294:
plasticity. In a later publication, Gravlee, Bernard and
Leonard reviewed Sparks's and Jantz's analysis. They argue that Sparks and Jantz misrepresented Boas's claims, and that Sparks's and Jantz's data support Boas. For example, they point out that Sparks and Jantz look at changes in cranial size in relation to how long an individual has been in the United States in order to test the influence of the environment. Boas, however, looked at changes in cranial size in relation to how long the mother had been in the United States. They argue that Boas's method is more useful, because the prenatal environment is a crucial developmental factor.
81:
122:
590:
396:
737:
159:
368:
1448:
1810:
1479:
1113:
762:
345:
40:
134:
357:
747:
A mesaticephalic skull is of intermediate length and width. Mesaticephalic skulls are not markedly brachycephalic or dolichocephalic. When dealing with animals, especially dogs, the more appropriate and commonly used term is not "mesocephalic", but rather "mesaticephalic", which is a ratio of head to
306:
The vertical cephalic index, also known as the length-height index, was a less-commonly measured head ratio. In the vertical cephalic index model, humans beings were characterized by having either a chamaecranic (low-skulled), orthocranic (medium high-skulled), or hypsicranic (high-skulled) cephalic
293:
In 2003, anthropologists
Clarence C. Gravlee, H. Russell Bernard, and William R. Leonard reanalyzed Boas's data and concluded that most of Boas's original findings were correct. Moreover, they applied new statistical, computer-assisted methods to Boas's data and discovered more evidence for cranial
315:
The cephalic index is also used in medicine, especially in the planning and effectiveness analysis of cranial deformity corrections. The index is a useful tool in assessing the morphology of cranial deformities in clinical settings. The index is used while looking at the fetal head shape, and can
297:
Jantz and Sparks responded to
Gravlee et al., reiterating that Boas' findings lacked biological meaning, and that the interpretation of Boas' results common in the literature was biologically inaccurate. In a later study, the same authors concluded that the effects Boas observed were likely the
289:
In 2002, a paper by Sparks and Jantz re-evaluated some of Boas's original data using new statistical techniques and concluded that there was a "relatively high genetic component" of head shape. Ralph
Holloway of Columbia University argues that the new research raises questions about whether the
298:
result of population-specific environmental effects such as changes in cultural practices for cradling infants, rather than the effects of a general "American environment" which caused populations in
America to converge to a common cranial type, as Boas had suggested.
278:
studied the children of immigrants to the United States in 1910 to 1912, noting that the children's cephalic index differed significantly from their parents', implying that local environmental conditions had a significant effect on the development of head shape.
290:
variations in skull shape have "adaptive meaning and whether, in fact, normalizing selection might be at work on the trait, where both extremes, hyperdolichocephaly and hyperbrachycephaly, are at a slight selective disadvantage."
129:
In the cephalic index model, human beings were characterized by having either a dolichocephalic (long-headed), mesaticephalic (moderate-headed), or brachycephalic (short-headed) cephalic index or cranial index.
382:
are sometimes classified as "extreme brachycephalic". Because of health issues brachycephaly is regarded in some countries as "qualzucht", which literally translates to "torture breeding" as it often leads to
88:
The cephalic index was used by anthropologists in the early 20th century as a tool to categorize human populations. It was used to describe an individual's appearance and for estimating the age of
282:
Boas argued that if craniofacial features were so malleable in a single generation, then the cephalic index was of little use for defining race and mapping ancestral populations. Scholars such as
2716:
2556:
Likus, Wirginia; Bajor, Grzegorz; Gruszczynska, Katrzyna; Baron, Jan; Markowski, Jaroslaw; Machnikowska-Sokolowska, Magdalena; Milka, Daniela; Lepich, Tomasz (4 February 2014).
114:
in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when historians attempted to use ancient remains to model population movements in terms of racial categories. American anthropologist
67:
or OFD, front to back). The index was once used to categorize human beings in the first half of the 20th century, but today it is used to categorize dogs and cats.
125:
Cephalic indexes of skull shapes. Long skull (left) – cephalic index 71.4; tall skull (center) – cephalic index 81; broad skull (right) – cephalic index 85
384:
146:
2480:
Spradley MK, Weisensee K (2017). "Ancestry
Estimation: The Importance, The History, and The Practice". In Langley NR, Tersigni-Tarrant MT (eds.).
2735:
Consequences and
Management of Canine Brachycephaly in Veterinary Practice: Perspectives from Australian Veterinarians and Veterinary Specialists
2489:
2525:"The Study of Vertical Cephalic Index (Length-Height Index) and Transverse Cephalic Index (Breadth-Height Index) of Andhra Region (India)"
2149:
378:
A brachycephalic skull is relatively broad and short (typically with the breadth at least 80% of the length). Dog breeds such as the
2926:
1857:
1526:
1160:
809:
3010:
2609:"Cephalic Index of Korean Children With Normal Brain Development During the First 7 Years of Life Based on Computed Tomography"
2558:"Cephalic Index in the First Three Years of Life: Study of Children with Normal Brain Development Based on Computed Tomography"
2113:
1831:
1500:
1134:
783:
80:
2352:
1835:
1504:
1291:
1138:
787:
2983:
456:
286:
continued to argue that both environment and heredity were involved. Boas did not himself claim it was totally plastic.
