1150:. The misfit generated by a hypocenter calculation is known as "the residual". Residuals of 0.5 second or less are typical for distant events, residuals of 0.1â0.2 s typical for local events, meaning most reported P arrivals fit the computed hypocenter that well. Typically a location program will start by assuming the event occurred at a depth of about 33 km; then it minimizes the residual by adjusting depth. Most events occur at depths shallower than about 40 km, but some occur as deep as 700 km.
758:
595:
58:
1916:
388:
952:
1129:
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1928:
964:- is still an ongoing process. The path that a wave takes between the focus and the observation point is often drawn as a ray diagram. Each path is denoted by a set of letters that describe the trajectory and phase through the Earth. In general, an upper case denotes a transmitted wave and a lower case denotes a reflected wave. The two exceptions to this seem to be "g" and "n".
1940:
380:
1193:
stations are used and the errors cancel out, so the computed epicenter is likely to be quite accurate, on the order of 10â50 km or so around the world. Dense arrays of nearby sensors such as those that exist in
California can provide accuracy of roughly a kilometer, and much greater accuracy is possible when timing is measured directly by
774:
1172:
At teleseismic distances, the first arriving P waves have necessarily travelled deep into the mantle, and perhaps have even refracted into the outer core of the planet, before travelling back up to the Earth's surface where the seismographic stations are located. The waves travel more quickly than if
736:
A Stoneley wave is a type of boundary wave (or interface wave) that propagates along a solid-fluid boundary or, under specific conditions, also along a solid-solid boundary. Amplitudes of
Stoneley waves have their maximum values at the boundary between the two contacting media and decay exponentially
653:
in nature. Following an earthquake event, S-waves arrive at seismograph stations after the faster-moving P-waves and displace the ground perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Depending on the propagational direction, the wave can take on different surface characteristics; for example, in the
1132:
The hypocenter/epicenter of an earthquake is calculated by using the seismic data of that earthquake from at least three different locations. The hypocenter/epicenter is found at the intersection of three circles centered on three observation stations, here shown in Japan, Australia and the United
684:
Rayleigh waves, also called ground roll, are surface waves that propagate with motions that are similar to those of waves on the surface of water (note, however, that the associated seismic particle motion at shallow depths is typically retrograde, and that the restoring force in
Rayleigh and in
1192:
The travel time must be calculated very accurately in order to compute a precise hypocenter. Since P waves move at many kilometers per second, being off on travel-time calculation by even a half second can mean an error of many kilometers in terms of distance. In practice, P arrivals from many
959:
The naming of seismic waves is usually based on the wave type and its path; due to the theoretically infinite possibilities of travel paths and the different areas of application, a wide variety of nomenclatures have emerged historically, the standardization of which - for example in the
926:
are able to record both P and S waves, but those at a greater distance no longer detect the high frequencies of the first S wave. Since shear waves cannot pass through liquids, this phenomenon was original evidence for the now well-established observation that the Earth has a liquid
1154:
598:
Patterns of seismic wave travel through Earth's mantle and core. S-waves can not travel through the liquid outer core, so they leave a shadow on Earth's far side. P-waves do travel through the core, but P-wave refraction bends seismic waves away from P-wave shadow
622:
are pressure waves that travel faster than other waves through the earth to arrive at seismograph stations first, hence the name "Primary". These waves can travel through any type of material, including fluids, and can travel nearly 1.7 times faster than the
670:. Surface waves diminish in amplitude as they get farther from the surface and propagate more slowly than seismic body waves (P and S). Surface waves from very large earthquakes can have globally observable amplitude of several centimeters.
658:. S-waves are slower than P-waves, and speeds are typically around 60% of that of P-waves in any given material. Shear waves can not travel through any liquid medium, so the absence of S-waves in earth's outer core suggests a liquid state.
1141:
of the P and S waves can be used to determine the distance to the event. In the case of earthquakes that have occurred at global distances, three or more geographically diverse observing stations (using a common
1119:
is a wave path that begins traveling towards the surface as an S-wave. At the surface, it reflects as a P-wave. The P-wave then travels through the outer core, the inner core, the outer core, and the mantle.
