491:. Both result in smaller habitat sizes suitable to water birds. To counteract these impacts, the Department of Environment and Conservation has devised several strategies to increase the blue-billed duck's population. They include retaining sustainable water flows and developing salinity management plans and farm management plans. The Australian population of blue-billed ducks is estimated to be 12 000, although the creation of artificial wetlands such as water treatment works disguise the number occurring in natural wetlands. The blue-billed duck's vulnerable status has been de-listed for the Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, although they are currently recognized as vulnerable in NSW, according to the Department of Environment and Climate Change NSW.
330:
diving. The duck sits low in the water in comparison to other ducks. During breeding season, apart from the aforementioned bright-blue bill, the male's head and neck are glossy black, and the back and wings are a rich chestnut. During the non-breeding season, the head changes from its glossy black to black with grey speckles, and its body changes from chestnut to dark grey. Some males retain breeding plumage throughout the year. The female's plumage does not change throughout the year. Its head is dark brown, and the back and wings consist of black feathers with a light-brown tip, giving a mottled appearance, although the
National Parks and Wildlife publication on
474:", by laying "dump clutches" in nests other than her own. There is also some evidence of the duck laying its eggs in nests occupied by other water-birds. The incubation is 26 to 28 days. After hatching, the young remain in the nest for one day, and are then led by the female from the nest. The young are relatively independent of the parents, being able to feed themselves immediately. The female will protect her brood, including hatchlings from dump clutches of other females. At eight weeks, ducklings are of a similar size to the parents. Within one year, most have full adult plumage. Yearlings in captivity were observed to be able to breed.
465:
adults are sedentary in breeding swamps since migration would expend energy that instead would be used for breeding. Year-long sedentary adult breeding is confirmed by the observation that the laying period of ducks in captivity is continuous, reflecting “opportunistic breeding”. Any variation in non-captive laying is in accordance to water-levels and hence abundance of food, a fact in contrast to Frith's description of reproduction being tied to the months between
September and November.
47:
38:
212:
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behaviour as rolling the cheek on the back, dab-preening (also sometimes performed by females), and sousing, where the head is thrown into the water in a prone position, and the back arched as if in spasm, with possibly the legs throwing spray above the body. After the courtship ritual, and a vigorous chase, copulation follows with the female completely submerged. The birds then separate and preen themselves. In preparation for laying eggs, the female builds the
307:
91:
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66:
1004:
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refers to bands on each feather rather than a single feather-tip colouration. The female blue-billed duck has a dark grey-brown bill and grey-brown feet, while the male's feet are grey. Both males and females have brown irises. Juvenile blue-billed ducks have a resemblance to adult females but appear
464:
is the most migratory of all
Australian ducks. Marchant and Higgins discredits this regular yearly migration, due to juveniles and young adults searching for new breeding grounds, especially on the fringes of the duck's range, with mature breeding adults often remaining. Indeed, experienced dominate
385:
is secretive and wary, and it will swiftly and quietly dive under water if threatened, resurfacing a large distance away, rather than escape by flying. The blue-billed duck has a low quack, which is seldom heard. The courting repertoire of the male is very complex and elaborative. It includes such
355:
The blue-billed duck is almost entirely aquatic. While they have been observed on land, they have difficulty walking, exhibiting a penguin-like gait. During non-breeding season, many ducks gather in flocks totalling several hundred, especially juveniles and younger adults, in open lakes or dams in
380:
depends on its breeding cycle. The ducks gather in large flocks on lakes during the winter while not breeding, although some mature adults remain in vegetative swamps and continue to breed. They will also fly more frequently, probably due to the open habitat, and escape threats by flying. While
511:
The health of wetland ecosystems can be determined by the abundance of waterbird species. A decline in bird numbers provides a warning that the natural ecological functioning of the freshwater system is at risk. Despite short term gains for farmers through permanent flooding, sustainability of
329:
The tail feathers for both the male and female are made up of thick, spine-like shafts. The tail is usually held flat on the surface of the water, or held erect when defensive. The male also holds the tail erect during courtship displays. The feet are quite powerful, which aids in swimming and
516:, which continue to breed yearlong, irrespective of drought conditions by seeking out suitable habitat, would make excellent indicators for wetland health. Any long-term decrease in the duck's population would therefore be caused by habitat loss through factors such as salinity and
469:
ranges from 3 to 12, the most common being 5 to 6, according to
Marchant and Higgins. Large clutch sizes indicate two females laying eggs in the one nest. It appears that a female will sometimes parasitise another's efforts at incubation, described as
343:
The blue-billed duck is endemic to
Australia's temperate regions. Its range extends from southern Queensland, through New South Wales and Victoria, to Tasmania. The species is also widespread in the south west of Western Australia.
