210:, and may in fact aid in language learning by establishing a basis for matching labels to referents and narrowing the hypothesis space for young infants. Adults in this study, like infants, used a combination of consonant and vowel information to match the labels they heard with the shapes they saw. However, this was not the only strategy that was available to them. Adults, unlike infants, were also able to use consonant information alone and vowel information alone to match the labels to the shapes, albeit less frequently than the consonant–vowel combination. When vowels and consonants were put in conflict, adults used consonants more often than vowels.
20:
214:
familiarity with the linguistic stimuli does not eliminate the effect. A study showed that individuals will pair names such as "Molly" with round silhouettes, and names such as "Kate" with sharp silhouettes. Moreover, individuals will associate different personality traits with either group of names (e.g., easygoingness with "round names"; determination with "sharp names"). This may hint at a role of abstract concepts in the effect.
110:) with a spiky shape. Its discovery dates back to the 1920s, when psychologists documented experimental participants as connecting nonsense words to shapes in consistent ways. There is a strong general tendency towards the effect worldwide; it has been robustly confirmed across a majority of cultures and languages in which it has been researched, for example including among English-speaking American university students,
294:. Additionally, it was shown that it is not only different consonants (e.g., voiceless versus voiced) and different vowel qualities (e.g., /a/ versus /i/) that play a role in the effect, but also vowel quantity (long versus short vowels). In one study, participants rated words containing long vowels to refer to longer objects and short vowels to short objects, at least for languages that make a
469:Ćwiek, Aleksandra; Fuchs, Susanne; Draxler, Christoph; Asu, Eva Liina; Dediu, Dan; Hiovain, Katri; Kawahara, Shigeto; Koutalidis, Sofia; Krifka, Manfred; Lippus, Pärtel; Lupyan, Gary; Oh, Grace E.; Paul, Jing; Petrone, Caterina; Ridouane, Rachid; Reiter, Sabine; Schümchen, Nathalie; Szalontai, Ádám; Ünal-Logacev, Özlem; Zeller, Jochen; Perlman, Marcus; Winter, Bodo (2022).
235:
A major 2021 study showed that certain languages, namely
Mandarin Chinese, Turkish, Romanian, and Albanian, on average showed lower-than-50% matches for both associating bouba with roundedness and kiki with jaggedness. However, the authors consider their analysis conservative and not clear enough to
197:
years old may show this preference. More recent work by Ozge Ozturk and colleagues in 2013 showed that even 4-month-old infants have the same sound–shape mapping biases as adults and toddlers. Infants are able to differentiate between congruent trials (pairing an angular shape with "kiki" or a curvy
163:
referred to
Uznadze's experiment in a 1929 book which showed two forms and asked readers which shape was called "takete" and which was called "maluma". Although he does not say so outright, Köhler implies that there is a strong preference to pair the jagged shape with "takete" and the rounded shape
213:
The effect has also been shown to emerge in other contexts, such as when words are paired with evaluative meanings (with "bouba" words associated with positive concepts and "kiki" words associated with negative concepts) or when the words to be paired are existing first names, suggesting that some
147:
words to drawings and quotes their reasoning. He also describes situations where participants described very specific forms that they associated with a nonsense word, without reference to the shown drawings. He develops a theory of four factors that influence the way names for objects are decided.
146:
in a 1924 paper. He conducted an experiment with 10 participants who were given a list with nonsense words, shown six drawings for five seconds each, then instructed to pick a name for the drawing from the list of given words. He describes the different "strategies" participants developed to match
273:
Ramachandran and
Hubbard suggest that the kiki/bouba effect has implications for the evolution of language, because it suggests that the naming of objects is not completely arbitrary. The rounded shape may most commonly be named "bouba" because the mouth makes a more rounded shape to produce that
150:
In total, there were 42 words. For one particular drawing, 45% picked the same word. For three others, the percentages were 40%. Uznadze points out that this is significantly more overlap than one could expect, given the high number of possible words. He speculates that there must therefore be
248:
to explore the bouba–kiki effect. They found that prefrontal activation is stronger to mismatching (bouba with spiky shape) than to matching (bouba with round shape) stimuli. A subsequent study by Kelly McCormick and colleagues reported a similar pattern of greater activation for mismatched
23:
This picture is used as a test to demonstrate that people may not attach sounds to shapes arbitrarily. When given the names "kiki" and "bouba", many cultural and linguistic communities worldwide robustly tend to label the shape on the left "kiki" and the one on the right
180:
speakers in India, "Which of these shapes is bouba and which is kiki?" In both groups, 95% to 98% selected the curvy shape as "bouba" and the jagged one as "kiki", suggesting that the human brain somehow attaches abstract meanings to the shapes and sounds consistently.