1161:
A quick way to determine the distance from a location to the origin of a seismic wave less than 200 km away is to take the difference in arrival time of the P wave and the S wave in
1146:) recording P-wave arrivals permits the computation of a unique time and location on the planet for the event. Typically, dozens or even hundreds of P-wave arrivals are used to calculate
654:
case of horizontally polarized S waves, the ground moves alternately to one side and then the other. S-waves can travel only through solids, as fluids (liquids and gases) do not support
536:
Other modes of wave propagation exist than those described in this article; though of comparatively minor importance for earth-borne waves, they are important in the case of
722:, a British mathematician who created a mathematical model of the waves in 1911. They usually travel slightly faster than Rayleigh waves, about 90% of the S wave velocity.
689:, in 1885. They are slower than body waves, e.g., at roughly 90% of the velocity of S waves for typical homogeneous elastic media. In a layered medium (e.g., the crust and
1280:
264:
1726:
1389:
914:. Presently the periods of thousands of modes have been observed. These data are used for constraining large scale structures of the Earth's interior.
1502:
1682:
1421:
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is a wave that begins traveling towards the center of the Earth as an S wave. Upon reaching the outer core the wave reflects as a P wave.
685:
other seismic waves is elastic, not gravitational as for water waves). The existence of these waves was predicted by John
William Strutt,
567:(stiffness). The density and modulus, in turn, vary according to temperature, composition, and material phase. This effect resembles the
1133:
States. The radius of each circle is calculated from the difference in the arrival times of P- and S-waves at the corresponding station.
547:
Surface waves travel across the surface. Surface waves decay more slowly with distance than body waves which travel in three dimensions.
1631:
1652:
1469:
793:, the result of interference between two surface waves traveling in opposite directions. Interference of Rayleigh waves results in
749:. The equation for Stoneley waves was first given by Dr. Robert Stoneley (1894â1976), Emeritus Professor of Seismology, Cambridge.
1719:
1241:
497:
Earthquakes create distinct types of waves with different velocities. When recorded by a seismic observatory, their different
467:(ambient vibration), which is persistent low-amplitude vibration arising from a variety of natural and anthropogenic sources.
872:, which involves an expansion and contraction of the whole Earth, and has a period of about 20 minutes; and the "rugby" mode
114:
1210:
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represents changes in Earth's rotation rate; although this occurs, it is much too slow to be useful in seismology. The mode
295:
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describes a twisting of the northern and southern hemispheres relative to each other; it has a period of about 44 minutes.
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does not exist because it would require a change in the center of gravity, which would require an external force.
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Body waves travel through the interior of the Earth along paths controlled by the material properties in terms of
300:
1848:
1780:
359:
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30:
This article is about waves that travel through Earth. For ocean waves sometimes called "seismic sea waves", see
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911:
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Particle motion of surface waves is larger than that of body waves, so surface waves tend to cause more damage.
243:
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880:, which involves expansions along two alternating directions, and has a period of about 54 minutes. The mode
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of the rock increases much more, so deeper means faster. Therefore, a longer route can take a shorter time.
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509:. Scientists sometimes generate and measure vibrations to investigate shallow, subsurface structure.
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they had traveled in a straight line from the earthquake. This is due to the appreciably increased
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towards away from the contact. These waves can also be generated along the walls of a fluid-filled
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Robert
Stoneley, 1929 â 2008.. Obituary of his son with reference to discovery of Stoneley waves.
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of the medium as well as the type of wave. Velocity tends to increase with depth through Earth's
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395:-wave velocity in the outer core occurs because it is liquid, while in the solid inner core the
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Seismic surface waves travel along the Earth's surface. They can be classified as a form of
631:. Typical speeds are 330 m/s in air, 1450 m/s in water and about 5000 m/s in
537:
487:
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and multiply by 8 kilometers per second. Modern seismic arrays use more complicated
1153:
650:
483:
471:
408:
387:
157:
119:
693:) the velocity of the Rayleigh waves depends on their frequency and wavelength. See also
505:. In geophysics; the refraction or reflection of seismic waves is used for research into
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has a solid core, although recent geodetic studies suggest the core is still molten.