482:
Two substantial land uses combine to have a significant impact on the blue-billed duck. These are: the regulation of wetland ecosystems through drainage, flood mitigation and water harvesting; and vegetation loss due to clearing,
277:
has classified this species as Least concern. Major threats include drainage of deep permanent wetlands, or their degradation as a result of introduced fish, peripheral cattle grazing, salinization, and lowering of ground water.
245:, with both the male and female growing to a length of 40 cm (16 in). The male has a slate-blue bill which changes to bright-blue during the breeding season, hence the duck's common name. The male has deep chestnut
368:(narrow-leaved cumbungi); although it has appeared in lignum swamps in more coastal areas, especially in drier seasons. They have also occasionally been found in large rivers and saline water bodies such as billabongs.
892:"Declaration under s178, s181, and s183 of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 - List of threatened species, List of threatened ecological communities and List of threatening processes"
536:
in a clutch, and maturing 12 months after hatching would indicate a short life span of less than 10 years. Captive ducks were still breeding at 16 years. Further research into the accuracy of using
502:
for the recovery and future management of this species has been prepared. In
Victoria, the blue-billed duck is also listed as endangered on the 2007 advisory list of threatened vertebrate fauna within the state.
935:
917:
891:
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as an indicator for habitat health, among other waterbirds, is needed, considering its ability to breed every season despite the effects of drought. Any long-term decrease in populations of
356:
autumn and winter, far from the shore. For the rest of the year, during breeding season, the blue-billed duck prefers deep, freshwater swamps, with dense vegetation including cumbungi
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nature during its breeding season through autumn and winter. The male duck exhibits a complex mating ritual. The blue-billed duck is
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during breeding season, reverting to a dark grey. The female retains black plumage with brown tips all year round. The duck is
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440:. The chironomid larvae are quite common in inland cumbungi swamps, and therefore make up a large portion of the diet of
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1008:
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rarely appears on the New South Wales coastline except during times of drought. It is in greatest abundance in the
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and also artificial wetlands, such as sewage ponds, in large numbers. It can be difficult to observe due to its
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460:, with movement from breeding swamps of inland NSW to the Murray River during autumn and winter. Frith claims
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during its breeding season. Blue-billed ducks can stay underwater for 10 seconds on average while feeding.
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871:. Australian Government: Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities
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wetland systems would decrease. Any long-term decrease in the population of waterbirds such as
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of emergent and submerged plants are eaten. The duck feeds underwater by sifting mud with its
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955:. East Melbourne, Victoria: Department of Sustainability and Environment. p. 15.
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689:
Handbook of
Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds Volume 1: Ratites to Ducks
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715:"Threatened Species Information: Blue-billed Duck Oxyura australis (Gould 1836)"
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436:. Its diverse range of food is reflective of a relatively abundant
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The blue-billed duck is listed as "threatened" on the
Victorian
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132:
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953:
Advisory List of
Threatened Vertebrate Fauna in Victoria - 2007
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Victorian
Department of Sustainability and Environment (2007).
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is omnivorous, where invertebrates as well as seeds, buds, and
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ecosystem health, without the confounding effects of natural
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The blue-billed duck was described in 1836 by ornithologist
869:"Indicator: IW-33 Abundance and distribution of waterbirds"
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More field research is needed into the average lifespan of
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does have a preference for small invertebrates, including
390:, at which time the male will mostly desert the female.
933:
Department of Sustainability and Environment, Victoria
915:
Department of Sustainability and Environment, Victoria
787:
Department of Environment, Climate Change NSW (2005).
852:(4th ed.). Smithfield, NSW: Gary Allen Pty Ltd.
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532:in the wild; although, based on the high number of
835:National Photographic Index of Australian Wildlife
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713:NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service.
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269:, with a preference for small aquatic
980:. Australian Broadcasting Corporation
691:. Oxford University Press, Melbourne.
687:Marchant S, Higgins PJ, eds. (1990).
7:
1264:206b9dff-5f88-47c3-bd90-b1f323d55743
814:Australian Waterbirds: A Field Guide
496:Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act (1988)
1313:IUCN Red List least concern species
584:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
257:regions, inhabiting natural inland
850:Australian Birds Simply Classified
335:paler and have a grey-green bill.
298:for "southern", hence Australian.
