1761:
impacts on functional outcomes. Additionally, cerebral and ICP treatments have varied effects on individuals based on differing characteristics like age, gender, type of injury, and genetics. There are innumerable molecular pathways that contribute to cerebral edema, many of which have yet to be discovered. Researchers argue that the future treatment of cerebral edema will be based on advances in identifying the underlying pathophysiology and molecular characteristics of cerebral edema in a variety of cases. At the same time, improvement of radiographic markers, biomarkers, and analysis of clinical monitoring data is essential in treating cerebral edema.
1490:, and is historically the most commonly used osmotic diuretic. Mannitol acts as an inert solute in the blood, decreasing ICP through osmosis as discussed above. Additionally, mannitol decreases ICP and increased cerebral perfusion pressure by increasing reabsorption of cerebrospinal fluid, dilutes and decreased the viscosity of the blood, and can cause cerebral vasoconstriction. Furthermore, mannitol acts in a dose-dependent manner and will not lower ICP if it is not elevated. However, the common limitation of the use of mannitol is its tendency to cause low blood pressure
889:. DBS is not without risks and although rare, idiopathic delayed-onset edema (IDE) surrounding the DBS leads have been reported. Symptoms can be mild and nonspecific, including reduction of the stimulation effect, and can be confused for other causes of edema. Thus, imaging is recommended to rule out other causes. The condition is generally self-limiting and the exact mechanism of the cause is unexplained. Early identification can help persons affected avoid unnecessary surgical procedures or antibiotic treatments.
1717:(TBI) represents 70–90% of all reported head injuries. The presence of brain edema on the initial CT scan of those with traumatic brain injuries is an independent prognostic indicator of in-hospital death. The association of brain edema with increased in hospital risk of death was observed in TBI across all level of severity. Edema in the acute and chronic phases were associated with a worse neurologic and clinical outcome. Children with TBI and cerebral edema have worse clinical outcomes as well.
1114:(CPP) monitoring in any persons with cerebral injury who are at risk of elevated intracranial pressure based on clinical and neuroimaging features. Early monitoring can be used to guide medical and surgical decision making and to detect potentially life-threatening brain herniation. There was however, conflicting evidence on the threshold values of ICP that indicated the need for intervention. Researchers also recommend that medical decisions should be tailored to the specific diagnosis (e.g.
752:, oncotic cell death contributes to loss of integrity of the blood–brain barrier and promotes the progression to vasogenic edema. When brain edema types are combined, there is typically a primary form and the edema type and context of the cause must be determined in order to start appropriate medical or surgical therapy. The use of specific MRI techniques has allowed for some differentiation between the mechanisms.
1603:, after brain injury is used for secondary treatment of refractory ICP. Yet their use is not without controversy and it is not clear whether barbiturates are favored over surgical decompression. In patients with traumatic brain injuries, barbiturates are effective in reducing ICP but have failed to show benefit to clinical outcomes. Evidence is limited for their use in cerebral disease that include tumor,
1452:. It has a rapid-onset, with reduction of pressures within 5 minutes of infusion, lasting up to 12 hours in some cases, and with negligible rebound pressure. The exact volume and concentration of the hypertonic saline varies between clinical studies. Bolus doses, particularly at higher concentrations, for example 23.4%, are effective at reducing ICP and improving cerebral perfusion pressure. In
60:
1257:, including subclinical seizure activity, can complicate clinical courses and increase progression of brain herniation in persons with cerebral edema and increased intracranial pressure. Anticonvulsants can be used to treat seizures caused by acute brain injuries from a variety of origins. However, there are no clear guidelines on the use of anticonvulsants for
933:, a large number of individuals with brain tumors are treated with radiosurgery and radiotherapy. Radiation-induced brain edema (RIBE) is a potentially life-threatening complication of brain tissue radiation and is characterized radiation necrosis, endothelial cell dysfunction, increased capillary permeability, and breakdown of the
1632:
with depth and duration of hypothermia as well as rewarming procedures. In children with traumatic brain injury, there was no benefit to therapeutic hypothermia and increased the risk of mortality and arrhythmia. The adverse effects of hypothermia are serious and require clinical monitoring including increased chance of infection,
1166:. The current recommendation is to elevate the head of the bed to 30 degrees to optimize cerebral perfusion pressure and control the increase in intracranial pressure. It is also worth noting that measures should be taken to reduce restrictive neck dressings or garments as these may lead to compression of the
1542:, have been shown to decrease tight-junction permeability and stabilize the blood-brain barrier. Their main use has been in the management of vasogenic cerebral edema associated with brain tumors, brain irradiation, and surgical manipulation. Glucocorticoids have not been shown to have any benefit in
743:
Cytotoxic, osmotic, and vasogenic edema exist on a continuum. The mechanism of the cause of cerebral edema can often overlap between these types. In most instances, cytotoxic and vasogenic edema occur together. When the two edema types evolve simultaneously, the damage of one type reaches a limit and
1747:
In one study, cerebral edema was found in 28% of those individuals with thrombolysis-treated ischemic strokes, 10% of which occurred in severe forms. A further study detected cerebral edema in 22.7% of cerebral ischemic strokes. A meta-analysis of current studies showed that 31% of those affected by
1631:
As discussed previously in the treatment of fever, temperature control has been shown to decrease metabolic demand and reduce further ischemic injury. In traumatic brain injury, induced hypothermia may reduce the risks of mortality, poor neurologic outcome in adults. However, outcomes varied greatly
1705:
Cerebral edema is the cause of death in 5% of all patients with cerebral infarction and mortality after large ischemic strokes with cerebral edema is roughly 20 to 30% despite medical and surgical interventions. Cerebral edema usually occurs between the second and fifth day after onset of symptoms.