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718:(SH waves), existing only in the presence of a layered medium. They are named after
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The first observations of free oscillations of the Earth were done during the great
1276:
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oscillation.Dashed lines give nodal (zero) lines. Arrows give the sense of motion.
1770:
517:
Among the many types of seismic waves, one can make a broad distinction between
452:
233:
200:
849:
zero crossings in radius. For spherically symmetric Earth the period for given
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waves. This distinction was recognized in 1830 by the French mathematician
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a Love wave sometimes called LT-Wave (Both caps, while an Lt is different)
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that produces low-frequency acoustic energy. Seismic waves are studied by
27:
Seismic, volcanic, or explosive energy that travels through Earth's layers
738:
310:
1185:
in the planet increases with depth, which would slow the waves, but the
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627:. In air, they take the form of sound waves, hence they travel at the
1364:"MĂ©moire sur la propagation du mouvement dans les milieux Ă©lastiques"
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644:
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215:
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a wave that travels along the boundary between the crust and mantle
864:
Some examples of spheroidal oscillations are the "breathing" mode
801:. The modes of oscillations are specified by three numbers, e.g.,
1152:
1143:
1137:
In the case of local or nearby earthquakes, the difference in the
1127:
950:
772:
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593:
575:. Two types of particle motion result in two types of body waves:
527:
436:
416:
386:
378:
1699:
1439:"On waves propagated along the plane surface of an elastic solid"
745:(VSP) and making up the low frequency component of the source in
1883:
1491:. London, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 144â178.
1366:[Memoir on the propagation of motion in elastic media].
940:
391:
Velocity of seismic waves in Earth versus depth. The negligible
1708:
1645:
International handbook of earthquake and engineering seismology
1339:
An
Introduction to Seismology, Earthquakes, and Earth Structure
1643:; Jennings, Paul; Kisslinger, Carl; et al., eds. (2002).
981:
a wave that has been reflected off a discontinuity at depth d
1704:
1100:
No letter is used when the wave reflects off of the surfaces
935:. This kind of observation has also been used to argue, by
1582:
Storchak, D. A.; Schweitzer, J.; Bormann, P. (2003-11-01).
1368:
Mémoires de l'Académie des
Sciences de l'Institut de France
1529:"Elastic waves at the surface of separation of two solids"
614:
Primary waves (P-waves) are compressional waves that are
1464:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 52.
1626:(4th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
544:
Body waves travel through the interior of the Earth.
1892:
1824:
1763:
1742:
1013:a reflection off a discontinuity in the inner core
649:Secondary waves (S-waves) are shear waves that are
1700:EDT: A MATLAB Website for seismic wave propagation
1085:an S wave ascending to the surface from the focus
1061:a P wave ascending to the surface from the focus
922:When an earthquake occurs, seismographs near the
741:, being an important source of coherent noise in
1309:
1307:
1305:
1124:Usefulness of P and S waves in locating an event
1503:"Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary. Stoneley wave"
825:is the azimuthal order number. It may take on 2
1443:Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society
1337:Seth Stein; Michael Wysession (1 April 2009).
1093:the wave reflects off the bottom of the ocean
1720:
490:, but drops sharply going from the mantle to
360:
8:
1533:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A
1624:An introduction to the theory of seismology
1390:Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture
989:a wave that only travels through the crust
1727:
1713:
1705:
367:
353:
36:
1552:
1240:G. R. Helffrich & B. J. Wood (2002).
1584:"The IASPEI Standard Seismic Phase List"
1255:(2 August). Macmillan Magazines: 501â7.
997:a wave that reflects off the inner core
966:
918:P and S waves in Earth's mantle and core
463:. Seismic waves are distinguished from
1460:Sheriff, R. E.; Geldart, L. P. (1995).
