142:
required a fast reaction time as their response was based on how quickly (in seconds) they would respond to each of the tasks. Researchers found that there had been no significant decrease in the response time for this test in participants with
Parkinson's disease as their reaction time had been longer. However, for participants having major depressive disorder, there had been an overall improvement in reaction time. Rogers, Lees and Smith had then eventually concluded that bradyphrenia explored in the presence of Parkinson's disease was very similar to psychomotor retardation in a major depressive disorder with a few differences. They had found that there had been notable impairments in their dopaminergic areas seen in both groups of disorders that could call for some similarities between the two conditions.
207:. Bradyphrenia, however, had been considered the presence of bradyphrenia to be the most 'minor' of the ramifications. Martin et al. found that stage three of symptoms of overdose entailed the high risk around 20% of those that reach what has been described as 'stage three' will die. A case report had been done on a 63-year-old man who had been hospitalised for ten days and has been released with no notable impairments. The patient was hospitalised again several days later after showing abnormal behaviours in which specialists could only describe it as being bradyphrenia. The patient's abnormal behaviour included having a diminished attention span as well as being unable to remember minor details. Researchers had justified this worsening of behaviour by abnormal neurological activity within the
174:
accuracy of response. The tasks that participants were asked to perform included being able to determine which direction a stimulus on the screen was pointing towards and were also told to determine if a stimulus shown was the normal positioning or whether it had been reversed. From this study, researchers had concluded that in melancholic participants with major depression their slowing in reaction time was higher, in contrast to the control group, which indicated the presence of bradyphrenia. Researchers had drawn the conclusion that the lesser slowness of the non-melancholic depressed groups in these tasks had not been intense enough to draw it to bradyphrenia.
313:), and affected people tended to experience mental delays and remain motionless for extended periods of time due to an unknown cause. Naville was dealing with patients experiencing several symptoms which he could only describe as a gradual brain impairment. Several symptoms listed included decreased attention span, memory and lack of motivation to perform any tasks. Naville had also observed the facial expressions of his patients with these symptoms' had become stagnant and disinterested over time. Since Naville's publications in 1922, researchers often referred to this condition as 'psychic torpor' being translated as 'mental inactivity.'
125:
communicate to the patient via a microphone and would ask the participant to complete a series of tasks. The participant, with or without
Parkinson's disease, would receive this information through their headphones and respond via a microphone. The experimenters had asked the participants to complete the following tasks; counting to 20, repeat several simple sentences and read a series of words from a card. The researchers concluded that bradyphrenia was present in Parkinson's disease however also in older patients as they also had delayed feedback when completing the task.
32:
137:. Psychomotor retardation was proposed by the researchers as a condition particularly seen in major depressive disorders. Researchers had conducted a study to examine in ways in which the two conditions share similarities in analysing diagnosed Parkinson Disease patients and patients who had been diagnosed with depression. The participants were given two tasks to complete, one of the tasks is known as the
104:
in 1966, Wilson et al. had found that bradyphrenia found in the patients with
Parkinson's disease had increased their reaction time of retaining information. Other studies exploring this theory confirmed that bradyphrenia was commonly seen in their studies of patients with Parkinson's disease In addition, some researchers found that the condition does not impact all patients with Parkinson's disease.
244:(MRI) that had shown a significant increase in lesions. The patient had been put on steroid therapy which researchers McHugh et al. had found a significant improvement of cognitive abilities over time. The effectiveness of steroid therapy had been observed within an MRI improvement as the number of lesions had decreased as well as the shift in behaviours of participants.