1280:
has been demonstrated to increase metabolism and oxygen demand in the brain. The increased metabolic demand results in an increase in cerebral blood flow and can increase the intracranial pressure within the skull. Therefore, maintaining a stable body temperature within the normal range is strongly
403:
death of neurons. The swelling of the individual cells of the brain is the main distinguishing characteristic of cytotoxic edema, as opposed to vasogenic edema, wherein the influx of fluid is typically seen in the interstitial space rather than within the cells themselves. Researchers have proposed
363:
Cerebral edema has been traditional classified into two major sub-types: cytotoxic and vasogenic cerebral edema. This simple classification helps guide medical decision making and treatment of patients affected with cerebral edema. There are, however, several more differentiated types including but
912:
after cranioplasty occur in roughly about a third of cases. Massive brain swelling after cranioplasty (MSBC) is a rare and potentially fatal complication of an uneventful cranioplasty that has recently been elucidated. Preoperative sinking skin flap (SSF) and intracranial hypotension were factors
850:
have been associated with these neuroimaging changes and additionally, cerebral edema. These therapies are associated with dysfunction of the tight endothelial junctions of the blood-brain barrier, leading to vasogenic edema as described above. In addition to edema, these therapies are associated
1760:
The current understanding of the pathophysiology of cerebral edema after traumatic brain injury or intracerebral hemorrhage is incomplete. Current treatment therapies aimed at cerebral edema and increased intracranial pressure are effective at reducing intracranial hypertension but have unclear
3510:
González
Quarante LH, Mena-Bernal JH, MartĂn BP, RamĂrez Carrasco M, Muñoz Casado MJ, MartĂnez de AragĂłn A, de las Heras RS (May 2016). "Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES): a rare condition after resection of posterior fossa tumors: two new cases and review of the literature".
1003:
Cerebral edema is commonly present in a variety of neurological injuries. Thus, determining a definitive contribution of cerebral edema to the neurological status of an affected person can be challenging. Close bedside monitoring of a person's level of consciousness and awareness of any new or
4679:
Hofmeijer J, Kappelle LJ, Algra A, Amelink GJ, van Gijn J, van der Worp HB, HAMLET investigators (April 2009). "Surgical decompression for space-occupying cerebral infarction (the
Hemicraniectomy After Middle Cerebral Artery infarction with Life-threatening Edema Trial ): a multicentre, open,
1644:
The Monroe–Kellie doctrine states that the skull is a fixed and inelastic space and the accumulation of edema will compress vital brain tissue and blood vessels. Surgical treatment of cerebral edema in the context of cerebellar or cerebral infarction is typically done by removing part of the
1059:
as well as providing information on the type of edema present and the extent of affected area. CT scan is the imaging modality of choice as it is widely available, quick, and with minimal risks. However, CT scan can be limited in determining the exact cause of cerebral edema in which cases,
1710:(MCA) infarct has a mortality of 50 to 80% if treated conservatively. Individuals with cerebral edema had a worse 3-month functional outcome than those without edema. These effects were more pronounced with increasing extent of cerebral edema and were independent of the size of the infarct.
1657:
is the most commonly used procedure. Multiple randomized clinical trials have shown reduced risk of death with hemicraniectomy compared with medical management. However, no individual study has shown an improvement in the percentage of survivors with good functional outcomes.
2757:
de Cuba CM, Albanese A, Antonini A, Cossu G, Deuschl G, Eleopra R, Galati A, Hoffmann CF, Knudsen K, Landi A, Lanotte MM (November 2016). "Idiopathic delayed-onset edema surrounding deep brain stimulation leads: Insights from a case series and systematic literature review".
1198:
instrumentation involved in the intubation process is associated with an acute, brief rise in intracranial pressure. Pretreatment with a sedative agent and neuromuscular blocking agent to induce unconsciousness and motor paralysis has been recommended as part of standard
1245:
may be used to achieve adequate blood pressures with minimal risk of increasing intracranial pressures. However, sharp rises in blood pressure should be avoided. Maximum blood pressures tolerated are variable and controversial depending on the clinical situation.
194:
As cerebral edema is present with many common cerebral pathologies, the epidemiology of the disease is not easily defined. The incidence of this disorder should be considered in terms of its potential causes and is present in most cases of traumatic brain injury,
1377:, or through mouth via tube, is the preferred method, unless contraindicated. Additional attention must be placed on the solute concentration of the formulations to avoid free water intake, decreased serum osmolality, and worsening of the cerebral edema.
734:
is intact usually and the extent of the edema depends on the arterial pressure. The regulatory processes of the brain circulation can function up to systolic arterial pressures of 150 mm Hg and will have impaired function at higher blood pressures.
3888:
Chesnut R, Videtta W, Vespa P, Le Roux P, Participants in the
International Multidisciplinary Consensus Conference on Multimodality Monitoring (December 2014). "Intracranial pressure monitoring: fundamental considerations and rationale for monitoring".
965:
This kind of cerebral edema is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with brain tumors and characterized by a disruption of the blood brain barrier and vasogenic edema. The exact mechanism is unclear but hypothesized that cancerous
2564:
Simjian T, Muskens IS, Lamba N, Yunusa I, Wong K, Veronneau R, Kronenburg A, Brouwers HB, Smith TR, Mekary RA, Broekman ML (July 2018). "Dexamethasone
Administration and Mortality in Patients with Brain Abscess: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis".
1023:
can signify impending catastrophic neurological events which require immediate recognition and treatment to prevent injury and even death. Therefore, diagnosis of cerebral edema earlier with rapid intervention can improve clinical outcomes and can
1572:. The effects of hyperventilation, although effective, are short-lived and once removed, can often lead to a rebound elevation of ICP. Furthermore, overaggressive hyperventilation and vasoconstriction and lead to severe reduction in CBF and cause
1546:
and have been found to be harmful in traumatic brain injury. Due to the negative side effects (such as peptic ulcers, hyperglycemia, and impairment of wound healing), steroid use should be restricted to cases where they are absolutely indicated.
1428:
gradient and will cause the flow of water out of the brain and into the vasculature for drainage elsewhere. An ideal osmotic agent produces a favorable osmotic pressure gradient, is nontoxic, and is not filtered out by the blood–brain barrier.
