742:. Thus, an argument that viruses should be classed as living organisms is their ability to undergo evolution and replicate through self-assembly. However, some scientists argue that viruses neither evolve nor self-reproduce. Instead, viruses are evolved by their host cells, meaning that there was co-evolution of viruses and host cells. If host cells did not exist, viral evolution would be impossible. As for reproduction, viruses rely on hosts' machinery to replicate. The discovery of viruses with genes coding for energy metabolism and protein synthesis fuelled the debate about whether viruses are living organisms, but the genes have a cellular origin. Most likely, they were acquired through
274:
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145:
1114:, and the ability to acquire resources necessary for reproduction, and sequences with such functions probably emerged early in the evolution of life. It is also likely that survival sequences present early in the evolution of organisms included sequences that facilitate the avoidance of damage to the self-replicating molecule and promote the capability to
887:
1039:
86:
state that "organismality", the qualities or attributes that define an entity as an organism, has evolved socially as groups of simpler units (from cells upwards) came to cooperate without conflicts. They propose that cooperation should be used as the "defining trait" of an organism. This would treat
678:
Samuel Díaz‐Muñoz and colleagues (2016) accept
Queller and Strassmann's view that organismality can be measured wholly by degrees of cooperation and of conflict. They state that this situates organisms in evolutionary time, so that organismality is context dependent. They suggest that highly
264:
Another view is that attributes like autonomy, genetic homogeneity and genetic uniqueness should be examined separately rather than demanding that an organism should have all of them; if so, there are multiple dimensions to biological individuality, resulting in several types of organism.
1080:
directs an elaborated series of interactions to produce successively more elaborate structures. The existence of chimaeras and hybrids demonstrates that these mechanisms are "intelligently" robust in the face of radically altered circumstances at all levels from molecular to organismal.
31:. Such a definition raises more problems than it solves, not least because the concept of an individual is also difficult. Many criteria, few of them widely accepted, have been proposed to define what an organism is. Among the most common is that an organism has autonomous
1101:
All organisms that exist today possess a self-replicating informational molecule (genome), and such an informational molecule is likely intrinsic to life. Thus, the earliest organisms also presumably possessed a self-replicating informational molecule
126:, meaning instrument, implement, tool, organ of sense or apprehension) first appeared in the English language in the 1660s with the now-obsolete meaning of an organic structure or organization. It is related to the verb "organize". In his 1790
1088:
or goal-seeking behaviour that enables them to correct errors of many kinds so as to achieve whatever result they are designed for. Such behaviour is reminiscent of intelligent action by organisms; intelligence is seen as an embodied form of
733:
and molecules like those in living organisms, they have no metabolism of their own; they cannot synthesize the organic compounds from which they are formed. In this sense, they are similar to inanimate matter. Viruses have their own
225:
Other scientists think that the concept of the organism is inadequate in biology; that the concept of individuality is problematic; and from a philosophical point of view, question whether such a definition is necessary.
424:
state that "organismality" has evolved socially, as groups of simpler units (from cells upwards) came to cooperate without conflicts. They propose that cooperation should be used as the "defining trait" of an organism.
869:
of an organism, but as a virocell - an ontologically mature viral organism that has cellular structure. Such virus is a result of infection of a cell and shows all major physiological properties of other organisms:
186:
stated this as "the quality of being sufficiently heterogeneous in form to be rendered non-functional if cut in half". However, many organisms can be cut into pieces which then grow into whole organisms.
2960:
1118:
that do occur. Repair of some of the genome damages in these early organisms may have involved the capacity to use undamaged information from another similar genome by a process of
2953:
2853:
1782:
413:; together, they are able to flourish as a kind of organism, the components having different functions, in habitats such as dry rocks where neither could grow alone.
2946:
1248:
Huneman, Philippe (2017). "Kant's
Concept of Organism Revisited: A Framework for a Possible Synthesis between Developmentalism and Adaptationism?".
865:
There is an argument for viewing viruses as cellular organisms. Some researchers perceive viruses not as virions alone, which they believe are just
116:
543:
Free-living unicellular amoebae for most of lifetime; swarm and aggregate to a multicellular slug, cells specialising to form a dead stalk and
2846:
2040:
2004:
1151:
903:
The philosopher Jack A. Wilson examines some boundary cases to demonstrate that the concept of organism is not sharply defined. In his view,
273:
1721:
1073:
477:
No metabolism, so not living, not an organism, say many biologists; but they evolve, their genes collaborating to manipulate the host
1949:"Species in lichen-forming fungi: balancing between conceptual and practical considerations, and between phenotype and phylogenomics"
1069:
containing both electronic and biological elements, and other combinations of systems that have variously evolved and been designed.
670:
679:
integrated life forms, which are not context dependent, may evolve through context-dependent stages towards complete unification.
2839:
2428:
3614:
3209:
3750:
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1739:
Folse, H.J., III; Roughgarden, J. (December 2010). "What is an individual organism? A multilevel selection perspective".
3398:
1183:
3318:
3074:
2519:
2513:
1209:
1084:
Synthetic organisms already take diverse forms, and their diversity will increase. What they all have in common is a
1545:"Shannon's information, Bernal's biopoiesis and Bernoulli distribution as pillars for building a definition of life"
2343:
Bernstein H, Byerly HC, Hopf FA, Michod RE (September 1985). "Genetic damage, mutation, and the evolution of sex".