261:, regions known to play a role in sensory association and perceptual-motor processing. Peiffer-Smadja and Cohen also found that sound-shape matching also influences activations in the auditory and visual cortices, suggesting an effect of matching at an early stage in
227:, with high visual capacities in childhood being necessary for its typical development. Although the congenitally blind have been reported to show a bouba–kiki effect, they show a much smaller one for touched shapes than sighted individuals do for visual shapes.
198:
shape with "bubu") and incongruent trials (pairing a curvy shape with "kiki" or an angular shape with "bubu"). Infants looked longer at incongruent pairings than at congruent pairings. Infants' mapping was based on the combination of
222:
Other research suggests that this effect does not occur in all communities, and it appears that the effect breaks if the sounds do not make licit words in the language. The bouba–kiki effect seems to be dependent on a long
1125:
829:
892:
Bross, Fabian (2018). "The Good, the Bad, the Bouba, and the Kiki. Cross-Modal
Correspondences Between Evaluative Meanings, Speech-Sounds, and Object Shapes".
367:
Nielsen, Alan; Rendall, Drew (2011). ""The sound of round: evaluating the sound-symbolic role of consonants in the classic Takete-Maluma phenomenon."".
1175:
1297:
Proceedings of the 37th Annual
Conference of the Cognitive Science Society: Mind, Technology, and Society: Pasadena, California, 23–25 July 2015
765:
306:, in which sounds are non-arbitrarily mapped to objects and events in the world. Research has also indicated that the effect may be a case of
1304:
245:
119:
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speakers in India, speakers of certain languages with no writing system, young children, infants, and (though to a much lesser degree) the
310:, a phenomenon in which activations of concepts (inducers) evoke perception-like experiences (concurrents). The name comes from the Greek
206:
in the words, and neither consonants nor vowels alone sufficed for mapping. These results suggest that some sound–shape mappings precede
176:
and Edward
Hubbard repeated Köhler's experiment, introducing the words "kiki" and "bouba", and asked American college undergraduates and
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sound while a more taut, angular mouth shape is needed to make the sounds in "kiki". Alternatively, the distinction may be between
1124:
Hamilton-Fletcher, Giles; Pisanski, Katarzyna; Reby, David; Stefańczyk, Michał; Ward, Jamie & Sorokowska, Agnieszka (2018).
725:
90:
between certain speech sounds and certain visual shapes. The most typical research finding is that people, when presented with
868:
1076:"Touching words is not enough: How visual experience influences haptic–auditory associations in the "Bouba–Kiki" effect"
1411:
1406:
1027:"When Does Maluma/Takete Fail? Two Key Failures and a Meta-Analysis Suggest That Phonology and Phonotactics Matter"
1355:
1336:"Cognitive associations between vowel length and object size: A new feature contributing to a bouba/kiki effect"
386:
Occelli, Valeria; Esposito, Gianluca; Venuti, Paola; Arduino, Giuseppe
Maurizio; Zampini, Massimiliano (2013).
332:
87:
1353:
Gómez Milán, E.; Iborra, O.; de Córdoba, M.J.; Juárez-Ramos, V.; Rodríguez
Artacho, M.A.; Rubio, J.L. (2013).
1176:"Neural Basis of the Sound-Symbolic Crossmodal Correspondence Between Auditory Pseudowords and Visual Shapes"
1416:
1239:
D'Onofrio, Annette (2013). "Phonetic Detail and
Dimensionality in Sound-shape Correspondences: Refining the
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Rogers, Susan K.; Ross, Abraham S. (1975). "A cross-cultural test of the maluma–takete phenomenon".
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830:"Sound symbolism in infancy: Evidence for sound–shape cross-modal correspondences in 4-month-olds"
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McCormick, Kelly; Lacey, Simon; Stilla, Randall; Nygaard, Lynne C.; Sathian, K. (2021-08-11).
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1338:. In Belz, M.; Mooshammer, C.; Fuchs, S.; Jannedy, S.; Rasskazova, O.; Zygis, M. (eds.).
118:. It has also been shown to occur with familiar names. The effect was investigated using
932:
651:"Ein experimenteller Beitrag zum Problem der psychologischen Grundlagen der Namengebung"
601:
1340:
Proceedings of the
Conference on Phonetics & Phonology in German-Speaking Countries
1208:
1051:
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959:
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681:
618:
499:
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318:, meaning "sensing concepts" or "sensing ideas", and was introduced by Danko Nikolić.
1400:
1335:
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545:
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91:
1380:"Is synaesthesia actually ideaestesia? An inquiry into the nature of the phenomenon"
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certain regularities "which the human soul follows in the process of name-giving".