5104:
5089:
1361:, have been indicated to facilitate ventilation and manage brain injuries but there are no controlled studies on the use of NMBAs in the management of increased intracranial pressure. Depolarizing neuromuscular blocking agents, most notably
331:
Cerebral edema is present with many common cerebral pathologies and risk factors for development of cerebral edema will depend on the cause. The following were reliable predictors for development of early cerebral edema in ischemic strokes.
1726:
As cerebral edema is present with many common cerebral pathologies, the epidemiology of the disease is not easily defined. The incidence of this disorder should be considered in terms of its potential causes and is present in most cases of
1768:(FEA), a widely used numerical method in solid mechanics. For example, Gao and Ang used the finite element method to study changes in intracranial pressure during craniotomy operations. A second line of research on the condition looks at
1567:
in the cerebral vasculature, leading to increased cerebral blood flow (CBF) and worsening of cerebral edema. Conversely, therapeutic hyperventilation can be used to lower the carbon dioxide content in the blood and reduce ICP through
1456:, a responsiveness to hypertonic saline lasting greater than 2 hours was associated with decreased chance of death and improved neurologic outcomes. The effects of hypertonic saline can be prolonged with combination to agents such as
87:
ischemic stroke, subdural hematoma, epidural hematoma, intracerebral hematoma, intraventricular hemorrhage, subarachnoid hemorrhage, hydrocephalus, traumatic brain injury, brain abscess, brain tumor, hyponatremia, hepatic
234:
Increased intracranial pressure (ICP) is a life-threatening surgical emergency marked by symptoms of headache, nausea, vomiting, decreased consciousness. Symptoms are frequently accompanied by visual disturbances such as
1392:
of ischemic stroke. Maintaining a normal blood glucose level of less than 180 mg/dL is suggested. However, tight glycemic control of blood glucose under 126 mg/dL is associated with worsening of stroke size.
826:
can be used in non pre-acclimatized individuals. If symptoms of high-altitude cerebral edema do not resolve or worsen, immediate descent is necessary, and symptoms can be improved with administration of dexamethasone.
703:. The obstruction creates a rise in the intraventricular pressure and causes CSF to flow through the wall of the ventricles into the extracellular fluid within brain. The fluid has roughly the same composition of CSF.
682:
Ionic brain edema can also occur around the sites of brain hemorrhages, infarcts, or contusions due to a local plasma osmolality pressure gradient when compared to the high osmolality in the affected tissue.
1522:, acts as a weak diuretic and modulates CSF production but has not role in the management of cerebral edema from acute brain injuries. It can be used in the outpatient management of cerebral edema caused by
5628:
1468:, hypertonic saline has been shown to be as effective as mannitol in decreased ICP in neurocritical care and is more effective in many cases. Hypertonic saline may be preferable to mannitol in persons with
986:
were used to reduce brain tumor-associated vascular permeability through poorly understood mechanisms and was associated with systemic side effects. Agents that target the VEGF signaling pathways, such as
913:
associated with the development of MSBC after cranioplasty. Data suggests that pathologic changes are triggered immediately following the procedure, especially an acute increase in intracranial pressure.
1409:
and the general treatment strategies above are useful, the treatment should ultimately be tailored to the primary cause of the symptoms. The management of individual diseases are discussed separately.
4636:
Zhang BF, Wang J, Liu ZW, Zhao YL, Li DD, Huang TQ, Gu H, Song JN (April 2015). "Meta-analysis of the efficacy and safety of therapeutic hypothermia in children with acute traumatic brain injury".
6014:
6009:
4074:"Recommendations for the management of cerebral and cerebellar infarction with swelling: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association"
1325:
Pain and agitation can worsen cerebral edema, acutely increase intracranial pressure (ICP), and should be controlled. Careful use of pain medication such as morphine or fentanyl can be used for
3947:"In patients with head injury undergoing rapid sequence intubation, does pretreatment with intravenous lignocaine/lidocaine lead to an improved neurological outcome? A review of the literature"
6026:
6004:
1095:(GCS) scores, abnormal CT scans, or additional risk factors such as older age and elevated blood pressure. However, no such guidelines exist for ICP monitoring in other brain injuries such as
4375:
Alnemari AM, Krafcik BM, Mansour TR, Gaudin D (October 2017). "A Comparison of
Pharmacologic Therapeutic Agents Used for the Reduction of Intracranial Pressure After Traumatic Brain Injury".
3562:
Yamagami K, Maeda Y, Iihara K (February 2020). "Variant Type of
Posterior Reversible Encephalopathy Syndrome Associated with Deep Brain Hemorrhage: Case Report and Review of the Literature".
1636:, and electrolyte derangement. The current consensus is that adverse effects outweigh the benefits and its use restricted to clinical trials and refractory increased ICP to other therapies.
866:, or cause, of the syndrome is still debated but is hypothesized to be related to the disruption of the blood-brain barrier. The syndrome features acute neurological symptoms and reversible
4002:
Schmoker JD, Shackford SR, Wald SL, Pietropaoli JA (September 1992). "An analysis of the relationship between fluid and sodium administration and intracranial pressure after head injury".
5177:
654:
537:
leading to dysfunction of the endothelial cells and disruption of the blood-brain barrier. The breakdown of the tight endothelial junctions that make up the blood–brain barrier causes
1234:, should be maintained in the normo to hyperosmolar range. Judicial use of hypertonic saline can be used to increase serum osmolality and decrease cerebral edema, as discussed below.
3726:
Ong Q, Hochberg FH, Cima MJ (2015-11-10). "Depot delivery of dexamethasone and cediranib for the treatment of brain tumor associated edema in an intracranial rat glioma model".
