273:
31:
402:
The T-score is the relevant measure when screening for osteoporosis. It is the bone mineral density at the site when compared to the "young normal reference mean". It is a comparison of a patient's bone mineral density to that of a healthy 30-year-old. The US standard is to use data for a 30-year-old
507:
a patient's bone mineral density differs from the average for their age, sex, and ethnicity. This value is used in premenopausal women, men under the age of 50, and in children and adolescents. It is most useful when the score is less than 2 standard deviations below this normal. In this setting, it
540:
per day for adults 19 to 70, increasing to 800 IUs per day for those over 71. Exercise, especially weight-bearing and resistance exercises are most effective for building bone. Weight-bearing exercise includes walking, jogging, dancing, and hiking. Resistance exercise is often accomplished through
1058:
Gregson CL, Steel SA, O'Rourke KP, Allan K, Ayuk J, Bhalla A, Clunie G, Crabtree N, Fogelman I, Goodby A, Langman CM, Linton S, Marriott E, McCloskey E, Moss KE, Palferman T, Panthakalam S, Poole KE, Stone MD, Turton J, Wallis D, Warburton S, Wass J, Duncan EL, Brown MA, Davey-Smith G, Tobias JH
147:
problem, especially in elderly women, leading to substantial medical costs, inability to live independently and even risk of death. Bone density measurements are used to screen people for osteoporosis risk and to identify those who might benefit from measures to improve bone strength.
344:
or bones, usually the spine, hip, and wrist. The density of these bones is then compared with an average index based on age, sex, and size. The resulting comparison is used to determine the risk for fractures and the stage of osteoporosis (if any) in an individual.
164:. The usual response to either of these indications is consultation with a physician. Bone density tests are not recommended for people without risk factors for weak bones, which is more likely to result in unnecessary treatment rather than discovery of a weakness.
403:
of the same sex and ethnicity, but the WHO recommends using data for a 30-year-old white female for everyone. Values for 30-year-olds are used in post-menopausal women and men over age 50 because they better predict risk of future fracture. The criteria of the
597:
Bone mineral density is highly variable between individuals. While there are many environmental factors that affect bone mineral density, genetic factors play the largest role. Bone mineral density variation has been estimated to have 0.6–0.8
602:
factor, meaning that 60–80% of its variation is inherited from parents. Because of the heritability of bone mineral density, family history of fractures is considered as a risk factor for osteoporosis. Bone mineral density is
238:
Other considerations that are related to risk of low bone density and the need for a test include smoking habits, drinking habits, the long-term use of corticosteroid drugs, and a vitamin D deficiency.
1636:
902:
856:
280:
While there are many types of bone mineral density tests, all are non-invasive. The tests differ according to which bones are measured to determine the test result.
375:. Scores indicate the amount one's bone mineral density varies from the mean. Negative scores indicate lower bone density, and positive scores indicate higher.
1629:
1157:
536:. Sufficient calcium is defined as 1,000 mg per day, increasing to 1,200 mg for women above 50 and men above 70. Sufficient vitamin D is defined as 600
615:
There are several rare genetic diseases that have been associated with pathologic changes in bone mineral density. The table summarizes these diseases:
1622:
920:
898:
852:
554:
499:
The Z-score for bone density is the comparison to the "age-matched normal" and is usually used in cases of severe osteoporosis. This is the
802:
423:
is defined as −2.5 or lower, meaning a bone density that is two and a half standard deviations below the mean of a 30-year-old man/woman.
263:: the number of standard deviations above or below the mean for a healthy 30-year-old adult of the same sex and ethnicity as the patient.
298:
667:
924:
348:
Quantitative ultrasound (QUS) has been described as a more cost-effective approach for measuring bone density, as compared to DXA.
303:
287:
35:
874:
1341:
697:
1390:
1365:
1418:
Yang, Tie-Lin; Shen, Hui; Liu, Anqi; Dong, Shan-Shan; Zhang, Lei; Deng, Fei-Yan; Zhao, Qi; Deng, Hong-Wen (February 2020).