1313:
1296:
1232:
797:while interference of Love waves gives
525:, which travel at the Earth's surface.
48:
521:, which travel through the Earth, and
1622:Bullen, K.E.; Bolt, Bruce A. (1985).
1577:
1575:
973:the wave reflects off the outer core
7:
1939:
1286:from the original on 24 August 2016.
777:The scheme of motion for spheroidal
769:oscillation for two moments of time.
1410:Sammis, C.G.; Henyey, T.L. (1987).
1157:P- and S-waves separating with time
891:Of the fundamental toroidal modes,
789:Free oscillations of the Earth are
501:help scientists locate the quake's
962:IASPEI Standard Seismic Phase List
383:p-wave and s-wave from seismograph
25:
1177:within the planet, and is termed
761:The sense of motion for toroidal
1938:
1927:
1926:
1914:
1527:Stoneley, R. (October 1, 1924).
813:is the angular order number (or
56:
1488:Some problems of geodynamics; âŠ
917:
1677:. Cambridge University Press.
1588:Seismological Research Letters
1416:. Academic Press. p. 12.
821:for more details). The number
1:
1647:. Amsterdam: Academic Press.
1413:Geophysics Field Measurements
474:of a seismic wave depends on
451:, who record the waves using
1021:an S wave in the inner core
711:Love waves are horizontally
532:Body waves and surface waves
1874:Precession of the equinoxes
1620:The notation is taken from
1029:a P-wave in the outer core
1005:a P-wave in the inner core
1988:
1791:Geophysical fluid dynamics
1675:Introduction to Seismology
1673:Shearer, Peter M. (2009).
729:
720:Augustus Edward Hough Love
704:
677:
642:
607:
507:Earth's internal structure
399:-wave velocity is non-zero
265:Coordinating Committee for
29:
1908:
1341:. John Wiley & Sons.
1211:AdamsâWilliamson equation
845:. It means the wave with
815:spherical harmonic degree
743:vertical seismic profiles
415:that travels through the
296:AdamsâWilliamson equation
1077:an S wave in the mantle
912:1960 earthquake in Chile
795:spheroidal oscillation S
423:. It can result from an
244:Seismic intensity scales
239:Seismic magnitude scales
1801:Near-surface geophysics
1437:Rayleigh, Lord (1885).
1362:Poisson, S. D. (1831).
1053:a P wave in the mantle
668:mechanical surface wave
1849:Earth's magnetic field
1600:10.1785/gssrl.74.6.761
1554:10.1098/rspa.1924.0079
1462:Exploration Seismology
1316:, Chapter 8 (Also see
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799:toroidal oscillation T
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306:Earthquake engineering
18:Body wave (seismology)
1921:Geophysics portal
1844:Earth's energy budget
1485:Love, A.E.H. (1911).
1221:Reflection seismology
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955:Earthquake wave paths
954:
931:, as demonstrated by
776:
760:
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443:and a large man-made
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382:
329:Earth Sciences Portal
301:FlinnâEngdahl regions
267:Earthquake Prediction
1242:"The Earth's mantle"
933:Richard Dixon Oldham
589:Siméon Denis Poisson
472:propagation velocity
291:Shear wave splitting
1893:Related disciplines
1859:Geothermal gradient
1545:1924RSPSA.106..416S
1167:earthquake location
857:does not depend on
843:radial order number
819:Spherical harmonics
191:Epicentral distance
1776:Geophysical survey
1323:2013-11-11 at the
1179:Huygens' Principle
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492:Earth's outer core
439:movement, a large
401:
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168:Induced seismicity
115:Remotely triggered
1954:
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1869:Mantle convection
1684:978-0-521-88210-1
1641:Lee, William H.K.