814:
Altitude-related illnesses can be prevented most effectively with slow ascent to high altitudes, an average ascent of 300 to 500 meters per day is recommended. Pharmacological
6107:
1706:
Large territory ischemic strokes can lead to the rapid development of malignant brain edema and increased intracranial pressure. Cerebral edema in the context of a malignant
3774:"Mechanism of dexamethasone suppression of brain tumor-associated vascular permeability in rats. Involvement of the glucocorticoid receptor and vascular permeability factor"
3836:
Tucker B, Aston J, Dines M, Caraman E, Yacyshyn M, McCarthy M, Olson JE (July 2017). "Early Brain Edema is a
Predictor of In-Hospital Mortality in Traumatic Brain Injury".
364:
not limited to interstitial, osmotic, hydrostatic, and high altitude associated edema. Within one affected person, many individual sub-types can be present simultaneously.
4593:
McIntyre LA, Fergusson DA, HĂ©bert PC, Moher D, Hutchison JS (2003-06-11). "Prolonged therapeutic hypothermia after traumatic brain injury in adults: a systematic review".
1210:) can improve oxygenation with the negative effect of decreasing cerebral venous drainage and increasing intracranial pressure (ICP), and thus, must be used with caution.
4072:
Wijdicks EF, Sheth KN, Carter BS, Greer DM, Kasner SE, Kimberly WT, Schwab S, Smith EE, Tamargo RJ, Wintermark M, American Heart
Association Stroke Council (April 2014).
4731:
Das S, Mitchell P, Ross N, Whitfield PC (March 2019). "Decompressive
Hemicraniectomy in the Treatment of Malignant Middle Cerebral Artery Infarction: A Meta-Analysis".
767:
If not properly acclimatized to high altitude, a person may be negatively affected by the lower oxygen concentration available. These hypoxia-related illnesses include
5373:
4420:"Comparison of crystalloid resuscitation fluids for treatment of acute brain injury: a clinical and pre-clinical systematic review and network meta-analysis protocol"
4307:
Witherspoon B, Ashby NE (June 2017). "The Use of
Mannitol and Hypertonic Saline Therapies in Patients with Elevated Intracranial Pressure: A Review of the Evidence".
3398:"Amyloid Related Imaging Abnormalities (ARIA) in Amyloid Modifying Therapeutic Trials: Recommendations from the Alzheimer's Association Research Roundtable Workgroup"
838:(ARIA) are abnormal differences seen in neuroimaging of Alzheimer's disease patients given targeted amyloid-modifying therapies. Human monoclonal antibodies such as
851:
with microhemorrhages in the brain known as ARIA-H. Familiarity with ARIA can aid radiologists and clinicians in determining optimal management for those affected.
5368:
937:. Symptoms include headache, seizure, psychomotor slowing, irritability, and focal neurological deficits. Options for management of RIBE are limited and include
1576:, or strokes. As a result, standard practice is to slowly reverse hyperventilation while more definitive treatments aimed at the primary cause are instituted.
5170:
859:
298:
183:, proper positioning, controlled hyperventilation, medications, fluid management, steroids. Extensive cerebral edema can also be treated surgically with a
1190:
in the cerebral vasculature, and should be avoided in those with cerebral edema. It is recommended that persons with decreased levels of consciousness be
404:
that "cellular edema" may be more preferable to the term "cytotoxic edema" given the distinct swelling and lack of consistent "toxic" substance involved.
340:
5996:
1751:
In traumatic brain injuries, cerebral edema occurred in greater than 60% of those with mass lesions, and in 15% of those with initial normal CT scans.
1068:(DSA) may be necessary. MRI is particularly useful as it can differentiate between cytotoxic and vasogenic edema, guiding future treatment decisions.
5149:
6100:
5986:
5163:
375:
In general, cytotoxic edema is linked to cell death in the brain through excessive cellular swelling. During cerebral ischemia for example, the
5966:
5639:
466:
and draws further water into the cell through osmosis. Cerebral edema occurs most commonly in conjunction with a rapid rise in ammonia levels.
5991:
5623:
4970:
4477:
Lazaridis C, Neyens R, Bodle J, DeSantis SM (May 2013). "High-osmolarity saline in neurocritical care: systematic review and meta-analysis".
2691:"The Safety and Efficacy of Bevacizumab for Radiosurgery - Induced Steroid - Resistant Brain Edema; Not the Last Part in the Ship of Theseus"
1906:
1791:
835:
5829:
5817:
5279:
1523:
2689:
Tripathi M, Ahuja CK, Mukherjee KK, Kumar N, Dhandapani S, Dutta P, Kaur R, Rekhapalli R, Batish A, Gurnani J, Kamboj P (September 2019).
3396:
Sperling RA, Jack CR, Black SE, Frosch MP, Greenberg SM, Hyman BT, Scheltens P, Carrillo MC, Thies W, Bednar MM, Black RS (July 2011).
239:, reduced vision, and dizziness. Increased pressures within the skull can cause a compensatory elevation of blood pressure to maintain
6093:
6048:
5981:
5536:
975:
4164:
Busija DW, Leffler CW, Pourcyrous M (August 1988). "Hyperthermia increases cerebral metabolic rate and blood flow in neonatal pigs".
2451:
Thorén M, Azevedo E, Dawson J, Egido JA, Falcou A, Ford GA, Holmin S, Mikulik R, Ollikainen J, Wahlgren N, Ahmed N (September 2017).
1203:(RSI). Intravenous lidocaine prior to RSI has been suggested to reduce the rise in ICP but there is no supporting data at this time.
5751:
5554:
4207:
Murray MJ, Cowen J, DeBlock H, Erstad B, Gray AW, Tescher AN, McGee WT, Prielipp RC, Susla G, Jacobi J, Nasraway SA (January 2002).
1930:
549:. Accumulation of extracellular fluid increases brain volume and then intracranial pressure causing the symptoms of cerebral edema.
4904:"Molecular, pathological, clinical, and therapeutic aspects of perihematomal edema in different stages of intracerebral hemorrhage"
2870:
Barakos J, Sperling R, Salloway S, Jack C, Gass A, Fiebach JB, Tampieri D, Melançon D, Miaux Y, Rippon G, Black R (October 2013).