957:
333:
327:
315:
224:
1161:
578:
404:
321:
758:
1206:
309:
652:
637:
508:
is helpful to scrutinize for coexisting illnesses or treatments that may contribute to osteoporosis such as
546:
1570:
773:"Improving clinical decisions for women at risk of osteoporosis: dual-femur bone mineral density testing"
1788:
1571:"Management of Endocrine Disease: Osteogenesis imperfecta: an update on clinical features and therapies"
542:
293:
220:
individuals being monitored to assess the response or efficacy of an approved osteoporosis drug therapy.
1526:
1308:
1280:
Bachrach LK (February 2005). "Assessing bone health in children: who to test and what does it mean?".
272:
550:
533:
257:: the number of standard deviations above or below the mean for the patient's age, sex and ethnicity.
585:
have detrimental effects on bone density. Excessive alcohol consumption is defined as more than one
340:
DXA is the most commonly used testing method as of 2016. The DXA test works by measuring a specific
139:
association between poor bone density and higher probability of fracture. Fractures of the legs and
1708:
513:
214:
1061:"'Sink or swim': an evaluation of the clinical characteristics of individuals with high bone mass"
172:
The risk factors for low bone density and primary considerations for a bone density test include:
772:
712:
582:
537:
529:
504:
382:-scanning were found to have a T- or Z-score of more than +4.0, often the cause of an unusually
17:
1600:
1546:
1490:
1449:
1289:
1262:
1090:
1020:
784:
1686:
1590:
1582:
1538:
1480:
1439:
1431:
1252:
1244:
1080:
1072:
1010:
1002:
870:
848:
109:
1744:
1681:
1671:
916:
911:
865:
574:
570:
228:
89:
81:
754:
1793:
1767:
1726:
1595:
1444:
1419:
1257:
1232:
1108:
1085:
1060:
1015:
990:
586:
566:
509:
500:
1132:
1782:
1754:
1467:
Peacock, Munro; Turner, Charles H.; Econs, Michael J.; Foroud, Tatiana (2002-06-01).
682:
144:
1038:
92:. Bone density measurement is used in clinical medicine as an indirect indicator of
30:
1691:
1676:
1614:
1184:"Prevention and management of osteoporosis : report of a WHO scientific group"
599:
562:
477:
420:
157:
125:
101:
93:
49:
1420:"A road map for understanding molecular and genetic determinants of osteoporosis"
589:
per day for women, and drinking two or more alcoholic beverages per day for men.
1542:
53:
1183:
965:
1696:
1435:
1182:
WHO Scientific Group on the
Prevention and Management of Osteoporosis (2003).
1076:
558:
517:
461:
414:
161:
136:
1006:
132:. The forearm may be scanned if the hip and lumbar spine are not accessible.
1718:
1650:
604:
387:
200:
121:
105:
1604:
1550:
1494:
1485:
1468:
1453:
1293:
1266:
1094:
1024:
788:
1703:
391:
206:
individuals receiving, or planning to receive, long-term glucocorticoid (
113:
97:
77:
1586:
1248:
1762:
372:
368:
207:
73:
69:
57:
1233:"Low bone mineral density and fracture burden in postmenopausal women"
140:
117:
65:
1395:
NIH Osteoporosis and
Related Bone Diseases National Resource Center
1370:
NIH Osteoporosis and
Related Bone Diseases National Resource Center
1211:
NIH Osteoporosis and
Related Bone Diseases National Resource Center
807:
NIH Osteoporosis and
Related Bone Diseases National Resource Center
1736:
952:
950:
948:
946:
944:
271:
29:
528:
To prevent low bone density it is recommended to have sufficient
1658:
1646:
341:
120:. The measurement is painless and non-invasive and involves low
85:
61:
1618:
1569:
Marom, Ronit; Rabenhorst, Brien M.; Morello, Roy (2020-10-01).
379:
129:
857:"Bone-density tests: When you need them – and when you don't"
607:
and many of the genetic mechanisms remain poorly understood.
1231:
Cranney A, Jamal SA, Tsang JF, Josse RG, Leslie WD (2007).