121:
1458:
A dolichocephalic skull is relatively long-headed (typically with the breadth less than 80% or 75% of the length).
988:
2410:
Sparks CS, Jantz RL (2003). "Changing Times, Changing Faces: Franz Boas's
Immigrant Study in Modern Perspective".
993:
254:
Technically, the measured factors are defined as the maximum width of the bones that surround the head above the
110:
to classify ancient human remains found in Europe. The theory became closely associated with the development of
1820:
1489:
1123:
927:
772:
589:
2826:
736:
693:
64:
2690:
1839:
1824:
1508:
1493:
1142:
1127:
912:
791:
776:
673:
2991:
678:
158:
2776:
1684:
948:
857:
542:
532:
1720:
1689:
983:
862:
138:
107:
2903:
395:
2854:
Geiger M, Schoenebeck JJ, Schneider RA, Schmidt MJ, Fischer MS, Sánchez-Villagra MR (14 August 2021).
2302:
2250:
2191:
1266:
1223:
1050:
922:
902:
507:
321:
2966:
2801:
1376:
867:
847:
688:
111:
56:
403:, have less compromised thermoregulation and thus are more tolerant of vigorous exercise and heat.
336:
The cephalic index is used in the categorisation of animals, especially breeds of dogs and cats.
2950:
2462:
2437:
Jantz RL, Logan MH (2010). "Why does head form change in children of immigrants? A reappraisal".
1923:
1735:
1679:
1659:
1564:
1349:
1183:
1023:
1018:
741:
683:
527:
522:
2505:
367:
2932:
2922:
2885:
2762:
2646:
2628:
2589:
2485:
2454:
2330:
2278:
2219:
1918:
1755:
1644:
1599:
1090:
1075:
852:
601:
477:
274:, who argued that cranial morphology provided a better means to model racial ancestry. Also,
2875:
2867:
2636:
2620:
2579:
2569:
2536:
2446:
2419:
2375:
2367:
2320:
2310:
2268:
2258:
2209:
2199:
2158:
2040:
1941:
1912:
1760:
1745:
1740:
1705:
1614:
1549:
1188:
1178:
1028:
1003:
973:
963:
897:
892:
829:
824:
611:
557:
436:
416:
115:
2748:
2995:
2665:
1928:
1639:
1619:
1436:
953:
938:
933:
715:
663:
572:
492:
487:
482:
462:
360:
31:
1276:
907:
258:(behind the cheekbones), and the maximum length from the most easily noticed part of the
2856:"Exceptional Changes in Skeletal Anatomy under Domestication: The Case of Brachycephaly"
2734:
2306:
2254:
2195:
2880:
2855:
2641:
2584:
2557:
2025:
1946:
1872:
1354:
1316:
1095:
1070:
882:
497:
472:
426:
421:
363:: Left: 1900–1920. Middle: Switzerland-Champion *1963 †1971. Right: Female *1985 †1993.
349:
283:
271:
103:
2325:
2290:
2273:
2238:
2214:
2179:
1447:
262:(between the eyebrows) to the most easily noticed point on the back part of the head.
3004:
2729:
2524:
1951:
1882:
1780:
1770:
1750:
1694:
1634:
1584:
1462:
1426:
1421:
1344:
1065:
978:
968:
943:
917:
626:
616:
502:
411:
255:
2608:
2466:
2607:
Nam, Heesung; Han, Nami; Eom, Mi Ja; Kook, Minjung; Kim, Jeeyoung (30 April 2021).
2385:
2070:
1991:
1981:
1961:
1956:
1892:
1715:
1649:
1579:
1559:
1544:
1401:
1334:
1301:
1286:
1261:
1238:
1233:
1008:
998:
646:
372:
317:
259:
118:
also used the index in the 1960s, by which time it had been largely discredited.
2353:"Heredity, environment, and cranial form: A reanalysis of Boas's immigrant data"
2128:
2118:
1986:
1809:
1664:
1609:
1478:
1386:
1321:
1296:
1208:
1112:
761:
705:
631:
621:
606:
446:
431:
400:
2295:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2243:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2184:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
344:
17:
2423:
2371:
2123:
2100:
2075:
2045:
1624:
1569:
1416:
1396:
1381:
1306:
1256:
1251:
1228:
1203:
1193:
1085:
1060:
668:
577:
512:
451:
275:
2936:
2632:
2095:
2080:
2015:
1936:
1877:
1730:
1629:
1594:
1371:
1213:
887:
710:
537:
467:
356:
133:
39:
2889:
2650:
2593:
2541:
2458:
2334:
2315:
2282:
2263:
2223:
2204:
2871:
2574:
2380:
2055:
2010:
1669:
1431:
1411:
1391:
1366:
1339:
1055:
1013:
567:
562:
547:
60:
2450:
2085:
2035:
1897:
1785:
1765:
1710:
1674:
1554:
1406:
1281:
1218:
1040:
872:
835:
517:
441:
142:
100:
2624:
63:, multiplying it by 100 and then dividing it by their maximum length (
2065:
2030:
1907:
1887:
1775:
1725:
1699:
1589:
1574:
1452:
1311:
1271:
1198:
1080:
1033:
877:
725:
720:
96:
2291:"Head to head with Boas: did he err on the plasticity of head form?"