1207:
1088:
930:
665:
1122:) and that ICP elevation should be used in conjunction with clinical and neuroimaging and not as an isolated prognostic marker.
223:. As the skull is a fixed and inelastic space, the accumulation of cerebral edema can displace and compress vital brain tissue,
5870:
2377:"A Precision Medicine Approach to Cerebral Edema and Intracranial Hypertension after Severe Traumatic Brain Injury: Quo Vadis?"
1065:
1061:
5385:
5361:
5191:
1437:
are the main osmotic agents in use, while loop diuretics can aid in the removal of the excess fluid pulled out of the brain.
1305:, can exacerbate brain injury and cerebral edema and has been associated with worse clinical outcomes in persons affected by
5577:
3264:"Radiation-Induced Edema After Single-Fraction or Multifraction Stereotactic Radiosurgery for Meningioma: A Critical Review"
207:. For example, malignant brain edema was present in roughly 31% of people with ischemic strokes within 30 days after onset.
4782:
Brogan ME, Manno EM (January 2015). "Treatment of malignant brain edema and increased intracranial pressure after stroke".
3203:
Argaw AT, Asp L, Zhang J, Navrazhina K, Pham T, Mariani JN, Mahase S, Dutta DJ, Seto J, Kramer EG, Ferrara N (2012-07-02).
874:. PRES in general has a benign course, but PRES-related intracranial hemorrhage has been associated with a poor prognosis.
674:
Cerebral edema is a potentially life-threatening complication of severely decreased sodium ion concentration in the blood (
6064:
5949:
5865:
5807:
5356:
1611:. There are several adverse effects of barbiturates that limit their use, such as lowering of systemic blood pressure and
1218:
Maintenance of cerebral perfusion pressure using appropriate fluid management is essential in patients with brain injury.
772:
707:
267:
Cerebral edema is frequently encountered in acute brain injuries from a variety of origins, including but not limited to:
187:. Cerebral edema is a major cause of brain damage and contributes significantly to the mortality of ischemic strokes and
6033:
5407:
2822:
Robles LA, Cuevas-SolĂłrzano A (March 2018). "Massive Brain Swelling and Death After Cranioplasty: A Systematic Review".
1665:
remains controversial, but is generally suggested that the surgery is best performed before there are clinical signs of
1519:
780:
776:
556:
320:
161:
4418:
Thompson M, McIntyre L, Hutton B, Tran A, Wolfe D, Hutchison J, Fergusson D, Turgeon AF, English SW (August 17, 2018).
5543:
4902:
Jiang C, Guo H, Zhang Z, Wang Y, Liu S, Lai J, Wang TJ, Li S, Zhang J, Zhu L, Fu P, Zhang J, Wang J (September 2022).
1612:
1495:
1350:
1337:, have been shown to control ICP, decrease cerebral metabolic demand, and have antiseizure properties. Due to a short
1238:
1131:
1111:
609:
2623:"Posterior Reversible Encephalopathy Syndrome in Clinical Toxicology: A Systematic Review of Published Case Reports"
6021:
5571:
5243:
1389:
1044:
871:
173:
5913:
5971:
5939:
5891:
5740:
5319:
3313:"Contribution of vasogenic and cellular edema to traumatic brain swelling measured by diffusion-weighted imaging"
1662:
1604:
950:
901:
897:
184:
6038:
5812:
5226:
5119:
1740:
1200:
1100:
718:
Hydrostatic extracellular brain edema is typically caused by severe arterial hypertension. A difference in the
416:
204:
145:
6043:
1508:, act within kidney to increase excretion of water and solutes. Combination with mannitol produces a profound
1421:
1138:
pressure gradient between the brain and the surrounding vasculature. As cerebral edema is linked to increased
979:
934:
804:
749:
731:
510:
435:
376:
5976:
5732:
5550:
5402:
5392:
5236:
3152:
Nag S, Manias JL, Stewart DJ (August 2009). "Pathology and new players in the pathogenesis of brain edema".
1764:
Many studies of the mechanical properties of brain edema were conducted in the 2010s, most of them based on
1310:
1115:
1084:
1048:
768:
133:
4121:
Gabor AJ, Brooks AG, Scobey RP, Parsons GH (June 1984). "Intracranial pressure during epileptic seizures".
3772:
Heiss JD, Papavassiliou E, Merrill MJ, Nieman L, Knightly JJ, Walbridge S, Edwards NA, Oldfield EH (1996).
5908:
5900:
5855:
5531:
5503:
5351:
1728:
1714:
1707:
1698:
1580:
1453:
1306:
1155:
Finding the optimal head position in persons with cerebral edema is necessary to avoid compression of the
1080:
1005:
886:
882:
592:
580:
470:
443:
412:
384:
293:
271:
188:
82:
807:. The edema can be characterized by vasogenic cerebral edema with symptoms of impaired consciousness and
168:. Diagnosis is based on symptoms and physical examination findings and confirmed by serial neuroimaging (
5923:
5797:
5615:
5593:
5508:
5431:
5341:
5328:
5253:
4953:
Gao CP, Ang BT (2008). "Biomechanical modeling of decompressive craniectomy in traumatic brain injury".
1781:
1765:
1412:
The following interventions are more specific treatments for managing cerebral edema and increased ICP:
1402:
1258:
1242:
1167:
1139:
1076:
1016:
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of water, ions, and low molecular weight substances (such as glucose, small amino acids) into the brain
661:
596:
228:
224:
220:
180:
179:
The treatment of cerebral edema depends on the cause and includes monitoring of the person's airway and
114:
4209:"Clinical practice guidelines for sustained neuromuscular blockade in the adult critically ill patient"
4533:"A Systematic Review of the Effects of Body Temperature on Outcome After Adult Traumatic Brain Injury"
3674:"Sinking Skin Flap Syndrome: Phenomenon of Neurological Deterioration after Decompressive Craniectomy"
1420:
The goal of osmotic therapy is to create a higher concentration of ions within the vasculature at the
125:, nausea, vomiting, seizures, drowsiness, visual disturbances, dizziness, and in severe cases, death.