577:), can also be used to improve or maintain bone density.
426:
124:
exposure. Measurements are most commonly made over the
1525:
Huang, Qing-Yang; Kung, Annie Wai Chee (2006-08-01).
903:"Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question"
611:
Genetic diseases associated with bone mineral density
1753:
1735:
1717:
1657:
1135:. University of Washington Bone Physics. 2011-07-29
367:Results are generally scored by two measures, the
247:Results of the test are reported in three forms:
1160:. American College of Radiology. Archived from
234:individuals with a history of eating disorders.
1207:"Bone Mass Measurement: What the Numbers Mean"
843:
1630:
1109:"Bone Density Scan: MedlinePlus Medical Test"
841:
839:
837:
835:
833:
831:
829:
827:
825:
823:
34:A scanner used to measure bone density using
8:
989:Goolsby, Marci A.; Boniquit, Nicole (2016).
1151:
1149:
100:risk. It is measured by a procedure called
1637:
1623:
1615:
541:lifting weights. Other therapies, such as
1594:
1484:
1443:
1256:
1084:
1014:
757:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine
378:Less than 0.5% of patients who underwent
299:Dual X-ray Absorptiometry and Laser (DXL)
185:previous bone fracture from minor trauma.
803:"Preventing Falls and Related Fractures"
617:
351:Average bone mineral density = BMC / W
1158:"Osteoporosis and bone mineral density"
747:
910:Choosing Wisely: an initiative of the
864:Choosing Wisely: an initiative of the
555:selective estrogen receptor modulators
276:Illustration of Bone Densitometry Scan
1564:
1562:
1560:
1520:
1518:
1516:
1514:
1512:
1510:
1508:
1506:
1504:
1413:
1411:
1336:
1334:
1332:
1330:
1328:
921:American Academy of Family Physicians
899:American Academy of Family Physicians
853:American Academy of Family Physicians
428:Hip fractures per 1000 patient-years
411:Normal is a T-score of −1.0 or higher
80:it is measured by proxy according to
27:Amount of bone mineral in bone tissue
7:
1237:Canadian Medical Association Journal
984:
982:
417:is defined as between −1.0 and −2.5
668:Osteoporosis pseudoglioma syndrome
386:and associated with mild skeletal
334:Single energy X-ray absorptiometry
25:
1575:European Journal of Endocrinology
1531:Molecular Genetics and Metabolism
1156:Richmond, Bradford (2007-11-13).
587:standard-sized alcoholic beverage
355:BMC = bone mineral content = g/cm
1342:"How to keep your bones healthy"
304:Quantitative computed tomography
288:Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry
36:dual energy X-ray absorptiometry
18:Bone density conservation agents
1397:. National Institute for Health
1372:. National Institute for Health
1366:"Exercise for Your Bone Health"
1213:. National Institute for Health
809:. National Institute for Health
727:Severe infantile osteopetrosis
251:Measured areal density in g cm.
156:A bone density test may detect
143:due to falls are a significant
128:and over the upper part of the
1:
358:W = width at the scanned line
194:a parent with a hip fracture.
1424:Nature Reviews Endocrinology
328:Digital X-ray radiogrammetry
316:Single photon absorptiometry
260:
254:
225:androgen deprivation therapy
1543:10.1016/j.ymgme.2006.04.009
1810:
1527:"Genetics of osteoporosis"
1469:"Genetics of Osteoporosis"
698:Camurati-Engelmann disease
322:Dual photon absorptiometry
1436:10.1038/s41574-019-0282-7
1391:"Smoking and Bone Health"
1309:"Building Stronger Bones"
1077:10.1007/s00198-011-1603-4
991:"Bone Health in Athletes"
405:World Health Organization
213:individuals with primary
182:people over age 50 with:
104:, often performed in the
84:per square centimetre of
1007:10.1177/1941738116677732
759:Medical Subject Headings
176:females age 65 or older.