1178:
241:
specialisation. If so, the same argument, or a criterion of high co-operation and low conflict, would include some
429:
Queller and
Strassmann's view of organisms as cooperating entities at differing levels of biological organisation
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238:
60:
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Díaz-Muñoz, Samuel L.; Boddy, Amy M.; Dantas, Gautam; Waters, Christopher M.; Bronstein, Judith L. (2016).
931:, all lie in the boundary zone between being definite colonies and definite organisms (or superorganisms).
3721:
3037:
551:
337:
2220:"Endless forms most beautiful 2.0: teleonomy and the bioengineering of chimaeric and synthetic organisms"
3481:
3454:
1776:
1119:
2259:
Neveu, M.; Kim, H.J.; Benner, S.A. (April 2013). "The "strong" RNA world hypothesis: fifty years old".
1334:
Moreira, D.; López-García, P.N. (April 2009). "Ten reasons to exclude viruses from the tree of life".
3425:
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128:
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sequences in all currently extant organisms contain information that functions to promote survival,
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1123:
814:
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386:
242:
1392:
Wilson, Jack A. (2000). "Ontological butchery: organism concepts and biological generalizations".
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52:
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935:
Jack A. Wilson's analysis of the similar organism-like nature of siphonophores and jellyfish
148:
One criterion proposes that an organism cannot be divided without losing functionality. This
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63:, with some insects reproducing, others not, like cells in an animal's body. The body of a
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is a being which functions as an individual but is composed of communicating individuals.
250:
221:
can be used to identify organisms as capable of self-maintaining their information content
199:
183:
153:
56:
2183:
1817:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
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are not typically considered to be organisms, because they are incapable of autonomous
513:
495:
326:
214:
2938:
1922:
1676:
Pepper, J.W.; Herron, M.D. (November 2008). "Does biology need an organism concept?".
1452:
192:– the entity has simultaneous holdings of genetic uniqueness, genetic homogeneity and
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698:
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3519:
3486:
3258:
3244:
3142:
2728:
2714:
2170:
Bandea, Claudiu I. (1983). "A new theory on the origin and the nature of viruses".
2058:"Contextual organismality: Beyond pattern to process in the emergence of organisms"
1895:
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875:
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714:
633:
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364:
169:
64:
32:
2027:
Out of control: the new biology of machines, social systems and the economic world
1106:), perhaps RNA or an informational molecule more primitive than RNA. The specific
182:
noncompartmentability – structure cannot be divided without losing functionality.
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2219:
2213:
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100:
40:
28:
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1974:
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An evolved organism takes its form by the partially understood mechanisms of
75:, the parts collaborating to provide the functions of the colonial organism.
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378:, consisting of many individuals working together as a single functional or
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72:
71:, but the whole structure looks and functions much like an animal such as a
48:
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1038:
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843:
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is not a cell; it contains only its genetic material, and a protein coat.
556:
544:
193:
2382:
1909:
Santelices, B. (April 1999). "How many kinds of individual are there?".
1347:
1269:
886:
301:
are mutually interdependent, like cells within a multicellular organism.
136:
defined an organism as "both an organized and a self-organizing being".
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3544:
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2784:
2772:
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1303:
1049:
Scientists and bio-engineers are experimenting with different types of
607:
521:
469:
390:
322:
314:
298:
206:
2073:
1598:
Bateson, Patrick (February 2005). "The return of the whole organism".
1413:
164:
Among the criteria that have been proposed for being an organism are:
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3350:
3115:
3006:
3001:
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2406:
1103:
1077:
1066:
1058:
1043:
988:
908:
904:
730:
615:
601:
588:
562:
Cells, grouped into organs for specific functions (e.g. reproduction)
535:
503:
398:
394:
349:
341:
278:
121:
96:
88:
2831:
1146:(10th ed.). St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier. 2017. p. 1281.
1752:
1474:
Pradeu, T. (2010). "What is an organism? An immunological answer".
1405:
3239:
3231:
3049:
3011:
2878:
2797:
2755:
2748:
2743:
2580:
2534:
2496:
2454:
1947:
Lücking, Robert; Leavitt, Steven D.; Hawksworth, David L. (2021).
1942:
1940:
1862:"Capturing the superorganism: a formal theory of group adaptation"
1037:
1018:
885:
866:
764:
710:
697:
693:
638:
619:
455:
402:
345:
286:
282:
272:
149:
143:
92:
68:
44:
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is however developing new adventitious roots from a small bit of
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3437:
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2675:
2610:
2605:
2595:
2590:
2459:
735:
353:
24:
2942:
2835:
2410:
2394:
1999:(6th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 461.
1641:
Clarke, E. (2010). "The problem of biological individuality".
1144:
Mosby's
Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing and Health Professions
924:
826:
820:
657:
375:
209:", the ability to maintain order, a concept first proposed by
1167:
293:(green) interspersed within the structure, and a bacterial
67:, a jelly-like marine animal, is composed of organism-like
1719:
Wilson, R. (2007). "The biological notion of individual".
1806:
1804:
1802:
1800:
1798:
1796:
1794:
1792:
1734:
1732:
1678:
Biological
Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society
1811:
Queller, David C.; Strassmann, Joan E. (November 2009).
269:
Organisms at differing levels of biological organisation
669:
Organism specialisation (many ants do not reproduce);
2218:
Clawson, Wesley P.; Levin, Michael (1 January 2023).