5860:
5677:
5566:
1769:
1333:
and maintenance of a secure airway. Sedative medication used in the intubation process, specifically
1163:
240:
6260:
5789:
5436:
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5231:
5108:
1483:
1461:
1358:
1354:
1330:
1191:
1160:
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926:
706:
Other causes of interstitial edema include but are not limited to communicating hydrocephalus, and
696:
509:
Extracellular brain edema, or vasogenic edema, is caused by an increase in the permeability of the
427:
165:
3615:"Current perspectives on deep brain stimulation for severe neurological and psychiatric disorders"
1261:
use. Their use may be warranted on depending on the clinical scenario and studies have shown that
6125:
5959:
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5682:
5633:
5470:
5333:
5221:
5015:
4988:
4815:
4764:
4713:
4510:
4289:
3922:
3595:
3544:
3262:
Milano MT, Sharma M, Soltys SG, Sahgal A, Usuki KY, Saenz JM, Grimm J, El Naqa I (July 1, 2018).
3185:
3107:
2728:
2598:
2172:
1092:
700:
647:
584:
526:
482:
72:
5155:
1512:
and increases the risk of systemic dehydration and hypotension. Their use remains controversial.
474:
6255:
5722:
5688:
5660:
5651:
5583:
5559:
5426:
5274:
5130:
5053:
4976:
4966:
4935:
4881:
4863:
4807:
4799:
4756:
4748:
4705:
4697:
4661:
4653:
4618:
4610:
4570:
4552:
4502:
4494:
4459:
4441:
4400:
4392:
4332:
4324:
4281:
4273:
4238:
4230:
4189:
4181:
4146:
4138:
4103:
4095:
4027:
4019:
3984:
3966:
3914:
3906:
3861:
3853:
3803:
3751:
3743:
3705:
3654:
3636:
3587:
3579:
3536:
3528:
3492:
3474:
3435:
3417:
3375:
3334:
3293:
3285:
3244:
3226:
3177:
3169:
3099:
3064:
3029:
3021:
2957:
2949:
2911:
2893:
2847:
2839:
2793:
2785:
2720:
2712:
2662:
2644:
2590:
2582:
2543:
2535:
2485:
2477:
2453:"Predictors for Cerebral Edema in Acute Ischemic Stroke Treated With Intravenous Thrombolysis"
2414:
2396:
2338:
2330:
2280:
2272:
2224:
2216:
2164:
2156:
2116:
1912:
1902:
1616:
1556:
1441:
1430:
1227:
1179:
1134:, oxygenation, and venous drainage, decrease cerebral metabolic demands, and to stabilize the
942:
885:(DBS) is effective treatment for several neurological and psychiatric disorders, most notably
792:
784:
141:
137:
27:
Excess accumulation of fluid (edema) in the intracellular or extracellular spaces of the brain
599:, local damage, reduced cerebral blood flow, and focal ischemia secondary to vasogenic edema.
379:
remains intact but decreased blood flow and glucose supply leads to a disruption in cellular
5845:
5716:
5711:
5496:
5491:
5043:
5035:
5019:
4958:
4925:
4915:
4871:
4855:
4791:
4740:
4689:
4645:
4602:
4560:
4544:
4486:
4449:
4431:
4384:
4316:
4265:
4220:
4173:
4130:
4085:
4011:
3974:
3958:
3898:
3845:
3793:
3785:
3735:
3695:
3685:
3644:
3626:
3571:
3520:
3482:
3466:
3425:
3409:
3365:
3324:
3275:
3234:
3216:
3205:"Astrocyte-derived VEGF-A drives blood-brain barrier disruption in CNS inflammatory disease"
3161:
3091:
3056:
3013:
2941:
2901:
2883:
2831:
2775:
2767:
2702:
2652:
2634:
2574:
2525:
2467:
2404:
2388:
2320:
2264:
2208:
2148:
2106:
1894:
1670:
1666:
1569:
1425:
1406:
1056:
1020:
800:
534:
490:
447:
400:
399:, with subsequent swelling of the cells. The ultimate consequence of cytotoxic edema is the
252:
118:
1889:
Leinonen V, Vanninen R, Rauramaa T (2018), "Raised intracranial pressure and brain edema",
1269:
can be given prophylactically without a significant increase in drug-related side effects.
744:
will bring about the other type of injury. For example, when cytotoxic edema occurs in the
6171:
5767:
5458:
5000:
3353:
1694:
1654:
1445:
1374:
1362:
863:
723:
486:
420:
388:
129:
5014:
Ko S.-B., Choi H. Alex, Parikh G., Schmidt J. Michael, Lee K., Badjatia N., Claassen J.,
2621:
Largeau B, Boels D, Victorri-Vigneau C, Cohen C, Salmon Gandonnière C, Ehrmann S (2019).
1349:
being the limiting factor in its continued use. Additionally, the use of nondepolarizing
1345:, is a quick-acting medication whose administration and removal is well tolerated, with
1194:
for airway protection and maintenance of oxygen and carbon dioxide levels. However, the
631:
and the abnormal pressure gradient leads to accumulation of water intake into the brain
5773:
5601:
5310:
5187:
5048:
5023:
4930:
4903:
4876:
4843:
4565:
4532:
4454:
4419:
4090:
4073:
3979:
3946:
3700:
3673:
3649:
3614:
3487:
3454:
3430:
3397:
3370:
3239:
3204:
2906:
2871:
2657:
2622:
2409:
2376:
1898:
1736:
1653:. This will help to reduce the volume constraints inside of the skull. A decompressive
1573:
1535:
1385:
1262:
1025:
938:
823:
808:
522:
439:
256:
248:
200:
5113:
4693:
3798:
3773:
3060:
3017:
1329:. For those persons with decreased levels of consciousness, sedation is necessary for
6249:
6117:
5850:
5802:
5672:
5441:
5397:
5248:
4859:
4819:
4225:
4208:
4177:
4134:
4015:
3599:
2771:
2732:
1674:
1596:
1539:
1515:
1501:
1449:
1381:
1302:
1052:
983:
946:
819:
692:
538:
451:
149:
106:
102:
31:
4768:
4514:
4293:
3926:
3548:
3455:"Anti-Amyloid-β Monoclonal Antibodies for Alzheimer's Disease: Pitfalls and Promise"
3189:
3111:
2602:
6227:
6148:
5346:
5216:
5199:
4717:
3849:
3470:
2176:
1633:
1564:
1473:
1365:, can worsen increased ICP due to induction of muscle contraction within the body.