958:"Bone Mass Measurement"
653:Osteogenesis imperfecta
638:Osteogenesis imperfecta
310:Quantitative ultrasound
168:Indications for testing
1486:10.1210/edrv.23.3.0464
1282:Pediatr Endocrinol Rev
277:
179:males age 70 or older.
38:
771:Cole RE (June 2008).
390:and the inability to
294:Trabecular bone score
283:These tests include:
275:
227:is being planned for
188:rheumatoid arthritis.
68:of bone (relating to
33:
777:J Am Osteopath Assoc
733:Autosomal recessive
720:Autosomal recessive
705:Autosomal recessive
690:Autosomal recessive
675:Autosomal recessive
660:Autosomal recessive
645:Autosomal recessive
551:conjugated estrogens
384:high bone mass (HBM)
46:bone mineral density
1709:Periosteal reaction
1587:10.1530/EJE-20-0299
1249:10.1503/cmaj.070234
1039:"Bone densitometry"
619:
583:alcohol consumption
514:hyperparathyroidism
505:standard deviations
429:
215:hyperparathyroidism
48:, is the amount of
1288:(Suppl 3): 332–6.
713:Van Buchem disease
618:
427:
278:
39:
1776:
1775:
1473:Endocrine Reviews
1059:(February 2012).
739:
738:
492:
491:
243:Test result terms
199:individuals with
76:sense), although
16:(Redirected from
1801:
1687:Osseointegration
1639:
1632:
1625:
1616:
1609:
1608:
1598:
1566:
1555:
1554:
1522:
1499:
1498:
1488:
1464:
1458:
1457:
1447:
1415:
1406:
1405:
1403:
1402:
1387:
1381:
1380:
1378:
1377:
1362:
1356:
1355:
1353:
1352:
1338:
1323:
1322:
1320:
1319:
1307:Lawrence, Jean.
1304:
1298:
1297:
1277:
1271:
1270:
1260:
1228:
1222:
1221:
1219:
1218:
1203:
1197:
1196:
1194:
1193:
1188:
1179:
1173:
1172:
1170:
1169:
1153:
1144:
1143:
1141:
1140:
1133:"T and Z scores"
1129:
1123:
1122:
1120:
1119:
1105:
1099:
1098:
1088:
1055:
1049:
1048:
1046:
1045:
1035:
1029:
1028:
1018:
986:
977:
976:
974:
973:
964:. Archived from
954:
939:
938:
937:
935:
930:on June 24, 2012
929:
923:, archived from
907:
895:
889:
888:
887:
885:
880:on March 4, 2016
879:
873:, archived from
871:Consumer Reports
861:
849:Consumer Reports
845:
818:
817:
815:
814:
799:
793:
792:
768:
762:
752:
620:
430:
191:low body weight.
110:nuclear medicine
21:
1809:
1808:
1804:
1803:
1802:
1800:
1799:
1798:
1779:
1778:
1777:
1772:
1749:
1745:Range of motion
1731:
1713:
1682:Bone resorption
1672:Bone remodeling
1653:
1643:
1613:
1612:
1581:(4): R95–R106.
1568:
1567:
1558:
1524:
1523:
1502:
1466:
1465:
1461:
1417:
1416:
1409:
1400:
1398:
1389:
1388:
1384:
1375:
1373:
1364:
1363:
1359:
1350:
1348:
1340:
1339:
1326:
1317:
1315:
1306:
1305:
1301:
1279:
1278:
1274:
1230:
1229:
1225:
1216:
1214:
1205:
1204:
1200:
1191:
1189:
1186:
1181:
1180:
1176:
1167:
1165:
1155:
1154:
1147:
1138:
1136:
1131:
1130:
1126:
1117:
1115:
1113:medlineplus.gov
1107:
1106:
1102:
1057:
1056:
1052:
1043:
1041:
1037:
1036:
1032:
988:
987:
980:
971:
969:
956:
955:
942:
933:
931:
927:
917:ABIM Foundation
915:, presented by
912:ABIM Foundation
905:
897:
896:
892:
883:
881:
877:
866:ABIM Foundation
859:
847:
846:
821:
812:
810:
801:
800:
796:
770:
769:
765:
753:
749:
744:
613:
595:
575:risedronic acid
571:alendronic acid
567:bisphosphonates
526:
497:
400:
365:
270:
245:
229:prostate cancer
170:
154:
112:departments of
82:optical density
64:of mineral per
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1807:
1805:
1797:
1796:
1791:
1781:
1780:
1774:
1773:
1771:
1770:
1768:Cementogenesis
1765:
1759:
1757:
1751:
1750:
1748:
1747:
1741:
1739:
1733:
1732:
1730:
1729:
1727:Chondrogenesis
1723:
1721:
1715:
1714:
1712:
1711:
1706:
1701:
1700:
1699:
1694:
1689:
1684:
1679:
1669:
1663:
1661:
1655:
1654:
1645:Physiology of
1644:
1642:
1641:
1634:
1627:
1619:
1611:
1610:
1556:
1537:(4): 295–306.