2180:"Head to head with Boas: did he err on the plasticity of head form?"
2090:
2050:
1966:
1654:
1604:
1446:
1244:
958:
841:
735:
588:
394:
366:
355:
343:
157:
132:
120:
89:
79:
38:
2988:
2666:"Cephalic index | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org"
2060:
1997:
1902:
1790:
1045:
325:
2020:
1803:
1472:
1106:
755:
552:
379:
2802:"Brachycephalic Breeds of Cats | ASPCA Pet Health Insurance"
2523:
Chandrashekhar, Chikatapu; Salve, Vishal Manoharrao (2013).
2239:"A reassessment of human cranial plasticity: Boas revisited"
748:
nasal cavity. The breeds below exemplify this category.
166:
Cephalic indices are grouped as in the following table:
2777:"Brachycephalic Dog Breeds: A Guide to Flat-Faced Dogs"
270:
The usefulness of the cephalic index was questioned by
2827:"Breathing Problems in Flat-faced Cat Breeds | Purina"
2921:(3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders. p. 132.
1173:
Note: Almost all domestic felines are mesaticephalic
399:
Breeds with less extreme brachycephalia, such as the
1461:
Note: Almost all representatives of the infraphylum
2482:
Forensic Anthropology: A Comprehensive Introduction
27:
Ratio of width to length of the head of an organism
55:is a number obtained by taking the maximum width (
2989:Brachycephalic Experienced Veterinarians Database
2351:Gravlee CC, Bernard HR, Leonard WR (March 2003).
2157:(Masters thesis). UNC Chapel Hill. Archived from
352:, with visible indications of laboured breathing.
2484:(Second ed.). CRC Press. pp. 165–166.
2173:
2171:
141:in June 1917, with loss of hair after fighting
84:Cephalic index map of Europe by Bertil Lundman
1540:Note: Almost all canidae are dolichocephalic
8:
2904:"Brachy breeds – not just dogs! Rabbits too"
2717:The suffering of dogs with genetic disorders
1465:(with rare exceptions) are dolichocephalic.
1838:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1507:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1141:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
790:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
385:brachycephalic airway obstructive syndrome
2879:
2640:
2583:
2573:
2540:
2379:
2346:
2344:
2324:
2314:
2272:
2262:
2213:
2203:
1858:Learn how and when to remove this message
1527:Learn how and when to remove this message
1161:Learn how and when to remove this message
810:Learn how and when to remove this message
43:Cephalic index viewed from above the head
168:
149:had the skull with least cephalic index.
59:or BPD, side to side) of the head of an
2763:Brachycephalic issues: shared resources
2140:
2849:
2847:
2237:Sparks CS, Jantz RL (November 2002).
7:
1836:adding citations to reliable sources
1505:adding citations to reliable sources
1139:adding citations to reliable sources
788:adding citations to reliable sources
92:for legal and obstetrical reasons.
2775:Lowrey, Sassafras (10 June 2022).
316:change in certain situations (ex.
95:The cephalic index was defined by
25:
2955:Farlex Partner Medical Dictionary
2613:Annals of Rehabilitation Medicine
2529:Asian Journal of Medical Sciences
2439:American Journal of Human Biology
2151:Bioarchaeology in the Roman World
1976:List of dolichocephalic leporids
1808:
1477:
1111:
760:
2114:Cephalic index in cats and dogs
1800:List of dolichocephalic felines
2860:Integrative Organismal Biology
1469:List of dolichocephalic canids
1329:List of mesaticephalic rabbits
1292:Russian White, Black and Tabby
752:List of mesaticephalic canines
656:List of brachycephalic rabbits
106:(1796–1860) and first used in
1:
2289:Holloway RL (November 2002).
2287:. See also the discussion in
2178:Holloway RL (November 2002).
457:Cavalier King Charles Spaniel
332:Modern use in animal breeding
162:1896 world cephalic index map
71:Historic use in anthropology
2919:Miller's Anatomy of the Dog
1103:List of mesaticephalic cats
639:List of brachycephalic pigs
585:List of brachycephalic cats
391:List of brachycephalic dogs
3027:
989:German Shorthaired Pointer
844:, except for the Chow Chow
29:
2806:www.aspcapetinsurance.com
2732:, Magdoline Awad et al.:
2714:FOUR PAWS International:
2562:TheScientificWorldJournal
2424:10.1525/aa.2003.105.2.333
2372:10.1525/aa.2003.105.1.125
994:German Wirehaired Pointer
137:The children of the Tsar
2695:www.thekennelclub.org.uk
928:Chesapeake Bay Retriever
694:American Fuzzylop rabbit
371:Craniofacial angle of a
307:index or cranial index.