1187:
1156:
1119:
905:
847:
796:
719:
675:
642:
The solute concentration of the blood plasma can be diluted by several mechanisms:
628:
574:
560:
315:
236:
157:
3739:
59:
5124:
4962:
4548:
4490:
4269:
3280:
3263:
2530:
2513:
2472:
6217:
6138:
6133:
5305:
5266:
5208:
4256:
Koenig MA (December 2018). "Cerebral Edema and Elevated Intracranial Pressure".
3413:
2945:
2268:
1732:
1682:
1678:
1620:
1592:
1560:
1491:
1469:
1346:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1219:
1183:
1104:
954:
922:
867:
843:
815:
745:
281:
244:
196:
153:
121:. Symptoms vary based on the location and extent of edema and generally include
4744:
4649:
4388:
4320:
3575:
3354:"Effects of high altitude exposure on cerebral hemodynamics in normal subjects"
3329:
3312:
2835:
2578:
2452:
6232:
6207:
6183:
6178:
5416:
5286:
5135:
5098:
4795:
4436:
3902:
3524:
3165:
2392:
2152:
1693:
Cerebral edema is a severe complication of acute brain injuries, most notably
1650:
1600:
1505:
1494:. Compared to hypertonic saline, mannitol may be more effective at increasing
1231:
1135:
967:
839:
727:
632:
624:
570:
564:
546:
380:
287:
215:
The extent and severity of the symptoms of cerebral edema depend on the exact
17:
4867:
4803:
4752:
4701:
4657:
4614:
4606:
4556:
4498:
4445:
4396:
4328:
4277:
4234:
4185:
4142:
4099:
4023:
3970:
3910:
3857:
3747:
3640:
3583:
3532:
3478:
3421:
3352:
Van Osta A, Moraine JJ, Mélot C, Mairbäurl H, Maggiorini M, Naeije R (2005).
3289:
3230:
3173:
3025:
2953:
2897:
2843:
2789:
2716:
2707:
2690:
2648:
2639:
2586:
2539:
2481:
2400:
2334:
2325:
2308:
2276:
2220:
2160:
2111:
2094:
1934:(2011), with the precision that the spelling in the United States is 'edema'.
862:(PRES) is a rare clinical disease characterized by cerebral edema. The exact
722:
pressure within the arterial system relative to the endothelial cells allows
6085:
5526:
5477:
5465:
5448:
5380:
1338:
1326:
1266:
988:
788:
514:
494:
478:
459:
455:
395:. Accumulation of sodium in the cell causes a rapid uptake of water through
5057:
4980:
4939:
4920:
4885:
4844:"Pathophysiology and treatment of cerebral edema in traumatic brain injury"
4811:
4760:
4709:
4665:
4622:
4574:
4506:
4463:
4404:
4336:
4285:
4242:
4107:
3988:
3918:
3865:
3755:
3709:
3690:
3658:
3591:
3540:
3496:
3439:
3379:
3311:
BarzĂł P, Marmarou, A, Fatouros, P, Hayasaki, K, Corwin, F (December 1997).
3297:
3248:
3181:
3068:
3033:
2961:
2915:
2851:
2797:
2724:
2666:
2594:
2547:
2512:
Wu S, Yuan R, Wang Y, Wei C, Zhang S, Yang X, Wu B, Liu M (December 2018).
2489:
2418:
2342:
2284:
2228:
2168:
2120:
1916:
1893:, Handbook of Clinical Neurology, vol. 145, Elsevier, pp. 25–37,
552:
There are several clinical conditions in which vasogenic edema is present:
407:
There are several clinical conditions in which cytotoxic edema is present:
4193:
4150:
4031:
3807:
3338:
3103:
2212:
1373:
Nutritional support is necessary in all patients with acute brain injury.
6161:
5706:
5698:
5664:
5518:
5421:
3962:
1509:
1479:
1465:
1434:
1342:
1334:
1254:
1222:, or intravascular volume loss, and the use of hypotonic fluids, such as
909:
904:
secondary to several neurological conditions and is commonly followed by
518:
463:
216:
128:
Cerebral edema is commonly seen in a variety of brain injuries including
122:
3082:
Klatzo I (1 January 1987). "Pathophysiological aspects of brain edema".
2780:
671:
Hemodialysis has been associated with ionic edema and cellular swelling.
639:. The blood-brain barrier is intact and maintains the osmotic gradient.
6222:
6202:
3631:
3095:
2888:
1677:, infection, and a substantial proportion of patients may also require
1487:
1457:
1040:
870:
vasogenic edema predominantly involving the parieto-occipital areas on
636:
542:
431:
396:
169:
5081:
5039:
4957:. Acta Neurochirurgica Supplementum. Vol. 102. pp. 279–282.
3789:
500:
Hypoxia, anoxia can lead to cytotoxic edema through several mechanisms
5745:
5486:
5453:
5093:
3221:
1608:
1543:
1314:
1195:
1159:
and obstruction of venous outflow from the skull, and for decreasing
1096:
1008:
is imperative but demanding, frequently requiring admission into the
971:
603:
530:
392:
309:
276:
995:
models but associated with local and systemic side effects as well.