14:
1002:
89:
848:Trounson D; Trounson M (2001).
573:BirdLife International (2022).
1:
637:. Angus and Robertson Sydney.
816:. Kangaroo Press, Kenthurst.
789:"Blue-billed Duck – profile"
417:and aquatic insects such as
938:September 11, 2006, at the
831:The Waterbirds of Australia
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1328:Endemic birds of Australia
702:BirdLife Species Factsheet
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720:. NSWNPWS. Archived from
362:(broadleaf cumbungi) and
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86:Scientific classification
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62:
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1338:Taxa named by John Gould
757:. SWIFFT. Archived from
507:Relationship with humans
339:Distribution and habitat
19:Not to be confused with
1318:Birds described in 1836
591:: e.T22679827A210733513
452:There is evidence that
978:"Waterbirds in Crisis"
920:July 18, 2005, at the
635:Waterfowl in Australia
520:more so than drought.
498:. Under this Act, an
472:facultative parasitism
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315:
275:BirdLife International
1272:Paleobiology Database
372:Ecology and behaviour
321:
309:
1013:at Wikimedia Commons
812:Kingsford R (1991).
350:Murray-Darling basin
314:in Western Australia
294:is derived from the
290:. The specific name
727:on 5 September 2007
56:Conservation status
1122:BirdLife-Australia
755:"Blue-billed Duck"
633:Frith H J (1977).
327:
316:
1300:
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1023:Taxon identifiers
1007:Media related to
976:Catalyst (2002).
962:978-1-74208-039-0
376:The behaviour of
365:Typha domingensis
243:stiff-tailed duck
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177:O. australis
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31:Blue-billed duck
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500:Action Statement
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359:Typha orientalis
235:Oxyura australis
230:blue-billed duck
221:Oxyura australis
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759:the original
729:. Retrieved
722:the original
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543:O. australis
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539:O. australis
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478:Conservation
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454:O. australis
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448:Reproduction
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431:water beetle
423:caddis flies
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143:Anseriformes
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1197:iNaturalist
1055:Wikispecies
518:overgrazing
485:overgrazing
467:Clutch size
427:dragonflies
312:Lake Monger
302:Description
1307:Categories
1285:Xeno-canto
984:3 December
900:3 December
557:References
456:is partly
419:chironomid
381:breeding,
288:John Gould
267:omnivorous
240:Australian
1333:Oxyurinae
794:25 August
765:21 August
731:21 August
458:migratory
324:Perth Zoo
292:australis
255:temperate
219:Range of
171:Species:
109:Kingdom:
103:Eukaryota
1241:22679827
1215:11324615
1114:22679827
1109:BirdLife
1040:Wikidata
936:Archived
918:Archived
753:SWIFFT.
553:cycles.
489:salinity
421:larvae,
415:molluscs
282:Taxonomy
259:wetlands
153:Anatidae
149:Family:
123:Chordata
119:Phylum:
113:Animalia
99:Domain:
76:IUCN 3.1
1189:5232471
1176:1048491
1163:blbduc1
1137:blbduc1
1096:Avibase
1046:Q783071
837:. 1985.
595:26 July
551:drought
547:wetland
438:habitat
263:cryptic
251:endemic
247:plumage
159:Genus:
139:Order:
129:Class:
74: (
1277:401335
1261:NZOR:
1228:175178
959:
875:1 June
833:. The
434:larvae
204:, 1837
164:Oxyura
1323:Ducks
1254:45649
1210:IRMNG
1158:eBird
1150:4BMPD
1134:BOW:
895:(PDF)
725:(PDF)
718:(PDF)
403:fruit
296:Latin
202:Gould
1249:NCBI
1236:IUCN
1223:ITIS
1202:7074
1184:GBIF
986:2008
957:ISBN
902:2008
877:2012
796:2007
767:2007
733:2007
597:2022
589:2022
534:eggs
487:and
429:and
407:beak
394:Diet
388:nest
228:The
133:Aves
1171:EoL
1145:CoL
1083:AFD
1070:ADW
1309::
1287::
1274::
1251::
1238::
1225::
1212::
1199::
1186::
1173::
1160::
1147::
1124::
1111::
1098::
1085::
1072::
1057::
1042::
858:^
822:^
804:^
775:^
741:^
643:^
605:^
587:.
581:.
565:^
425:,
409:.
352:.
273:.
988:.
965:.
904:.
879:.
798:.
769:.
735:.
599:.
579:"
575:"
470:"
232:(
78:)
23:.
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