65:occipitofrontal diameter
30:Not to be confused with
3011:Biological anthropology
2691:"Brachycephalic Health"
2510:Merriam-Webster Medical
2412:American Anthropologist
2360:American Anthropologist
1443:Dolichocephalic animals
913:Black and Tan Coonhound
674:Netherland Dwarf rabbit
302:Vertical cephalic index
2994:30 August 2007 at the
2542:10.3126/ajms.v3i3.4650
2316:10.1073/pnas.242622399
2264:10.1073/pnas.222389599
2205:10.1073/pnas.242622399
1685:Miniature Bull Terrier
1455:
949:Curly-Coated Retriever
932:pear- and deer-headed
858:Appenzeller Sennenhund
744:
732:Mesaticephalic animals
594:
543:Perro de Presa Canario
533:Olde English Bulldogge
404:
375:
364:
353:
340:Brachycephalic animals
163:
150:
126:
85:
44:
2831:www.purina-arabia.com
2664:Weerakkody, Yuranga.
2506:"length-height index"
1721:Russian Black Terrier
1450:
984:Flat-Coated Retriever
863:Australian Cattle Dog
739:
679:Dwarf Papillon rabbit
592:
398:
370:
359:
347:
161:
139:Nicholas II of Russia
136:
124:
108:physical anthropology
83:
42:
2781:American Kennel Club
2148:Killgrove K (2005).
1832:improve this section
1690:Peruvian Inca Orchid
1501:improve this section
1267:Norwegian forest cat
1224:Colorpoint Shorthair
1135:improve this section
1051:Pembroke Welsh Corgi
923:Cardigan Welsh Corgi
903:Bernese Mountain Dog
784:improve this section
508:King Charles Spaniel
2967:The Free Dictionary
2872:10.1093/iob/obab023
2575:10.1155/2014/502836
2307:2002PNAS...9914622H
2301:(23): 14622–14623.
2255:2002PNAS...9914636S
2249:(23): 14636–14639.
2196:2002PNAS...9914622H
1620:German Shepherd Dog
1377:American black bear
1036:(Miniature and Toy)
868:Australian Shepherd
848:American Eskimo Dog
689:Jersey Wooly rabbit
593:An Exotic Shorthair
318:breech presentation
112:racial anthropology
57:biparietal diameter
2451:10.1002/ajhb.21070
1924:Oriental Shorthair
1736:Scottish Deerhound
1680:Manchester Terrier
1660:Kerry Blue Terrier
1565:Bedlington Terrier
1456:
1350:New Zealand rabbit
1184:American Shorthair
1024:Miniature Pinscher
1019:Labrador Retriever
745:
742:Labrador Retriever
684:Dwarf Hotot rabbit
595:
523:Neapolitan Mastiff
405:
376:
365:
354:
322:ruptured membranes
256:supramastoid crest
164:
151:
127:
86:
76:Early anthropology
45:
2917:Evans HE (1994).
2625:10.5535/arm.20235
2491:978-1-4987-3612-1
2164:on 28 March 2012.
1919:Oriental Longhair
1868:
1867:
1860:
1756:Shetland Sheepdog
1645:Italian Greyhound
1600:Doberman Pinscher
1537:
1536:
1529:
1171:
1170:
1163:
1091:Wirehaired Vizsla
853:American Foxhound
820:
819:
812:
602:British Shorthair
478:Dogue de Bordeaux
252:
251:
184:Alternative term
16:(Redirected from
3018:
2971:
2970:
2964:
2962:
2951:"mesaticephalic"
2947:
2941:
2940:
2914:
2908:
2907:
2906:. 24 March 2017.