1500:
1479:(3): 303–326.
1459:
1407:
1382:
1357:
1324:
1299:
1272:
1223:
1198:
1174:
1145:
1124:
1100:
1065:Osteoporos Int
1050:
1030:
1001:(2): 108–117.
978:
940:
890:
819:
794:
763:
746:
745:
743:
740:
737:
736:
734:
731:
728:
724:
723:
721:
718:
715:
709:
708:
706:
703:
700:
694:
693:
691:
688:
685:
679:
678:
676:
673:
670:
664:
663:
661:
658:
655:
649:
648:
646:
643:
640:
634:
633:
630:
627:
626:Gene affected
624:
612:
609:
594:
591:
581:and excessive
525:
522:
510:glucocorticoid
501:standard score
496:
493:
490:
489:
486:
483:
480:
474:
473:
470:
467:
464:
458:
457:
454:
451:
448:
444:
443:
440:
437:
434:
425:
424:
418:
412:
399:
396:
392:float in water
364:
363:Interpretation
361:
360:
359:
356:
338:
337:
331:
325:
319:
313:
307:
301:
296:
291:
269:
268:Types of tests
266:
265:
264:
258:
252:
244:
241:
236:
235:
232:
221:
218:
211:
204:
203:abnormalities.
197:
196:
195:
192:
189:
186:
180:
177:
169:
166:
153:
150:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1806:
1795:
1792:
1790:
1787:
1786:
1784:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1760:
1758:
1756:
1752:
1746:
1743:
1742:
1740:
1738:
1734:
1728:
1725:
1724:
1722:
1720:
1716:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1674:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1664:
1662:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1640:
1635:
1633:
1628:
1626:
1621:
1620:
1617:
1606:
1602:
1597:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1565:
1563:
1561:
1557:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1521:
1519:
1517:
1515:
1513:
1511:
1509:
1507:
1505:
1501:
1496:
1492:
1487:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1463:
1460:
1455:
1451:
1446:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1430:(2): 91–103.
1429:
1425:
1421:
1414:
1412:
1408:
1396:
1392:
1386:
1383:
1371:
1367:
1361:
1358:
1347:
1343:
1337:
1335:
1333:
1331:
1329:
1325:
1314:
1310:
1303:
1300:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1276:
1273:
1268:
1264:
1259:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1243:(6): 575–80.
1242:
1238:
1234:
1227:
1224:
1212:
1208:
1202:
1199:
1185:
1178:
1175:
1164:on 2008-09-17
1163:
1159:
1152:
1150:
1146:
1134:
1128:
1125:
1114:
1110:
1104:
1101:
1096:
1092:
1087:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1071:(2): 643–54.
1070:
1066:
1062:
1054:
1051:
1040:
1034:
1031:
1026:
1022:
1017:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
995:Sports Health
992:
985:
983:
979:
968:on 2008-03-07
967:
963:
959:
953:
951:
949:
947:
945:
941:
926:
922:
918:
914:
913:
904:
900:
894:
891:
876:
872:
868:
867:
858:
854:
850:
844:
842:
840:
838:
836:
834:
832:
830:
828:
826:
824:
820:
808:
804:
798:
795:
790:
786:
783:(6): 289–95.