2115:"The virocell concept and environmental microbiology"
393:
which each provide some of the needs of the other. A
237:
fulfills criteria such as adaptive organisation and
3677:
3605:
3518:
3386:
3268:
3257:
3230:
3202:
3152:
3141:
3114:
3103:
3048:
2977:
2674:
2631:
2553:
2495:
2445:
647:Organism specialisation; inter-organism signalling
2024:
329:, which may contain functional structures called
1813:"Beyond society: the evolution of organismality"
618:provides structure, absorbs water and minerals;
51:like organisms. Other problematic cases include
1329:
1327:
1325:
1323:
1321:
356:is composed of many cells, often specialised.
2954:
2847:
2422:
2018:
2016:
1538:
1536:
1387:
1385:
1383:
1381:
1379:
1377:
1375:
1373:
878:, therefore, life in its effective presence.
750:Comparison of cellular organisms and viruses
581:Male and female permanently fastened together
245:(e.g. lichens) and sexual partnerships (e.g.
8:
1990:
1988:
1986:
1984:
1781:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1281:
1279:
1057:composed of cells from two or more species,
99:, or the permanent sexual partnership of an
1476:History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences
1288:"A relational theory of biological systems"
1200:
1198:
1196:
87:many types of collaboration, including the
3265:
3149:
3111:
2961:
2947:
2939:
2854:
2840:
2832:
2680:
2429:
2415:
2407:
1503:"Biological Organization and Anti-entropy"
253:occurs, then a group could be viewed as a
23:is defined in a medical dictionary as any
2319:
2235:
2224:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
2146:
2089:
1964:
1877:
1836:
1501:Bailly, Francis; Longo, Giuseppe (2009).
1437:"How many kinds of individual are there?"
933:
859:: high mutation rate, natural selection
748:
427:
1292:The Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics
1135:
1860:Gardner, A.; Grafen, A. (April 2009).
1774:
998:Tentacles trap prey, pass it to mouth
591:; female provides all other functions
95:partnership of different species in a
899:that functions as a single individual
140:Whether criteria exist, or are needed
7:
2403:aims to enumerate all known species.
2395:"Indexing the world's known species"
2113:Forterre, Patrick (4 October 2012).
281:consists of a body formed mainly by
2031:. Boston: Addison-Wesley. pp.
1722:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
568:Cell specialisation, communication
1435:Santelices, Bernabé (April 1999).
1074:evolutionary developmental biology
512:Inter-cellular (inter-organismal)
14:
1911:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
1441:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
59:is organised adaptively, and has
2816:
2815:
1879:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2008.01681.x
1690:10.1111/j.1469-185X.2008.00057.x
1543:Piast, Radosław W. (June 2019).
1286:Rosen, Robert (September 1958).
389:is a partnership of two or more
1866:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
1741:The Quarterly Review of Biology
808:No, rely entirely on host cell
779:No, rely entirely on host cell
3615:Last universal common ancestor
3210:Defective interfering particle
2300:Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol
2172:Journal of Theoretical Biology
1549:Journal of Theoretical Biology
995:ingest prey, feed other zooids
729:. Although viruses have a few
202:, separating self from foreign
111:The term "organism" (from the
1:
3751:Clonally transmissible cancer
3187:Satellite-like nucleic acids
1923:10.1016/s0169-5347(98)01519-5
1507:Journal of Biological Systems
1453:10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01519-5
1009:Single functional individual
47:, despite the fact that they
2192:10.1016/0022-5193(83)90221-7
1336:Nature Reviews. Microbiology
1097:Early evolution of organisms
1006:Single functional individual
980:Body pulsates to pump water
573:Permanent sexual partnership
416:The evolutionary biologists
233:: for instance, a colony of
78:The evolutionary biologists
2312:10.1101/cshperspect.a006742
2296:"The RNA worlds in context"
1210:Online Etymology Dictionary
663:Individuals living together
213:; or in another form, that
27:thing that functions as an
16:Individual living life form
3797:
3307:Class II or DNA transposon
3302:Class I or retrotransposon
2237:10.1093/biolinnean/blac116
1966:10.1007/s13225-021-00477-7
1569:10.1016/j.jtbi.2019.03.009
1168:
923:colonies such as those of
691:
229:Problematic cases include
115:
3620:Earliest known life forms
3494:Repeated sequences in DNA
2869:
2811:
2724:
2683:
1519:10.1142/S0218339009002715
977:co-ordinate to pump water
671:inter-organism signalling
3467:Endogenous viral element
3285:Horizontal gene transfer
2387:Tree of Life Web Project
2294:Cech, T.R. (July 2012).
744:horizontal gene transfer
374:is a colony, such as of
61:germ-soma specialisation
3164:dsDNA satellite virus (
2357:10.1126/science.3898363
1997:A Dictionary of Biology
1184:A Greek–English Lexicon
606:Organisms of different
325:, composed of a single
3722:Helper dependent virus
3038:Biological dark matter
2131:10.1038/ismej.2012.110
1829:10.1098/rstb.2009.0095
1600:Journal of Biosciences
1046:
1021:, possibly individuals
900:
882:Organism-like colonies
707:
552:Multicellular organism
531:(cellular slime mould)
506:for specific functions
338:multicellular organism
302:
161:
160:, forming a new plant.
3482:Endogenous retrovirus
3455:Origin of replication
3171:ssDNA satellite virus
3161:ssRNA satellite virus
2273:10.1089/ast.2012.0868
2023:Kelly, Kevin (1994).