1423:978-0-08-086012-1
1195:cross-correlation
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427:(or generally, a
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341:Related topics
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158:Fault movement
154:
151:
150:
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143:
142:
137:
132:
127:
122:
117:
112:
107:
102:
97:
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53:
52:
46:
45:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1984:
1973:
1972:Surface waves
1970:
1968:
1965:
1964:
1962:
1947:
1946:
1937:
1935:
1934:
1925:
1923:
1922:
1917:
1911:
1910:
1907:
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1756:
1755:Geophysicists
1753:
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1747:
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1737:
1730:
1725:
1723:
1718:
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1665:
1656:
1654:9780080489223
1650:
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1629:
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1564:
1561:
1555:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1523:
1520:
1509:on 2012-02-07
1508:
1504:
1498:
1495:
1490:
1489:
1481:
1478:
1473:
1471:0-521-46826-4
1467:
1463:
1456:
1453:
1448:
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1440:
1433:
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1425:
1419:
1415:
1414:
1406:
1403:
1391:
1387:
1381:
1378:
1373:
1370:(in French).
1369:
1365:
1358:
1355:
1350:
1344:
1340:
1333:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1319:
1315:
1310:
1308:
1306:
1302:
1298:
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1243:
1236:
1233:
1226:
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1219:
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1214:
1212:
1209:
1208:
1204:
1202:
1200:
1196:
1190:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1170:
1168:
1164:
1155:
1151:
1149:
1145:
1140:
1139:arrival times
1130:
1123:
1118:
1115:
1112:
1109:
1108:
1107:
1106:For example:
1099:
1097:
1096:
1092:
1089:
1088:
1084:
1081:
1080:
1076:
1073:
1072:
1068:
1065:
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1060:
1057:
1056:
1052:
1049:
1048:
1044:
1041:
1040:
1036:
1033:
1032:
1028:
1025:
1024:
1020:
1017:
1016:
1012:
1009:
1008:
1004:
1001:
1000:
996:
993:
992:
988:
985:
984:
980:
977:
976:
972:
969:
968:
965:
963:
953:
946:
944:
942:
938:
934:
930:
925:
915:
913:
908:
889:
862:
860:
856:
852:
848:
844:
840:
837:. The number
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
812:
800:
796:
792:
775:
759:
752:
750:
748:
747:sonic logging
744:
740:
733:
732:Stoneley wave
725:
723:
721:
717:
714:
708:
700:
698:
696:
692:
688:
687:Lord Rayleigh
681:
680:Rayleigh wave
673:
671:
669:
662:Surface waves
661:
659:
657:
652:
646:
638:
636:
634:
630:
626:
621:
617:
611:
604:Primary waves
603:
596:
592:
590:
586:
585:
580:
579:
574:
570:
566:
562:
554:
549:
546:
543:
542:
541:
539:
530:
526:
524:
523:surface waves
520:
512:
510:
508:
504:
500:
495:
493:
489:
485:
481:
477:
473:
468:
466:
465:seismic noise
462:
458:
454:
450:
449:seismologists
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
398:
394:
389:
381:
370:
365:
363:
358:
356:
351:
350:
348:
347:
342:
339:
337:
334:
333:
330:
327:
326:
325:
324:
317:
314:
312:
309:
307:
304:
302:
299:
297:
294:
292:
289:
288:
282:
281:
274:
271:
268:
262:
261:
258:
253:
252:
245:
242:
240:
237:
235:
232:
231:
225:
224:
217:
214:
212:
209:
207:
206:Seismic waves
204:
202:
199:
197:
194:
192:
189:
187:
184:
183:
177:
176:
169:
166:
164:
161:
159:
156:
155:
149:
148:
141:
138:
136:
133:
131:
128:
126:
123:
121:
118:
116:
113:
111:
108:
106:
103:
101:
98:
96:
93:
91:
88:
86:
83:
81:
78:
76:
73:
72:
69:
64:
63:
59:
55:
54:
51:
47:
43:
39:
38:
33:
19:
1943:
1931:
1912:
1879:Seismic wave
1878:
1781:Geomagnetism
1674:
1644:
1623:
1616:
1591:
1587:
1563:
1536:
1532:
1522:
1511:. Retrieved
1507:the original
1497:
1487:
1480:
1461:
1455:
1446:
1442:
1432:
1412:
1405:
1393:. Retrieved
1380:
1371:
1367:
1357:
1338:
1332:
1314:Shearer 2009
1297:Shearer 2009
1292:
1252:
1248:
1235:
1191:
1171:
1169:techniques.