322:
research into the causes of bradyphrenia. Steck's work stimulated the interest of other neurologists including Aubrun, who investigated bradyphrenia creating a new direction by linking it to
Parkinson's disease. Gradually, more neurologists began exploring bradyphrenia in the presence of other disorders including
223:
Currently, there are no pharmaceutical medications that will directly increase the rate of thoughts in patients with bradyphrenia experience. The treatments for
Parkinson's disease have been imposed as a model for treatment of bradyphrenia as in some cases the researchers have been able to treat the
194:
which is a task that requires cognitive processing. This study had shown that there had been a significant increase in time that it took for patients with
Huntington's to solve the problem. Participants with schizophrenia, however, performed the tasks in a smaller amount of time, faster than those in
141:
which consisted of the participants filling in a row of numbers which had a specific connection to a symbol. Another task which been referred to as the 'simpler task' which was to match the number on the screen that they had seen by pressing the same number on the keyboard. Both of these measurements
103:
in the psychiatric ward during the post-encephalitic period had
Bradyphrenia. Neurologists often saw the condition as an additional trait of Parkinson's disease as they found that patients with Parkinson's disease had often impaired traits that would be defined by bradyphrenia. In the study conducted
120:
There are several symptoms in
Parkinson's disease which are influenced by the presence of bradyphrenia. Researcher Norberg discovered that a gradual cognitive slowing impacted the eating behaviour of these patients. It was found that patients with Parkinson's disease would often experience extended
173:
Yet, Rogers et al., examined bradyphrenia and whether or not it was indicated by 'mental rotation' in melancholic and non-melancholic depressed patients. Researchers would ask the participants to participate in numerous tasks whereby their performance would be measured by their reaction time and
124:
In another study examining the presence of bradyphrenia in
Parkinson's disease, researchers had discovered that bradyphrenia was one of the reasons for slow auditory feedback as measured by the DAF (Delayed Auditory Feedback). Dobbs et al., completed an experiment whereby the experimenter would
321:
Swiss neurologist Steck completed a study investigating the case of bradyphrenia post- an epidemic, in 27 mental institutions. Within his research, he found that more than half of the patients hospitalised had the condition
Following Steck's discovery, for some period there had been no active
107:
Some neurologists had also suggested that bradyphrenia could exist without the presence of parkinsonism. In some cases, it has been found that bradyphrenia has been mistaken for an inability to strategically complete tasks and therefore may often be categorised as the condition incorrectly.
285:
and will alter the rate of cognitive thought processing. Psychiatrist Kaminski found an improvement of this condition in Parkinson's disease with a positive correlation between the decrease of time in cognitive thought processing and the decrease in reaction time for tasks to be completed.
264:
regimen. This combination was believed to alter these effects of Parkinson's disease. In the short term, this combination had brought positive results as behaviours of these patients had improved. Yet these researchers found that in the long-term this combination provided a reverse effect,
153:, another neurological condition involving cognition impairment. Researchers found that there was a presence of cognitive slowing in patients with Alzheimer's. Pate and Margolin, found that this was caused by damage to the cortical central. The cortical central is the outer region of the
169:
had been present if they had previous neurological damage. In a study of elderly patients, it was found that patients with depression had not shown a significant delay in thought processing as did patients with depression and additional neurological damage to a part of their brain.
86:. Patients with bradyphrenia may describe or may manifest slowed thought processes, evidenced by increased latency of response and also involve severe memory impairment and poor motor control. The word 'bradyphrenia' originates from the ancient Greek meaning 'slow mind.'
280:
is a class of drugs that was found to provide positive outcomes throughout the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Some studies have shown that through oral admission, the H-2 antagonist will target specific receptors in the brain by crossing the
111:
Despite the collective agreement of bradyphrenia being classified as a nosological entity. The neurological condition is still more often described in case studies where the subjects are analysed for having Parkinson's disease.
1187:
McHugh, John C.; Ryan, Aisling M.; Lynch, Timothy; Dempsey, Elizabeth; Stack, John; Farrell, Michael A.; Kelly, Peter J. (2007). "Steroid-Responsive Recurrent Encephalopathy in a Patient with Cerebral Amyloid Angiopathy".
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Rinne, J. O.; Anichtchik, O. V.; Eriksson, K. S.; Kaslin, J.; Tuomisto, L.; Kalimo, H.; Röyttä, M.; Panula, P. (21 May 2002). "Increased brain histamine levels in Parkinson's disease but not in multiple system atrophy".
108:
Collectively, it was concluded that bradyphrenia does not commonly appear in parkinsonism but rather as a single entity that occurs in other conditions and not only in the single presence of Parkinson's disease.
232:
During the time of the encephalitis lethargica period, the rise of bradyphrenia was seen in many of the cases. In one case in Russia it was believed that this condition could be treated with
1163:
Eric J Ahlskog. The New Parkinson's disease Treatment Book : Partnering with Your Doctor to Get the Most from Your Medications 2nd ed. New York, New York: Oxford University Press, 2015.