1394:Philosophy of Science
1262:10.1093/monist/onx016
1175:Liddell, Henry George
1122:(a primitive form of
1041:
889:
701:
276:
257:, optimized by group
147:
43:. This would exclude
3426:Secondary chromosome
3421:Extrachromosomal DNA
3297:Transposable element
2919:Biomolecular complex
2696:Evolutionary history
1655:10.1162/BIOT_a_00068
1235:Critique of Judgment
1003:Functional structure
704:tobacco mosaic virus
483:Unicellular organism
461:Tobacco mosaic virus
307:unicellular organism
129:Critique of Judgment
3662:Model lipid bilayer
3504:Interspersed repeat
2633:Natural environment
2184:1983JThBi.105..591B
1995:Hine, R.S. (2008).
1823:(1533): 3143–3155.
1561:2019JThBi.470..101P
1348:10.1038/nrmicro2108
1116:repair such damages
1034:Synthetic organisms
936:
815:genetic information
751:
587:Male provides male
430:
409:, with a bacterial
285:, with unicellular
249:) as organisms. If
2972:organic structures
2383:"The Tree of Life"
1612:10.1007/BF02705148
1304:10.1007/BF02478302
1124:sexual interaction
1051:synthetic organism
1047:
934:
901:
749:
746:from viral hosts.
708:
428:
303:
231:colonial organisms
219:information theory
162:
103:, as an organism.
53:colonial organisms
3766:
3765:
3707:Non-cellular life
3514:
3513:
3253:
3252:
3226:
3225:
3180:ssRNA satellite (
2936:
2935:
2863:Hierarchy of life
2829:
2828:
2807:
2806:
2480:chemical elements
2351:(4719): 1277–81.
2074:10.1111/evo.13078
2068:(12): 2669–2677.
2042:978-0-201-48340-6
2006:978-0-19-920462-5
1643:Biological Theory
1153:978-0-3232-2205-1
1063:electromechanical
1031:
1030:
863:
862:
852:natural selection
676:
675:
622:photosynthesises
361:colonial organism
211:Erwin Schrödinger
3786:
3443:Gene duplication
3266:
3262:self-replication
3150:
3112:
2970:Self-replicating
2963:
2956:
2949:
2940:
2929:
2856:
2849:
2842:
2833:
2819:
2818:
2691:
2681:
2621:tropical cyclone
2571:
2431:
2424:
2417:
2408:
2402:
2390:
2369:
2368:
2340:
2334:
2333:
2323:
2291:
2285:
2284:
2256:
2250:
2249:
2239:
2215:
2204:
2203:
2167:
2161:
2160:
2150:
2119:The ISME Journal
2110:
2104:
2103:
2093:
2053:
2047:
2046:
2030:
2020:
2011:
2010:
1992:
1979:
1978:
1968:
1953:Fungal Diversity
1944:
1935:
1934:
1906:
1900:
1899:
1881:
1857:
1851:
1850:
1840:
1808:
1787:
1786:
1780:
1772:
1736:
1727:
1726:
1716:
1710:
1709:
1673:
1667:
1666:
1638:
1632:
1631:
1595:
1589:
1588:
1540:
1531:
1530:
1498:
1492:
1491:
1482:(2–3): 247–267.
1471:
1465:
1464:
1432:
1426:
1425:
1389:
1368:
1367:
1331:
1316:
1315:
1283:
1274:
1273:
1245:
1239:
1227:
1221:
1220:
1218:
1216:
1202:
1191:
1171:
1170:
1164:
1158:
1157:
1140:
937:
817:about themselves
752:
702:A virus such as
431:
235:eusocial insects
125:
119:
57:eusocial insects
3796:
3795:
3789:
3788:
3787:
3785:
3784:
3783:
3769:
3768:
3767:
3762:
3712:Synthetic virus
3700:Artificial cell
3673:
3601:
3510:
3399:RNA replication
3394:DNA replication
3382:
3373:Group II intron
3271:
3261:
3249:
3240:Mammalian prion
3222:
3198:
3177:dsRNA satellite
3174:ssDNA satellite
3144:
3137:
3106:
3099:
3044:
2973:
2967:
2937:
2932:
2873:
2865:
2860:
2830:
2825:
2803:
2720:
2689:
2670:
2627:
2569:
2549:
2540:Gaia hypothesis
2530:Plate tectonics
2491:
2441:
2435:
2393:
2381:
2378:
2373:
2372:
2342:
2341:
2337:
2293:
2292:
2288:
2258:
2257:
2253:
2217:
2216:
2207:
2169:
2168:
2164:
2112:
2111:
2107:
2055:
2054:
2050:
2043:
2022:
2021:
2014:
2007:
1994:
1993:
1982:
1946:
1945:
1938:
1908:
1907:
1903:
1859:
1858:
1854:
1810:
1809:
1790:
1773:
1738:
1737:
1730:
1718:
1717:
1713:
1675:
1674:
1670:
1640:
1639:
1635:
1597:
1596:
1592:
1542:
1541:
1534:
1500:
1499:
1495:
1473:
1472:
1468:
1434:
1433:
1429:
1391:
1390:
1371:
1333:
1332:
1319:
1285:
1284:
1277:
1247:
1246:
1242:
1228:
1224:
1214:
1212:
1206:"organism (n.)"