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Proceedings of the Third International Congress on Synaesthesia, Science & Art
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In 2019, Nathan Peiffer-Smadja and Laurent Cohen published the first study using
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1126:"The role of visual experience in the emergence of cross-modal correspondences"
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302:-like mappings" suggest that this effect may be the neurological basis for
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confirm if these four definitively lacked the bouba–kiki phenomenon.
1003:
766:"The shape of boubas: Sound-shape correspondences in toddlers and adults"
470:
1288:
McCormick, Kelly; Kim, Jee Young; List, Sara; Nygaard, Lynne C. (2015).
894:
14th conference "Phonetics & Phonology in the German-Speaking World"
764:
Maurer, Daphne; Pathman, Thanujeni & Mondloch, Catherine J. (2006).
19:
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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
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442:
1356:"The Kiki-Bouba effect: A case of personification and ideaesthesia"
403:
203:
18:
726:"Synaesthesia: A window into perception, thought and language"
67:
61:
1299:. Austin, TX: Cognitive Science Society. pp. 1565–1570.
917:"What's in a Name? Sound Symbolism and Gender in First Names"
44:
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Fryer, Louise; Freeman, Jonathan & Pring, Linda (2014).
828:
Ozturk, Ozge; Krehm, Madelaine; Vouloumanos, Athena (2013).
584:
Margiotoudi Konstantina and Pulvermüller Friedemann (2020).
1342:. Vol. 13. Berlin: Humbold University. pp. 17–20.
388:"The Takete—Maluma Phenomenon in Autism Spectrum Disorders"
50:
586:"Action sound–shape congruencies explain sound symbolism"
427:"A Cross-Cultural Test of the Maluma—Takete Phenomenon"
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and colleagues showed that even children as young as 2
527:
Peiffer-Smadja, Nathan; Cohen, Laurent (2019-02-01).
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effect is robust across cultures and writing systems"
64:
58:
1290:"Sound to Meaning Mappings in the Bouba-Kiki Effect"
47:
41:
55:
38:
16:
Non-arbitrary attachment of sounds to object shapes
1354:
699:
680:
915:Sidhu, David M.; Pexman, Penny M. (2015-05-27).
724:Ramachandran, V.S. & Hubbard, E.M. (2001).
231:Languages where the effect is smaller or absent
249:word-shape stimuli, but with most activity in
218:Contexts where the effect is smaller or absent
122:in 2018. The bouba–kiki effect is one form of
706:(2nd ed.). New York: Liveright. p.
529:"The cerebral bases of the bouba-kiki effect"
8:
102:) with a rounded shape and other ones (like
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369:Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology
139:This effect was first observed by Georgian
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1207:
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425:Rogers, Susan K; Ross, Abraham S (1975).
837:Journal of Experimental Child Psychology
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269:Implications for understanding language
94:, tend to associate certain ones (like
298:distinction. The presence of these "
7:
1025:Styles, Suzy; Gawne, Lauren (2017).
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520:
518:
14:
1361:Journal of Consciousness Studies
785:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2006.00495.x
733:Journal of Consciousness Studies
546:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.11.033
34:
1145:10.1016/j.cognition.2018.02.023
1095:10.1016/j.cognition.2014.03.015
1:
942:10.1371/journal.pone.0126809
902:10.13140/RG.2.2.11463.14240
168:Extension to other contexts
1433:
849:10.1016/j.jecp.2012.05.004
739:(12): 3–34. Archived from
610:10.1038/s41598-020-69528-4
1192:10.1163/22134808-bja10060
698:Köhler, Wolfgang (1947).
679:Köhler, Wolfgang (1929).
1267:10.1177/0023830913507694
1043:10.1177/2041669517724807
896:. University of Vienna.
333:Japanese sound symbolism
1378:Nikolić, Danko (2009).
77:kiki–bouba effect
30:bouba–kiki effect
1334:Bross, Fabian (2018).
1037:(4): 204166951772480.
687:. New York: Liveright.
491:10.1098/rstb.2020.0390
25:
1180:Multisensory Research
773:Developmental Science
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255:intraparietal sulcus
1245:Language and Speech
933:2015PLoSO..1026809S
602:2020NatSR..1012706M
259:supramarginal gyrus
86:is a non-arbitrary
81:takete–maluma
702:Gestalt Psychology
683:Gestalt Psychology
590:Scientific Reports
348:Universal language
338:Origin of language
263:sensory processing
174:V. S. Ramachandran
116:congenitally blind
88:mental association
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1412:Psycholinguistics
1407:Cognitive science
1306:978-0-9911967-2-2
649:Dimitri Usnadze.
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144:Dimitri Uznadze
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