2900:
2894:
2893:
2883:
2851:
2842:
2841:
2839:
2837:
2823:
2817:
2816:
2814:
2812:
2798:
2792:
2791:
2789:
2787:
2772:
2766:
2758:
2752:
2749:Torture breeding
2744:
2738:
2726:
2720:
2712:
2706:
2705:
2703:
2701:
2687:
2681:
2680:
2678:
2676:
2661:
2655:
2654:
2644:
2604:
2598:
2597:
2587:
2577:
2553:
2547:
2546:
2544:
2520:
2514:
2513:
2502:
2496:
2495:
2477:
2471:
2470:
2434:
2428:
2427:
2407:
2401:
2400:
2398:
2396:
2390:
2384:. Archived from
2383:
2357:
2348:
2339:
2338:
2328:
2318:
2286:
2276:
2266:
2234:
2228:
2227:
2217:
2207:
2175:
2166:
2165:
2163:
2156:
2145:
1913:Oriental Bicolor
1863:
1856:
1852:
1849:
1843:
1812:
1804:
1761:Silken Windhound
1746:Sealyham Terrier
1741:Scottish Terrier
1706:Rampur Greyhound
1550:Airedale Terrier
1532:
1525:
1521:
1518:
1512:
1481:
1473:
1451:Dolichocephalic
1189:American Bobtail
1166:
1159:
1155:
1152:
1146:
1115:
1107:
1004:Golden Retriever
974:Finnish Lapphund
964:English Foxhound
898:Belgian Sheepdog
893:Belgian Malinois
830:Alaskan Malamute
825:African Wild Dog
815:
808:
804:
801:
795:
764:
756:
612:Exotic Shorthair
558:Pyrenean Mastiff
437:Brussels Griffon
417:American Bulldog
169:
116:Carleton S. Coon
21:
3026:
3025:
3021:
3020:
3019:
3017:
3016:
3015:
3001:
3000:
2996:Wayback Machine
2980:
2975:
2974:
2960:
2958:
2949:
2948:
2944:
2929:
2916:
2915:
2911:
2902:
2901:
2897:
2853:
2852:
2845:
2835:
2833:
2825:
2824:
2820:
2810:
2808:
2800:
2799:
2795:
2785:
2783:
2774:
2773:
2769:
2759:
2755:
2745:
2741:
2727:
2723:
2713:
2709:
2699:
2697:
2689:
2688:
2684:
2674:
2672:
2663:
2662:
2658:
2606:
2605:
2601:
2555:
2554:
2550:
2522:
2521:
2517:
2504:
2503:
2499:
2492:
2479:
2478:
2474:
2436:
2435:
2431:
2409:
2408:
2404:
2394:
2392:
2391:on 30 July 2014
2388:
2355:
2350:
2349:
2342:
2288:
2236:
2235:
2231:
2190:(23): 14622–3.
2177:
2176:
2169:
2161:
2154:
2147:
2146:
2142:
2137:
2110:
2105:
2006:
1978:
1971:
1942:Sabertooth cats
1864:
1853:
1847:
1844:
1829:
1813:
1802:
1795:
1640:Irish Wolfhound
1533:
1522:
1516:
1513:
1498:
1482:
1471:
1445:
1437:Tasmanian devil
1363:
1331:
1326:
1248:, or small cats
1167:
1156:
1150:
1147:
1132:
1116:
1105:
1100:
939:Chinese Crested
816:
805:
799:
796:
781:
765:
754:
734:
716:Spectacled bear
702:
664:Lionhead rabbit
658:
641:
636:
587:
582:
573:Tibetan Spaniel
493:Fila Brasileiro
488:English Bulldog
483:English Mastiff
393:
361:English Bulldog
348:Brachycephalic
342:
334:
313:
304:
268:
218:'medium-headed'
196:dolichocephalic
178:Scientific term
156:
78:
73:
35:
32:encephalization
28:
23:
22:
18:Brachycephalous
15:
12:
11:
5:
3024:
3022:
3014:
3013:
3003:
3002:
2999:
2998:
2986:
2984:Cephalic index
2979:
2978:External links
2976:
2973:
2972:
2942:
2927:
2909:
2895:
2866:(1): obab023.
2843:
2818:
2793:
2767:
2753:
2739:
2728:Anne Fawcett,
2721:
2707:
2682:
2656:
2619:(2): 141–149.
2599:
2548:
2515:
2497:
2490:
2472:
2445:(5): 702–707.
2429:
2418:(2): 333–337.
2402:
2366:(1): 125–138.
2340:
2229:
2167:
2139:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2132:
2131:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2026:Domestic horse
2023:
2018:
2013:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2001:
2000:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1977:
1974:
1970:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1890:
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1880:
1875:
1869:
1866:
1865:
1816:
1814:
1807:
1801:
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1778:
1773:
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1763:
1758:
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1743:
1738:
1733:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1703:
1697:
1692:
1687:
1682:
1677:
1672:
1667:
1662:
1657:
1652:
1650:Kangaroo hound
1647:
1642:
1637:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1602:
1597:
1592:
1587:
1582:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1562:
1557:
1552:
1547:
1538:
1535:
1534:
1485:
1483:
1476:
1470:
1467:
1444:
1441:
1440:
1439:
1434:
1429:
1424:
1419:
1414:
1409:
1404:
1399:
1394:
1389:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1369:
1362:
1359:
1358:
1357:
1355:American Sable
1352:
1347:
1342:
1337:
1330:
1327:
1325:
1324:
1319:
1317:Turkish Angora
1314:
1309:
1304:
1299:
1294:
1289:
1284:
1279:
1274:
1269:
1264:
1259:
1254:
1249:
1241:
1236:
1231:
1226:
1221:
1216:
1211:
1206:
1201:
1196:
1191:
1186:
1181:
1175:
1169:
1168:
1119:
1117:
1110:
1104:
1101:
1099:
1098:
1096:Xoloitzcuintle
1093:
1088:
1083:
1078:
1073:
1071:Siberian Husky
1068:
1063:
1058:
1053:
1048:
1043:
1037:
1031:
1026:
1021:
1016:
1011:
1006:
1001:
996:
991:
986:
981:
976:
971:
966:
961:
956:
951:
946:
941:
936:
930:
925:
920:
915:
910:
905:
900:
895:
890:
885:
883:Bearded Collie
880:
875:
870:
865:
860:
855:
850:
845:
838:
832:
827:
821:
818:
817:
768:
766:
759:
753:
750:
733:
730:
729:
728:
723:
718:
713:
708:
701:
698:
697:
696:
691:
686:
681:
676:
671:
666:
657:
654:
653:
652:
649:
640:
637:
635:
634:
629:
624:
619:
614:
609:
604:
598:
586:
583:
581:
580:
575:
570:
565:
560:
555:
550:
545:
540:
535:
530:
525:
520:
515:
510:
505:
503:Japanese Chin
500:
498:French Bulldog
495:
490:
485:
480:
475:
473:Dogo Argentino
470:
465:
459:
454:
449:
444:
439:
434:
429:
427:Boston Terrier
424:
422:American Bully
419:
414:
408:
392:
389:
350:French Bulldog
341:
338:
333:
330:
326:twin pregnancy
312:
309:
303:
300:
284:Earnest Hooton
272:Giuseppe Sergi
267:
264:
250:
249:
244:
243:'short-headed'
241:
239:brachycephalic
236:
233:
229:
228:
219:
216:
214:mesaticephalic
211:
208:
204:
203:
201:
198:
193:
190:
186:
185:
182:
179:
176:
173:
155:
152:
145:: among them,
104:Anders Retzius
77:
74:
72:
69:
49:cephalic index
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3023:
3012:
3009:
3008:
3006:
2997:
2993:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2981:
2977:
2968:
2956:
2952:
2946:
2943:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2928:9780721632001
2924:
2920:
2913:
2910:
2905:
2899:
2896:
2891:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2850:
2848:
2844:
2832:
2828:
2822:
2819:
2807:
2803:
2797:
2794:
2782:
2778:
2771:
2768:
2765:
2764:
2757:
2754:
2751:
2750:
2746:Border Wars:
2743:
2740:
2737:
2736:
2731:
2730:Vanessa Barrs
2725:
2722:
2719:
2718:
2711:
2708:
2696:
2692:
2686:
2683:
2671:
2667:
2660:
2657:
2652:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2603:
2600:
2595:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2552:
2549:
2543:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2519:
2516:
2511:
2507:
2501:
2498:
2493:
2487:
2483:
2476:
2473:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2433:
2430:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2406:
2403:
2387:
2382:
2381:2027.42/65137
2377:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2354:
2347:
2345:
2341:
2336:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2284:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2233:
2230:
2225:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2174:
2172:
2168:
2160:
2153:
2152:
2144:
2141:
2134:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2111:
2107:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2041:Grevy's zebra
2039:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2008:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1979:
1975:
1973:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1931:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1876:
1874:
1871:
1870:
1862:
1859:
1851:
1848:December 2021
1841:
1837:
1833:
1827:
1826:
1822:
1817:This section
1815:
1811:
1806:
1805:
1799:
1797:
1792:
1789:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1781:Welsh Terrier
1779:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1771:Smooth Collie
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1751:Serbian Hound
1749:
1747:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1737:
1734:
1732:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1719:
1717:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1695:Pharaoh Hound
1693:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1676:
1673:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1646:
1643:
1641:
1638:
1636:
1635:Irish Terrier
1633:
1631:
1628:
1626:
1623:
1621:
1618:
1616:
1615:Galgo Español
1613:
1611:
1608:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1588:
1586:
1585:Cesky Terrier
1583:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1568:
1566:
1563:
1561:
1558:
1556:
1553:
1551:
1548:
1546:
1543:
1542:
1541:
1531:
1528:
1520:
1517:December 2021
1510:
1506:
1502:
1496:
1495:
1491:
1486:This section
1484:
1480:
1475:
1474:
1468:
1466:
1464:
1463:Gnathostomata
1459:
1454:
1449:
1442:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1430:
1428:
1427:Striped hyena
1425:
1423:
1422:Spotted hyena
1420:
1418:
1415:
1413:
1410:
1408:
1405:
1403:
1400:
1398:
1395:
1393:
1390:
1388:
1385:
1383:
1380:
1378:
1375:
1373:
1370:
1368:
1365:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1353:
1351:
1348:
1346:
1345:Polish rabbit
1343:
1341:
1338:
1336:
1333:
1332:
1328:
1323:
1320:
1318:
1315:
1313:
1310:
1308:
1305:
1303:
1300:
1298:
1295:
1293:
1290:
1288:
1285:
1283:
1280:
1278:
1275:
1273:
1270:
1268:
1265:
1263:
1260:
1258:
1255:
1253:
1250:
1247:
1246:
1242:
1240:
1239:Felid hybrids
1237:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1227:
1225:
1222:
1220:
1217:
1215:
1212:
1210:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1200:
1197:
1195:
1192:
1190:
1187:
1185:
1182:
1180:
1177:
1176:
1174:
1165:
1162:
1154:
1151:December 2021
1144:
1140:
1136:
1130:
1129:
1125:
1120:This section
1118:
1114:
1109:
1108:
1102:
1097:
1094:
1092:
1089:
1087:
1084:
1082:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1072:
1069:
1067:
1064:
1062:
1059:
1057:
1054:
1052:
1049:
1047:
1044:
1042:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1030:
1027:
1025:
1022:
1020:
1017:
1015:
1012:
1010:
1007:
1005:
1002:
1000:
997:
995:
992:
990:
987:
985:
982:
980:
979:Finnish Spitz
977:
975:
972:
970:
969:Field Spaniel
967:
965:
962:
960:
957:
955:
952:
950:
947:
945:
942:
940:
937:
935:
931:
929:
926:
924:
921:
919:
918:Border Collie
916:
914:
911:
909:
906:
904:
901:
899:
896:
894:
891:
889:
886:
884:
881:
879:
876:
874:
871:
869:
866:
864:
861:
859:
856:
854:
851:
849:
846:
843:
839:
837:
833:
831:
828:
826:
823:
822:
814:
811:
803:
800:December 2021
793:
789:
785:
779:
778:
774:
769:This section
767:
763:
758:
757:
751:
749:
743:
740:Mesocephalic
738:
731:
727:
724:
722:
719:
717:
714:
712:
709:
707:
704:
703:
699:
695:
692:
690:
687:
685:
682:
680:
677:
675:
672:
670:
667:
665:
662:
661:
660:
655:
650:
648:
645:
644:
643:
638:
633:
630:
628:
627:Scottish Fold
625:
623:
620:
618:
617:Himalayan cat
615:
613:
610:
608:
605:
603:
600:
599:
597:
591:
584:
579:
576:
574:
571:
569:
566:
564:
561:
559:
556:
554:
551:
549:
546:
544:
541:
539:
536:
534:
531:
529:
526:
524:
521:
519:
516:
514:
511:
509:
506:
504:
501:
499:
496:
494:
491:
489:
486:
484:
481:
479:
476:
474:
471:
469:
466:
464:
461:Apple-headed
460:
458:
455:
453:
450:
448:
445:
443:
440:
438:
435:
433:
430:
428:
425:
423:
420:
418:
415:
413:
412:Affenpinscher
410:
409:
407:
402:
397:
390:
388:
386:
381:
374:
369:
362:
358:
351:
346:
339:
337:
331:
329:
327:
323:
319:
310:
308:
301:
299:
295:
291:
287:
285:
280:
277:
273:
265:
263:
261:
257:
248:
247:brachycranial
245:
242:
240:
237:
234:
231:
230:
227:
223:
220:
217:
215:
212:
209:
206:
205:
202:
200:'long-headed'
199:
197:
194:
191:
188:
187:
183:
180:
177:
174:
171:
170:
167:
160:
153:
148:
144:
140:
135:
131:
123:
119:
117:
113:
109:
105:
102:
99:professor of
98:
93:
91:
82:
75:
70:
68:
66:
62:
58:
54:
53:cranial index
50:
41:
37:
33:
19:
2965:– via
2959:. Retrieved
2954:
2945:
2918:
2912:
2898:
2863:
2859:
2834:. Retrieved
2830:
2821:
2809:. Retrieved
2805:
2796:
2784:. Retrieved
2780:
2770:
2761:
2756:
2747:
2742:
2733:
2724:
2715:
2710:
2698:. Retrieved
2694:
2685:
2673:. Retrieved
2669:
2659:
2616:
2612:
2602:
2565:
2561:
2551:
2532:
2528:
2518:
2509:
2500:
2481:
2475:
2442:
2438:
2432:
2415:
2411:
2405:
2393:. Retrieved
2386:the original
2363:
2359:
2298:
2294:
2246:
2242:
2232:
2187:
2183:
2159:the original
2150:
2143:
2071:Plains zebra
1992:Belgian Hare
1982:English Spot
1972:
1957:Snow leopard
1929:
1915:and Tricolor
1854:
1845:
1830:Please help
1818:
1796:
1716:Rough Collie
1580:Bull terrier
1560:Basset Hound
1545:Afghan Hound
1539:
1523:
1514:
1499:Please help
1487:
1460:
1457:
1402:Leopard seal
1335:Dutch rabbit
1302:Siberian cat
1287:Russian Blue
1277:Pallas's cat
1262:Munchkin cat
1243:
1234:Egyptian Mau
1172:
1157:
1148:
1133:Please help
1121:
1009:Irish Setter
999:German Spitz
908:Bichon Frisé
806:
797:
782:Please help
770:
746:
659:
647:Middle White
642:
596:
528:Newfoundland
406:
377:
335:
314:
305:
296:
292:
288:
281:
269:
253:
246:
238:
225:
222:mesocephalic
221:
213:
195:
165:
128:
94:
87:
52:
48:
46:
36:
2700:17 February
2670:Radiopaedia
2535:(3): 6–11.