1204:
1203:
1194:
1189:Perseus Project
1165:
1161:
1154:
1142:
1141:
1137:
1132:
1099:
1076:, in which the
1036:
884:
696:
690:
685:
641:joined together
559:-forming fungus
545:a fruiting body
446:
444:
422:Joan Strassmann
271:
251:group selection
200:immune response
184:Richard Dawkins
142:
120:, derived from
109:
84:Joan Strassmann
17:
12:
11:
5:
3794:
3793:
3790:
3782:
3781:
3771:
3770:
3764:
3763:
3761:
3760:
3755:
3754:
3753:
3748:
3738:
3732:
3726:
3725:
3724:
3719:
3709:
3704:
3703:
3702:
3697:
3687:
3681:
3679:
3675:
3674:
3672:
3671:
3670:
3669:
3664:
3656:
3651:
3646:
3641:
3635:
3634:
3633:
3622:
3617:
3611:
3609:
3603:
3602:
3600:
3599:
3594:
3593:
3592:
3587:
3579:
3577:Kappa organism
3574:
3573:
3572:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3552:
3542:
3541:
3540:
3535:
3524:
3522:
3516:
3515:
3512:
3511:
3509:
3508:
3507:
3506:
3501:
3491:
3490:
3489:
3484:
3479:
3474:
3464:
3463:
3462:
3452:
3451:
3450:
3448:Non-coding DNA
3445:
3440:
3430:
3429:
3428:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3403:
3402:
3401:
3390:
3388:
3384:
3383:
3381:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3368:Group I intron
3365:
3360:
3359:
3358:
3348:
3347:
3346:
3343:
3334:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3311:
3310:
3309:
3304:
3294:
3293:
3292:
3290:Genomic island
3287:
3276:
3274:
3270:Mobile genetic
3263:
3255:
3254:
3251:
3250:
3248:
3247:
3242:
3236:
3234:
3228:
3227:
3224:
3223:
3221:
3220:
3219:
3218:
3215:
3206:
3204:
3200:
3199:
3197:
3196:
3195:
3194:
3191:
3185:
3178:
3175:
3172:
3169:
3162:
3158:
3156:
3147:
3139:
3138:
3136:
3135:
3128:
3120:
3118:
3109:
3101:
3100:
3098:
3097:
3095:dsDNA-RT virus
3092:
3090:ssRNA-RT virus
3087:
3085:(−)ssRNA virus
3082:
3080:(+)ssRNA virus
3077:
3072:
3067:
3066:
3065:
3054:
3052:
3046:
3045:
3043:
3042:
3041:
3040:
3035:
3025:Incertae sedis
3021:
3020:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2994:
2989:
2983:
2981:
2975:
2974:
2968:
2966:
2965:
2958:
2951:
2943:
2934:
2933:
2931:
2930:
2870:
2867:
2866:
2861:
2859:
2858:
2851:
2844:
2836:
2827:
2826:
2824:
2823:
2812:
2809:
2808:
2805:
2804:
2802:
2801:
2794:
2793:
2792:
2787:
2777:
2776:
2775:
2770:
2765:
2764:
2763:
2753:
2752:
2751:
2736:
2731:
2725:
2722:
2721:
2719:
2718:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2684:
2678:
2672:
2671:
2669:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2637:
2635:
2629:
2628:
2626:
2625:
2624:
2623:
2618:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2565:
2559:
2557:
2551:
2550:
2548:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2522:
2517:
2507:
2501:
2499:
2493:
2492:
2490:
2489:
2484:
2483:
2482:
2477:
2467:
2462:
2457:
2451:
2449:
2443:
2442:
2436:
2434:
2433:
2426:
2419:
2411:
2405:
2404:
2391:
2377:
2376:External links
2374:
2371:
2370:
2335:
2306:(7): a006742.
2286:
2267:(4): 391–403.
2251:
2205:
2178:(4): 591–602.
2162:
2125:(2): 233–236.
2105:
2048:
2041:
2012:
2005:
1980:
1936:
1917:(4): 152–155.
1901:
1872:(4): 659–671.
1852:
1788:
1753:10.1086/656905
1747:(4): 447–472.
1728:
1711:
1684:(4): 621–627.
1668:
1649:(4): 312–325.
1633:
1590:
1532:
1493:
1466:
1447:(4): 152–155.
1427:
1406:10.1086/392827
1369:
1342:(4): 306–311.
1317:
1298:(3): 245–260.
1275:
1256:(3): 373–390.