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Pan, Jing; Zhang, Qi; Zhang, Yuntao; Ouyang, Zhuqing; Zheng, Qiusheng; Zheng, Rongliang (May 2005). "Oxidative stress in heroin administered mice and natural antioxidants protection".
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Rogers, D; Lees, AJ; Smith, E; Trimble, M; Stern, GM (June 1987). "Bradyphrenia in Parkinson's disease and psychomotor retardation in depressive illness. An experimental study".
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Nebes, Robert D.; Halligan, Edythe M.; Rosen, Jules; Reynolds, Charles F. (1 September 1998). "Cognitive and motor slowing in Alzheimer's disease and geriatric depression".
157:, a major component of the brain that controls motor functions. Particularly in the older population, evidence of bradyphrenia had been seen in patients with Alzheimer's.
1411:. By Constantine von Economo. Translated and adapted by K. O. Newman. Oxford University Press (Humphrey Milford), 1931. Pp. 216. With 21 illustrations. Price 18s. net".
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the control group within the experiment. Hanes had suggested that bradyphrenia in schizophrenia was not as common as it was seen in Huntington's disease.
531:
Spicer, Kevin B.; Brown, Gregory G.; Gorell, Jay M. (June 1994). "Lexical decision in parkinson disease: Lack of evidence for generalized bradyphrenia".
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after the patient's condition had improved after three months using steroid. In another more recent case, an 80-year-old woman had been diagnosed with
766:
Pate, D. S.; Margolin, D. I. (1 April 1994). "Cognitive slowing in Parkinson's and Alzheimer's patients: Distinguishing bradyphrenia from dementia".
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Experts including Martin et al. discovered that bradyphrenia is seen as one of the first stages of the ramifications of overdosing on an opioid like
938:
Rogers, M.A.; Bradshaw, J.L.; Phillips, J.G.; Chiu, E.; Mileshkin, C.; Vaddadi, K. (9 August 2010). "Mental Rotation in Unipolar Major Depression".
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Molinari, S. P.; Kaminski, R.; Rocco, A.; Yahr, M. D. (June 1995). "The use of famotidine in the treatment of Parkinson's disease: a pilot study".
1038:
Martin, Michele; Hurley, Robin A.; Taber, Katherine H. (July 2007). "Is Opiate Addiction Associated With Longstanding Neurobiological Changes?".
678:
Norberg, Astrid; Athlin, Elsy; Winblad, Bengt (July 1987). "A model for the assessment of eating problems in patients with Parkinson's disease".
305:
The first sightings of bradyphrenia were documented by French neurologist Naville in the early 20th century, during the time of the epidemic of
433:
Revonsuo, A.; Portin, R.; Koivikko, L.; Rinne, J.O.; Rinne, U.K. (January 1993). "Slowing of Information Processing in Parkinson′s Disease".
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periods of time attempting to process the food that they are eating, causing an increase in the time it took for them to consume their food.
240:(CAA) and was described to have symptoms of bradyphrenia after showing abnormalities within the pre-frontal cortex of the brain through a
1458:
1000:
Hanes, Karl R. (9 September 2010). "Brief Report: Bradyphrenia in Parkinson's disease, Huntington's Disease, and Schizophrenia".
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Researchers Rogers et al. found bradyphrenia in light of Parkinson's disease was considerably similar to what is referred to as '
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138:
475:
William S. Haubrich,. Medical Meanings : a Glossary of Word Origins . Philadelphia, Pa: American College of Physicians, 1997
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Image depicting how an individual with bradyphrenia experiences fatigue and stress as they struggle with slow thinking.
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568:"Neuropsychological study of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and parkinsonism-dementia complex in Kii peninsula, Japan"
241:
74:
is the slowness of thought common to many disorders of the brain. Disorders characterized by bradyphrenia include
1238:
Joel A Vilensky. Encephalitis Lethargica : During and after the Epidemic Oxford ;: Oxford University Press, 2011.
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Paul Bernard Foley. Encephalitis Lethargica The Mind and Brain Virus New York, NY: Springer New York, 2018.
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Ravenholt, R.T; Foege, WilliamH (October 1982). "1918 influenza, encephalitis lethargica, parkinsonism".
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Dobbs, R. J.; Bowes, S. G.; Charlett, A.; Henley, M.; Frith, C.; Dickins, J.; Dobbs, S. M. (April 1993).