782:
778:
774:
767:
764:
760:
756:
751:
748:
741:
735:
732:
729:
726:
725:
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1789:Mass density
1692:Ossification
1677:Bone healing
1667:Bone density
1666:
1578:
1574:
1534:
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1427:
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1399:. Retrieved
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1166:. Retrieved
1162:the original
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1042:. Retrieved
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966:the original
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932:, retrieved
925:the original
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893:
882:, retrieved
875:the original
863:
855:(May 2012),
811:. Retrieved
806:
797:
780:
776:
766:
755:Bone+Density
750:
629:Inheritance
614:
600:heritability
596:
563:bazedoxifene
527:
498:
478:Osteoporosis
433:WHO category
421:Osteoporosis
401:
383:
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366:
350:
347:
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282:
279:
246:
237:
171:
158:osteoporosis
155:
134:
126:lumbar spine
102:densitometry
94:osteoporosis
50:bone mineral
45:
42:Bone density
41:
40:
1346:Mayo Clinic
579:Tobacco use
439:Age > 64
137:statistical
135:There is a
54:bone tissue
1783:Categories
1697:Osteolysis
1401:2022-09-19
1376:2020-11-09
1351:2020-04-20
1318:2020-04-20
1217:2021-03-12
1192:2007-05-31
1168:2008-05-11
1139:2013-06-22
1118:2020-10-29
1044:2008-09-02
972:2008-03-20
934:August 14,
884:August 14,
813:2021-03-12
742:References
559:raloxifene
524:Prevention
518:alcoholism
462:Osteopenia
415:Osteopenia
210:) therapy.
162:osteopenia
78:clinically
1719:Cartilage
1651:cartilage
605:polygenic
547:estradiol
543:estrogens
534:vitamin D
512:therapy,
436:Age 50–64
388:dysplasia
201:vertebral
122:radiation
114:hospitals
106:radiology
1704:Bone age
1605:32621590
1551:16762578
1495:12050122
1454:31792439
1294:16456501
1267:17846439
1095:21455762
1025:27821574
789:18587077
623:Disease
593:Genetics
442:Overall
371:and the
98:fracture
1763:Chewing
1596:7694877
1445:6980376
1258:1963365
1086:3261396
1016:5349390
702:TGFβ-1
687:TCIRGI
657:COLIA2
642:COLIA1
632:Source
569:(e.g.,
565:), and
557:(e.g.,
545:(e.g.,
530:calcium
495:Z-score
398:T-score
373:Z-score
369:T-score
261:T-score
255:Z-score
208:steroid
152:Testing
118:clinics
90:imaging
74:physics
72:in the
70:density
58:concept
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1593:
1549:
1493:
1452:
1442:
1292:
1265:
1255:
1093:
1083:
1023:
1013:
787:
761:(MeSH)
730:CLCN7
447:Normal
336:(SEXA)
141:pelvis
66:volume
60:is of
56:. The
1794:Bones
1755:Teeth
1737:Joint
1313:WebMD
1187:(PDF)
928:(PDF)
906:(PDF)
878:(PDF)
860:(PDF)
717:SOST
672:LRP5
516:, or
488:40.6
472:15.7
407:are:
330:(DXR)
324:(DPA)
318:(SPA)
312:(QUS)
306:(QCT)
223:when
44:, or
1659:Bone
1649:and
1647:bone
1601:PMID
1547:PMID
1491:PMID
1450:PMID
1290:PMID
1263:PMID
1091:PMID
1021:PMID
936:2012
886:2012
785:PMID
532:and
485:46.6
482:22.4
469:19.6
466:11.4
456:6.6
342:bone
96:and
86:bone
62:mass
1591:PMC
1583:doi
1579:183
1539:doi
1481:doi
1440:PMC
1432:doi
1253:PMC
1245:doi
1241:177
1081:PMC
1073:doi
1011:PMC
1003:doi
962:NOF
781:108
553:),
538:IUs
453:9.4
450:5.3
380:DXA
160:or
130:hip
116:or
108:or
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