1240:
1230:Kant, Immanuel
1222:
1192:
1159:
1152:
1134:
1133:
1131:
1128:
1098:
1095:
1035:
1032:
1029:
1028:
1022:
1015:
1011:
1010:
1007:
1004:
1000:
999:
996:
986:
982:
981:
978:
972:
968:
967:
964:
957:
953:
952:
947:
941:
929:naked molerats
883:
880:
874:, growth, and
861:
860:
854:
837:
830:
829:
823:
818:
810:
809:
806:
803:
797:
796:
790:
787:
781:
780:
777:
774:
768:
767:
762:
756:
692:Main article:
689:
686:
684:
683:Boundary cases
681:
674:
673:
667:
664:
661:
655:
649:
648:
645:
642:
636:
631:
624:
623:
613:
610:
604:
599:
593:
592:
585:
582:
579:
574:
570:
569:
566:
563:
560:
554:
548:
547:
541:
538:
532:
524:
517:
516:
510:
507:
492:
485:
479:
478:
475:
472:
463:
458:
452:
451:
448:
441:
438:
435:
270:
267:
223:
222:
215:Claude Shannon
203:
196:
187:
180:
141:
138:
108:
105:
55:; a colony of
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3792:
3791:
3780:
3777:
3776:
3774:
3759:
3756:
3752:
3749:
3747:
3744:
3743:
3742:
3739:
3737:
3733:
3731:
3730:Nanobacterium
3727:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3714:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3705:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3695:Cell division
3693:
3692:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3682:
3680:
3676:
3668:
3665:
3663:
3660:
3659:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3629:
3628:
3627:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3616:
3613:
3612:
3610:
3608:
3604:
3598:
3595:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3582:
3580:
3578:
3575:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3547:
3546:
3543:
3539:
3538:Hydrogenosome
3536:
3534:
3531:
3530:
3529:
3528:Mitochondrion
3526:
3525:
3523:
3521:
3520:Endosymbiosis
3517:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3499:Tandem repeat
3497:
3496:
3495:
3492:
3488:
3485:
3483:
3480:
3478:
3475:
3473:
3470:
3469:
3468:
3465:
3461:
3458:
3457:
3456:
3453:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3435:
3434:
3431:
3427:
3424:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3408:
3407:
3404:
3400:
3397:
3396:
3395:
3392:
3391:
3389:
3387:Other aspects
3385:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3357:
3354:
3353:
3352:
3349:
3344:
3342:
3338:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3320:
3317:
3316:
3315:
3312:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3299:
3298:
3295:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3282:
3281:
3278:
3277:
3275:
3273:
3267:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3237:
3235:
3233:
3229:
3216:
3213:
3212:
3211:
3208:
3207:
3205:
3201:
3192:
3189:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3179:
3176:
3173:
3170:
3167:
3163:
3160:
3159:
3157:
3155:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3140:
3134:
3133:
3132:Avsunviroidae
3129:
3127:
3126:
3125:Pospiviroidae
3122:
3121:
3119:
3117:
3113:
3110:
3108:
3102:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3064:
3061:
3060:
3059:
3056:
3055:
3053:
3051:
3047:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3033:
3029:
3028:
3027:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2999:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2984:
2982:
2980:
2979:Cellular life
2976:
2971:
2964:
2959:
2957:
2952:
2950:
2945:
2944:
2941:
2928:
2924:
2923:Macromolecule
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2871:
2868:
2864:
2857:
2852:
2850:
2845:
2843:
2838:
2837:
2834:
2822:
2814:
2813:
2810:
2800:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2783:
2782:
2781:
2778:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2762:
2759:
2758:
2757:
2754:
2750:
2747:
2746:
2745:
2742:
2741:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2726:
2723:
2716:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2690:(abiogenesis)
2686:
2685:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2673:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2638:
2636:
2634:
2630:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2613:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2560:
2558:
2556:
2552:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2515:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2505:Earth science
2503:
2502:
2500:
2498:
2494:
2488:
2485:
2481:
2478:
2476:
2473:
2472:
2471:
2468:
2466:
2463:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2452:
2450:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2432:
2427:
2425:
2420:
2418:
2413:
2412:
2409:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2379:
2375:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2339:
2336:
2331:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2290:
2287:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2255:
2252:
2247:
2243:
2238:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2214:
2212:
2210:
2206:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2166:
2163:
2158:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2109:
2106:
2101:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2052:
2049:
2044:
2038:
2034:
2029:
2028:
2019:
2017:
2013:
2008:
2002:
1998:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1985:
1981:
1976:
1972:
1967:
1962:
1959:(1): 99–154.
1958:
1954:
1950:
1943:
1941:
1937:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1905:
1902:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1856:
1853:
1848:
1844:
1839:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1807:
1805:
1803:
1801:
1799:
1797:
1795:
1793:
1789:
1784:
1778:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1735:
1733:
1729:
1724:
1723:
1715:
1712:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1672:
1669:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1637:
1634:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1594:
1591:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1539:
1537:
1533:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1497:
1494:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1470:
1467:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1431:
1428:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1388:
1386:
1384:
1382:
1380:
1378:
1376:
1374:
1370:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1330:
1328:
1326:
1324:
1322:
1318:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1282:
1280:
1276:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1244:
1241:
1238:: §65, 5:374.