2129:Human skull
2119:Craniometry
1987:English Lop
1665:Khalag Tazi
1610:Fox Terrier
1387:Brown hyena
1322:Turkish Van
1297:Selkirk Rex
1209:Burmese cat
1076:St. Bernard
840:almost all
834:almost all
706:Giant panda
632:White tiger
622:Persian cat
607:Burmese cat
447:Bullmastiff
266:Controversy
226:mesocranial
2568:: 502836.
2135:References
2124:Phrenology
2101:Wildebeest
2076:Polar bear
2046:Hartebeest
1702:(Standard)
1625:Great Dane
1570:Bloodhound
1417:Sloth bear
1397:Guinea pig
1382:Brown bear
1252:Maine Coon
1229:Cymric cat
1204:Bombay cat
1194:Bengal cat
1179:Abyssinian
1086:Weimaraner
1061:Rottweiler
1029:Pomeranian
934:Chihuahuas
669:Lop rabbit
513:Lhasa Apso
452:Cane Corso
276:Franz Boas
2961:2 January
2937:827702042
2633:2234-0645
2096:Wild boar
2081:Thylacine
2016:Crocodile
1996:All true
1937:Peterbald
1878:Devon Rex
1819:does not
1731:Schnauzer
1630:Greyhound
1595:Dachshund
1488:does not
1372:Alligator
1214:Chartreux
1122:does not
954:Dalmatian
888:Beauceron
771:does not
711:Ross seal
538:Pekingese
468:Chow Chow
463:Chihuahua
235:> 81.1
192:< 75.9
3005:Category
2992:Archived
2890:34409262
2836:13 March
2811:13 March
2760:FECAVA:
2651:33985316
2594:24688395
2467:12686512
2459:20737620
2395:23 March
2335:12419854
2283:12374854
2224:12419854
2108:See also
2056:Kangaroo
2011:Bontebok
1947:Savannah
1930:Panthera
1893:Javanese
1873:Balinese
1670:Long dog
1432:Sun bear
1412:Sea lion
1392:Fur seal
1367:Aardwolf
1340:Mini Rex
1041:terriers
1014:Komondor
836:spaniels
651:Neijiang
568:Shih Tzu
563:Shar-Pei
548:Pit bull
311:Medicine
260:glabella
210:76 to 81
207:75 to 83
61:organism
2881:8366567
2675:6 April
2642:8137378
2585:3933399
2303:Bibcode
2251:Bibcode
2192:Bibcode
2086:Warthog
2036:Gharial
1952:Siamese
1898:Leopard
1883:Donskoy
1840:removed
1825:sources
1786:Whippet
1766:Sloughi
1711:Red fox
1675:Lurcher
1555:Azawakh
1509:removed
1494:sources
1407:Raccoon
1282:Ragdoll
1219:Chausie
1143:removed
1128:sources
1066:Samoyed
944:Chinook
873:Basenji
792:removed
777:sources
518:Lowchen
442:Bulldog
232:> 83
189:< 75
181:Meaning
172:Females
154:Indices
147:Tatiana
143:measles
101:anatomy
97:Swedish
90:fetuses
2957:. 2012
2935:
2925:
2888:
2878:
2649:
2639:
2631:
2592:
2582:
2488:
2465:
2457:
2333:
2326:137467
2323:
2281:
2274:137471
2271:
2222:
2215:137467
2212:
2066:Onager
2031:Donkey
1962:Sphynx
1932:hybrid
1908:Ocelot
1888:Jaguar
1776:Taigan
1726:Saluki
1700:Poodle
1590:Coyote
1575:Borzoi
1453:Borzoi
1312:Toyger
1307:Somali
1272:Ocicat
1199:Birman
1081:Vizsla
1034:Poodle
878:Beagle
726:Wombat
721:Walrus
2786:6 May
2463:S2CID
2389:(PDF)
2356:(PDF)
2162:(PDF)
2155:(PDF)
2091:Whale
2051:Hyrax
2004:Other
1998:hares
1967:Tiger
1655:Kanni
1605:Dingo
1361:Other
1245:Felis
1039:most
959:Dhole
842:spitz
700:Other
432:Boxer
401:Boxer
373:Boxer
175:Males
2963:2019
2933:OCLC
2923:ISBN
2886:PMID
2838:2023
2813:2023
2788:2023
2702:2020
2677:2023
2647:PMID
2629:ISSN
2590:PMID
2566:2014
2486:ISBN
2455:PMID
2397:2018
2331:PMID
2279:PMID
2220:PMID
2061:Mule
1903:Lion
1823:any
1821:cite
1791:Wolf
1492:any
1490:cite
1257:Manx
1126:any
1124:cite
1056:Puli
1046:Mudi
775:any
773:cite
578:Tosa
47:The
2876:PMC
2868:doi
2637:PMC
2621:doi
2580:PMC
2570:doi
2537:doi
2447:doi
2420:doi
2416:105
2376:hdl
2368:doi
2364:105
2321:PMC
2311:doi
2269:PMC
2259:doi
2210:PMC
2200:doi
2021:Cow
1834:by
1503:by
1137:by
786:by
553:Pug
387:.
380:pug
328:).
51:or
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