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309:, as it appears, he was investigating this disorder. This epidemic involved inflammation of the brain (
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Rao, Jayaraman (September 1999). "Treatment of Parkinson's disease" A Brand New Approach".
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Ivry, Richard B.; Keele, Steven W. (April 1989). "Timing Functions of The Cerebellum".
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190:. To examine the role of bradyphrenia within these conditions the researchers used the
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Mayberg, H. S. (November 1994). "Frontal lobe dysfunction in secondary depression".
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Shindo, Akihiro; Ueda, Yukito; Kuzuhara, Shigeki; Kokubo, Yasumasa (21 July 2014).
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Rogers, Daniel (9 July 2009). "Bradyphrenia in parkinsonism: a historical review".
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accelerating the cognitive slowing of the brain (bradyphrenia) and motor movement (
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212:
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1080:"Delayed Posthypoxic Leukoencephalopathy: Improvement with Antioxidant Therapy"
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King, Franklin; Morris, Nicholas A.; Schmahmann, Jeremy D. (24 December 2015).
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Journal of Neural Transmission. Parkinson's Disease and Dementia Section
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Wilson, R.S.; Kaszniak, A.W.; Klawans, H.L.; Garron, D.C. (March 1980).
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628:"Hypothesis: the bradyphrenia of parkinsonism is a nosological entity"
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211:. The patient's cognitive abilities had improved with the use of an
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therapy yet with some acts of abnormal behaviours still showing.
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In his research, Steck found that almost half the patients with
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Slowing of thoughts, delayed responses and lack of motivation
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The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences
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The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences
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Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society
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In one trial it was found that bradyphrenia as well as
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Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology
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Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology
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1409:Encephalitis Lethargica: Its Sequelæ and Treatment
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256:, could be treated using the combination of a
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487:"High Speed Memory Scanning in Parkinsonism"
82:consequently causing a delayed response and
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165:Evidence of bradyphrenia in patients with
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182:Bradyphrenia had also been observed in
178:Huntington's disease and schizophrenia
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1407:McCowan, P. K. (19 February 2018). "
692:10.1111/j.1365-2648.1987.tb01356.x
645:10.1111/j.1600-0404.1993.tb05504.x
129:Depression and Parkinson's disease
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857:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
242:magnetic resonance imaging system
1343:10.1046/j.1471-4159.2002.00871.x
1267:10.1097/00019442-199911001-00091
317:Post-encephalitis lethargica era
139:digit symbol substitution test
1:
1378:10.1016/s0140-6736(82)90820-0
632:Acta Neurologica Scandinavica
504:10.1016/s0010-9452(80)80022-0
361:Blueprints Neurology, 2nd ed.
248:L-DOPA and carbidopa regimen
680:Journal of Advanced Nursing
301:Encephalitis lethargica era
238:Cerebral Amyloid Angiopathy
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1459:Symptoms of schizophrenia
1413:Journal of Mental Science
1331:Journal of Neurochemistry
1143:10.1016/j.lfs.2004.12.025
1084:Case Reports in Neurology
1052:10.1176/jnp.2007.19.3.242
1002:Cognitive Neuropsychiatry
962:10.1076/jcen.24.1.101.974
869:10.1162/jocn.1989.1.2.136
823:10.1017/s1355617798455024
545:10.1080/01688639408402656
404:10.1017/s0033291700009077
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1190:Cerebrovascular Diseases
585:10.1186/1471-2377-14-151
344:Sluggish cognitive tempo
1014:10.1080/135468096396622
742:10.1093/brain/110.3.761
307:encephalitis lethargica
296:Encephalitis lethargica
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135:Psychomotor retardation
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1444:Neurological disorders
1425:10.1192/bjp.78.321.395
447:10.1006/brcg.1993.1007
392:Psychological Medicine
116:Effects in Parkinson's
332:psychiatric disorders
294:Further information:
780:10.1212/wnl.44.4.669
192:Tower of London Test
184:Huntington's disease
16:Slow mental activity
1454:Alzheimer's disease
1449:Parkinson's disease
912:10.1176/jnp.6.4.428
435:Brain and Cognition
324:Alzheimer's disease
283:blood–brain barrier
151:Alzheimer's disease
146:Alzheimer's disease
101:Parkinson's disease
76:Parkinson's disease
1299:10.1007/BF02259665
209:pre-frontal cortex
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