1237:
1236:
1231:
1226:
1223:
1211:
1207:
1201:
1199:
1197:
1193:
1190:
1186:
1185:
1180:
1179:Scott, Robert
1176:
1172:
1163:
1160:
1155:
1149:
1145:
1139:
1136:
1129:
1127:
1125:
1121:
1120:recombination
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1096:
1094:
1092:
1087:
1082:
1079:
1075:
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1023:
1020:
1016:
1013:
1012:
1008:
1005:
1002:
1001:
997:
994:
990:
987:
984:
983:
979:
976:
973:
970:
969:
965:
963:is gas-filled
962:
958:
955:
954:
951:
948:
946:
942:
939:
938:
932:
930:
926:
922:
918:
914:
913:siphonophores
910:
906:
898:
895:, a colonial
894:
893:
888:
881:
879:
877:
873:
868:
858:
855:
853:
849:
848:recombination
845:
841:
838:
836:
832:
831:
828:
824:
822:
819:
816:
812:
811:
807:
804:
802:
799:
798:
795:
794:self-assembly
791:
788:
786:
783:
782:
778:
775:
773:
770:
769:
766:
763:
760:
757:
754:
753:
747:
745:
741:
737:
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
705:
700:
695:
687:
682:
680:
672:
668:
665:
662:
659:
656:
654:
653:Superorganism
651:
650:
646:
643:
640:
637:
635:
632:
630:
626:
625:
621:
617:
614:
611:
609:
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586:
583:
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571:
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564:
561:
558:
555:
553:
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549:
546:
542:
539:
537:
533:
530:
529:
528:Dictyostelium
525:
523:
519:
518:
515:
511:
508:
505:
501:
497:
493:
491:
490:
486:
484:
481:
480:
476:
473:
471:
467:
464:
462:
459:
457:
454:
453:
450:Co-operation
449:
442:
439:
436:
433:
432:
426:
423:
419:
418:David Queller
414:
412:
408:
407:cyanobacteria
404:
400:
396:
392:
388:
383:
381:
377:
373:
372:superorganism
368:
366:
362:
357:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
334:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
311:microorganism
308:
300:
296:
292:
291:cyanobacteria
288:
284:
280:
275:
268:
266:
262:
260:
256:
255:superorganism
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
227:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
201:
197:
195:
191:
190:individuality
188:
185:
181:
179:
175:
171:
167:
166:
165:
159:
155:
151:
146:
139:
137:
135:
134:Immanuel Kant
131:
130:
124:
118:
114:
113:Ancient Greek
106:
104:
102:
98:
94:
90:
85:
81:
80:David Queller
76:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
3717:Viral vector
3684:
3560:Gerontoplast
3487:Transpoviron
3259:Nucleic acid
3245:Fungal prion
3143:Helper-virus
3130:
3123:
3030:
3023:
2925: >
2921: >
2917: >
2913: >
2909: >
2905: >
2901: >
2899:Organ system
2897: >
2894:
2893: >
2889: >
2885: >
2881: >
2877: >
2796:
2733:
2729:Biodiversity
2715:astrobiology
2437:Elements of
2399:Species 2000
2398:
2386:
2348:
2344:
2338:
2303:
2299:
2289:
2264:
2261:Astrobiology
2260:
2254:
2227:
2223:
2175:
2171:
2165:
2122:
2118:
2108:
2065:
2061:
2051:
2026:
1996:
1956:
1952:
1914:
1910:
1904:
1869:
1865:
1855:
1820:
1816:
1777:cite journal
1744:
1740:
1720:
1714:
1681:
1677:
1671:
1646:
1642:
1636:
1606:(1): 31–39.
1603:
1599:
1593:
1552:
1548:
1513:(1): 63–96.
1510:
1506:
1496:
1479:
1475:
1469:
1444:
1440:
1430:
1397:
1393:
1339:
1335:
1295:
1291:
1253:
1249:
1243:
1233:
1225:
1213:. Retrieved
1182:
1162:
1143:
1138:
1112:reproduction
1100:
1083:
1071:
1048:
993:gastrozooids
945:siphonophore
917:slime moulds
902:
897:siphonophore
890:
876:reproduction
864:
801:Reproduction
715:reproduction
709:
677:
634:Siphonophore
534:Unicellular
526:
487:
466:Nucleic acid
447:reproduction
415:
397:consists of
384:
369:
365:siphonophore
358:
335:
304:
263:
228:
224:
170:reproduction
163:
127:
122:
110:
77:
65:siphonophore
33:reproduction
20:
18:
3741:Cancer cell
3607:Abiogenesis
3555:Chromoplast
3550:Chloroplast
3333:Degradative
3075:dsRNA virus
3070:ssDNA virus
3063:Giant virus
3058:dsDNA virus
2927:Biomolecule
2887:Biocoenosis
2780:Prokaryotes
2568:Atmosphere
2563:Meteorology
1555:: 101–107.
1400:: 301–311.
1014:Composition
975:Nectophores
738:, and they
727:homeostasis
443:Metabolism,
440:Composition
380:social unit
340:such as an
243:mutualistic
168:autonomous
3649:Proteinoid
3644:Coacervate
3597:Nitroplast
3590:Trophosome
3585:Bacteriome
3570:Apicoplast
3565:Leucoplast
3406:Chromosome
3324:Resistance
3032:Parakaryon
2891:Population
2661:Wilderness
2514:geological
2230:(1): 141.