1160:
1136:
1116:
1110:
1105:
961:
958:
921:
909:
890:
863:
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
814:
810:
798:
794:
788:
753:Normal modes
735:
710:
691:upper mantle
683:
665:
648:
618:in nature.
616:longitudinal
613:
583:
582:
577:
576:
558:
535:
522:
518:
516:
499:travel times
496:
469:
453:seismometers
405:seismic wave
404:
402:
396:
392:
285:Other topics
205:
90:Blind thrust
1771:Geodynamics
1201:waveforms.
1148:hypocenters
939:, that the
716:shear waves
573:light waves
457:hydrophones
419:or another
273:Forecasting
234:Seismometer
228:Measurement
201:Shadow zone
50:Earthquakes
1967:Seismology
1961:Categories
1811:Seismology
1736:Geophysics
1513:2012-03-07
1374:: 549â605.
1227:References
1199:seismogram
1175:velocities
929:outer core
701:Love waves
695:Lamb waves
651:transverse
569:refraction
555:Body waves
519:body waves
503:hypocenter
480:elasticity
425:earthquake
316:Seismology
257:Prediction
196:Hypocenter
130:Supershear
110:Megathrust
105:Intraplate
100:Interplate
85:Aftershock
1854:Geodynamo
1827:phenomena
1825:Physical
1764:Subfields
1608:0895-0695
1395:March 24,
924:epicenter
713:polarized
707:Love wave
584:Secondary
445:explosion
441:landslide
186:Epicenter
163:Volcanism
125:Submarine
80:Foreshock
75:Mainshock
1933:Category
1743:Overview
1321:Archived
1281:Archived
1269:11484043
1205:See also
947:Notation
809:, where
739:borehole
336:Category
311:Seismite
42:a series
40:Part of
1945:Commons
1900:Geodesy
1750:Outline
1666:Sources
1541:Bibcode
1449:: 4â11.
1277:4304379
1187:modulus
1183:Density
1163:seconds
841:is the
633:granite
625:S-waves
620:P-waves
578:Primary
565:modulus
561:density
476:density
135:Tsunami
95:Doublet
32:Tsunami
1681:
1651:
1630:
1606:
1468:
1420:
1345:
1318:errata
1275:
1267:
1249:Nature
1117:sPKIKP
817:, see
645:S wave
610:P wave
599:zones.
488:mantle
216:S wave
211:P wave
152:Causes
1284:(PDF)
1273:S2CID
1245:(PDF)
1144:clock
513:Types
484:crust
437:magma
429:quake
417:Earth
407:is a
68:Types
1884:Tide
1679:ISBN
1649:ISBN
1638:and
1628:ISBN
1604:ISSN
1466:ISBN
1418:ISBN
1397:2019
1343:ISBN
1265:PMID
941:Moon
853:and
833:to +
581:and
563:and
486:and
478:and
470:The
120:Slow
1596:doi
1549:doi
1537:106
1257:doi
1253:412
1197:of
1111:ScP
571:of
431:),
411:of
1963::
1602:.
1592:74
1590:.
1586:.
1574:^
1547:.
1535:.
1531:.
1447:17
1445:.
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1372:10
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1271:.
1263:.
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1181:.
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540:.
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455:,
435:,
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1610:.
1598::
1557:.
1551::
1543::
1516:.
1474:.
1426:.
1399:.
1351:.
1327:)
1259::
1090:w
1082:s
1074:S
1066:R
1058:p
1050:P
1042:n
1034:L
1026:K
1018:J
1010:h
1002:I
994:i
986:g
978:d
970:c
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901:0
897:1
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886:1
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882:0
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866:0
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20:)
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