium moniliforme
1012:"Arbres et Arbustes"
689:Fusarium moniliforme
1102:2010AcO....36..107S
596:WikiProject Biology
323:Mediterranean Basin
1413:blastophaga-psenes
1211:Blastophaga_psenes
1198:Blastophaga_psenes
1184:Blastophaga psenes
1154:Blastophaga psenes
1133:Blastophaga psenes
1040:Blastophaga psenes
991:into California".
989:Blastophaga Psenes
910:10.1007/BF02380526
840:Blastophaga psenes
784:Blastophaga psenes
731:Blastophaga psenes
221:Blastophaga psenes
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150:Blastophaga psenes
25:Blastophaga psenes
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1398:Open Tree of Life
1146:Taxon identifiers
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446:that can attract
286:species of figs.
252:olfactory senses.
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191:Blastophaga vaidi
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850:(4): 693–704.
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1333:iNaturalist
1178:Wikispecies
618:also has a
488:pollination
377:continues.
271:Blastophaga
227:Blastophaga
184:Gravenhorst
119:Blastophaga
98:Hymenoptera
1430:Categories
1070:11 October
915:11 October
759:. GBIF.org
700:References
664:B. psenes,
660:P. caricae
644:P. caricae
640:P. caricae
636:B. psenes
628:P. caricae
532:Parasitism
479:ovipositor
406:Male trees
337:Life cycle
313:relies on
297:are small
232:pollinates
78:Arthropoda
1436:Agaonidae
999:: 114–15.
844:Evolution
786:Linnaeus"
680:F. carica
668:B. psenes
656:B. psenes
652:B. psenes
648:B. psenes
632:B. psenes
616:B. psenes
563:B. psenes
555:B. psenes
537:B. psenes
523:Predation
510:B. psenes
448:B. psenes
399:symbiotic
395:F. carica
391:B. psenes
387:mutualism
381:Mutualism
375:B. psenes
371:oviposits
351:F. carica
343:B. psenes
327:B. psenes
321:near the
311:B. psenes
295:B. psenes
266:phylogeny
262:Mutualism
126:Species:
108:Agaonidae
64:Kingdom:
58:Eukaryota
1351:10087666
1218:BioLib:
1169:Q2906245
1163:Wikidata
969:11321056
872:28564365
800:20 April
551:hemocoel
541:nematode
347:syconium
309:Because
277:Wiebesia
171:Synonyms
158:Linnaeus
104:Family:
74:Phylum:
68:Animalia
54:Domain:
1325:1359057
1098:Bibcode
960:1088657
864:2408881
838:L. and
686:called
674:Disease
630:allows
453:ostiole
359:ovaries
114:Genus:
94:Order:
88:Insecta
84:Class:
1403:357968
1390:186042
1377:150937
1364:153965
1338:653247
1273:BLAGPS
1260:849533
1234:170233
1221:292092
967:
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790:Figweb
763:26 May
684:fungus
517:floret
493:broods
459:Mating
412:styles
367:pollen
355:larvae
341:Adult
186:, 1827
1410:PPE:
1346:IRMNG
1299:67608
1286:77380
1281:EUNIS
1247:5WMGW
1049:(PDF)
860:JSTOR
483:larva
349:of a
299:wasps
283:Ficus
230:. It
1372:NCBI
1359:ITIS
1320:GBIF
1268:EPPO
1229:BOLD
1072:2014
965:PMID
917:2014
868:PMID
802:2015
765:2017
504:Diet
363:gall
274:and
248:nest
162:1758
1255:EoL
1242:CoL
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1193:ADW
1106:doi
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955:PMC
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