1250:The Monist
1130:References
1108:nucleotide
1086:teleonomic
1061:including
971:Propulsion
872:metabolism
772:Metabolism
755:Capability
723:metabolism
577:Anglerfish
514:signalling
500:organelles
489:Paramecium
411:microbiome
363:such as a
331:organelles
313:such as a
295:microbiome
259:adaptation
247:anglerfish
178:metabolism
117:ὀργανισμός
101:anglerfish
41:metabolism
29:individual
3779:Organisms
3658:Research
3639:Protocell
3378:Retrozyme
3337:Virulence
3319:Fertility
3166:Virophage
3154:Satellite
3145:dependent
2997:Eukaryota
2915:Organelle
2883:Ecosystem
2875:Biosphere
2739:Eukaryota
2706:Hierarchy
2701:Biosphere
2666:Wildfires
2656:Radiation
2646:Ecosystem
2586:Moonlight
2520:Structure
2475:particles
2246:0024-4066
2139:1751-7362
2082:0014-3820
2062:Evolution
1975:1560-2745
1527:0218-3390
1312:0007-4985
1091:cognition
1055:chimaeras
950:Jellyfish
943:Colonial
792:No, just
597:Mutualism
522:protistan
520:Swarming
387:mutualism
319:bacterium
239:germ-soma
107:Etymology
73:jellyfish
3773:Category
3685:Organism
3678:See also
3654:Sulphobe
3631:Ribozyme
3626:RNA life
3533:Mitosome
3477:Prophage
3472:Provirus
3460:Replicon
3416:Circular
3363:Phagemid
3280:Mobilome
3272:elements
3182:Virusoid
3105:Subviral
3017:Protista
3002:Animalia
2987:Bacteria
2895:Organism
2821:Category
2790:bacteria
2773:protista
2734:Organism
2601:Sunlight
2447:Universe
2330:21441585
2281:23551238
2157:23038175
2100:27704542
1931:10322523
1888:19210588
1847:19805423
1769:19816447
1761:21243964
1698:18947335
1663:28501709
1628:26656790
1620:15824439
1585:80625250
1577:30876803
1488:21162370
1461:10322523
1422:84168536
1356:19270719
1270:26370801
1215:11 April
956:Buoyancy
940:Function
921:eusocial
892:Apolemia
844:mutation
833:Able to
761:organism
759:Cellular
557:Mushroom
323:archaean
194:autonomy
21:organism
3667:Jeewanu
3581:Organs
3545:Plastid
3345:Cryptic
3314:Plasmid
3012:Plantae
2992:Archaea
2798:Viruses
2785:archaea
2761:animals
2713: (
2711:Biology
2688:Origin
2641:Ecology
2616:tornado
2576:Climate
2570:(Earth)
2555:Weather
2525:Geology
2512: (
2510:History
2365:3898363
2345:Science
2321:3385955
2200:6672474
2180:Bibcode
2148:3554396
2091:5132100
1896:8413751
1838:2781869
1706:4942890
1557:Bibcode
1364:3907750
1187:at the
1169:ὄργανον
1067:hybrots
1065:limbs,
1059:cyborgs
1053:, from
1042:Insect
989:Palpons
985:Feeding
959:Top of
909:lichens
905:sponges
825:DNA or
731:enzymes
711:Viruses
688:Viruses
627:Joined
608:species
589:gametes
536:amoebae
498:, with
470:protein
445:growth,
437:Example
391:species
315:protist
299:species
207:entropy
154:cutting
123:órganon
45:viruses
3758:Virome
3736:Nanobe
3433:Genome
3411:Linear
3356:Fosmid
3351:Cosmid
3116:Viroid
3107:agents
2907:Tissue
2749:plants
2581:Clouds
2545:Future
2535:Oceans
2487:Change
2470:Matter
2465:Energy
2439:nature
2363:
2328:
2318:
2279:
2244:
2198:
2155:
2145:
2137:
2098:
2088:
2080:
2039:
2003:
1973:
1929:
1894:
1886:
1845:
1835:
1767:
1759:
1704:
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1661:
1626:
1618:
1583:
1575:
1525:
1486:
1459:
1420:
1414:188676
1412:
1362:
1354:
1310:
1268:
1150:
1104:genome
1078:genome
1044:cyborg
1019:zooids
966:Jelly
961:colony
919:, and
867:spores
835:evolve
813:Store
785:Growth
740:evolve
719:growth
660:colony
639:Zooids
629:colony
616:Fungus
602:Lichen
395:lichen
350:fungus
342:animal
297:. The
279:lichen
205:"anti-
176:, and
174:growth
152:plant
97:lichen
89:fungus
69:zooids
49:evolve
39:, and
37:growth
25:living
3232:Prion
3203:Other
3050:Virus
3007:Fungi
2903:Organ
2879:Biome
2768:fungi
2756:fauna
2744:flora
2651:Field
2606:Tides
2497:Earth
2455:Space
1892:S2CID
1765:S2CID
1702:S2CID
1659:S2CID
1624:S2CID
1581:S2CID
1418:S2CID
1410:JSTOR
1360:S2CID
1266:JSTOR
1026:cells
1024:Many
1017:Many
765:Virus
736:genes
725:, or
694:Virus
504:cilia
502:e.g.
456:Virus
434:Level
403:algae
399:fungi
352:, or
346:plant
321:, or
309:is a
287:algae
283:fungi
150:basil
3746:HeLa
3690:Cell
3438:Gene
2911:Cell
2676:Life
2611:Wind
2596:Snow
2591:Rain
2460:Time
2361:PMID
2326:PMID
2277:PMID
2242:ISSN
2196:PMID
2153:PMID
2135:ISSN
2096:PMID
2078:ISSN
2037:ISBN
2001:ISBN
1971:ISSN
1927:PMID
1884:PMID
1843:PMID
1783:link
1757:PMID
1694:PMID
1616:PMID
1573:PMID
1523:ISSN
1484:PMID
1457:PMID
1352:PMID
1308:ISSN
1217:2024
1148:ISBN
991:and
925:ants
620:alga
496:cell
494:One
420:and
401:and
376:ants
354:alga
327:cell
158:stem
93:alga
82:and
3329:Col
3217:DNA
3214:RNA
3193:DNA
3190:RNA
2353:doi
2349:229
2316:PMC
2308:doi
2269:doi
2232:doi
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2188:doi
2176:105
2143:PMC
2127:doi
2086:PMC
2070:doi
1961:doi
1957:109
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1833:PMC
1825:doi
1821:364
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1651:doi
1608:doi
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1258:doi
1254:100
1126:).
927:or
857:Yes
840:Yes
827:RNA
821:DNA
805:Yes
789:Yes
776:Yes
666:Yes
658:Ant
644:Yes
612:Yes
584:Yes
565:Yes
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509:Yes
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