691:
Interstitial edema can be best characterized by in noncomunnicating
6001:
Spinal muscular atrophy with lower extremity predominance (SMALED)
6156:
5024:"Real time estimation of brain water content in comatose patients"
1786:
1646:
1464:, although their use is currently controversial. When compared to
1277:
110:
98:
67:
Skull MRI (T2 flair) of a brain metastasis with accompanying edema
2514:"Early Prediction of Malignant Brain Edema After Ischemic Stroke"
1182:, and increase in the carbon dioxide concentration in the blood,
1241:
greater than 60 mm Hg for optimal blood blow to the brain.
6089:
5159:
3613:
Kocabicak E, Temel Y, Höllig A, Falkenburger B, Tan SK (2015).
3004:
Iencean SM (July 2003). "Brain edema -- a new classification".
1130:
The primary goal in cerebral edema is to optimize and regulate
387:(ATP). Exhaustion of energy sources impairs functioning of the
2872:"MR imaging features of amyloid-related imaging abnormalities"
1223:
351:
Hyper dense artery sign and larger affected area on CT imaging
3672:
Khan NA, Ullah S, Alkilani W, Zeb H, Tahir H, Suri J (2018).
3268:
International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics
77:
Headache, nausea, vomiting, decreased consciousness, seizures
921:
With the rise of sophisticated treatment modalities such as
310:
Amyloid-related imaging abnormalities associated with edema
1748:
ischemic strokes developed cerebral edema in 31% of cases.
493:
have been associated with cytotoxic edema and swelling of
1206:
Additionally, ventilation with use of positive pressure (
367:
The following individual sub-types have been identified:
1401:
Although cerebral edema is closely related to increased
243:, which, when associated with irregular breathing and a
1230:, should be avoided. Blood serum ion concentration, or
391:
in the cell membrane, leading to cellular retention of
1701:, and a significant cause of morbidity and mortality.
1384:, is associated with increased edema in patients with
1281:
recommended. This can be achieved through the use of
1237:
Blood pressure should be sufficient so as to sustain
1079:(ICP) and its management is a fundamental concept in
1031:
Diagnosis of cerebral edema relies on the following:
458:
cell swelling. Additionally, ammonia is converted to
5071:
2932:
Adrogué HJ, Madias NE (2000-05-25). "Hyponatremia".
2199:
Wijdicks EF (2016-10-27). "Hepatic Encephalopathy".
119:
direct compression of brain tissue and blood vessels
6192:
6147:
6124:
5922:
5899:
5890:
5883:
5838:
5788:
5760:
5731:
5697:
5659:
5648:
5614:
5592:
5517:
5327:
5318:
5304:
5264:
5207:
5198:
5075:
4123:
Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology
2307:Adukauskiene D, Bivainyte A, Radaviciūte E (2007).
81:
71:
49:
44:
1498:and may be preferable in those with hypoperfusion.
434:, accumulates in the blood stream and crosses the
978:(VEGF), which weakens the tight junctions of the
113:. This typically causes impaired nerve function,
4842:Jha RM, Kochanek PM, Simard JM (February 2019).
2088:
2086:
2084:
2082:
2080:
2078:
2076:
2074:
2072:
2070:
2068:
2066:
2064:
2062:
2060:
2058:
2056:
2054:
2052:
2050:
2048:
2046:
2044:
2042:
2040:
2038:
2036:
2034:
2032:
2030:
2028:
2026:
2024:
2022:
2020:
2018:
2016:
2014:
2012:
2010:
2008:
2006:
2004:
2002:
2000:
1998:
1996:
1994:
1992:
1990:
1988:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1980:
1978:
1976:
1974:
1972:
1970:
1968:
1966:
1964:
1962:
1960:
1884:
1882:
1880:
1878:
1876:
1874:
1872:
1870:
1868:
1866:
1864:
1862:
1860:
1858:
1856:
1854:
1852:
1850:
1848:
1846:
1844:
1842:
1840:
1838:
1836:
1834:
1832:
1830:
1828:
1826:
1142:(ICP), many of the therapies will focus on ICP.
991:, have been promising in prolonging survival in
695:where there is an obstruction to the outflow of
4897:
4895:
1958:
1956:
1954:
1952:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1944:
1942:
1940:
1824:
1822:
1820:
1818:
1816:
1814:
1812:
1810:
1808:
1806:
900:is frequently performed in cases of resistant
655:syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone
255:on brain tissue and blood vessels, leading to
6101:
5171:
1928:'Oedema' is the standard form defined in the
1178:Decreased oxygen concentration in the blood,
1110:Clinical researches have recommended ICP and
831:Amyloid-related imaging abnormalities – edema
541:of fluid, ions, and plasma proteins, such as
53:Brain edema, Cerebral oedema, Brain swelling
8:
3047:Rosenberg G (1999). "Ischemic Brain Edema".
2309:"[Cerebral edema and its treatment]"
1772:, which is related to tissue water content.
1293:) and cooling the body, as described below.
1146:General measures for managing cerebral edema
1091:in individuals with TBI that have decreased
860:Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome
855:Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome
299:Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome
1047:) can be useful in diagnosing or excluding
6108:
6094:
6086:
5896:
5887:
5656:
5324:
5315:
5204:
5178:
5164:
5156:
5072:
2381:Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports
2139:Lahner D, Fritsch G (September 2017). "".
623:In ionic edema, the solute concentration (
345:Signs of current ischemia on clinical exam
341:National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale
41:
5047:
4929:
4919:
4875:
4564:
4453:
4435:
4224:
4089:
3978:
3797:
3699:
3689:
3648:
3630:
3486:
3429:
3369:
3328:
3279:
3238:
3220:
2905:
2887:
2779:
2706:
2656:
2638:
2529:
2471:
2408:
2324:
2110:
1579:Prolonged hyperventilation in those with
974:) of the brain can increase secretion of
893:Massive brain swelling after cranioplasty
606:after rapid recovery from cytotoxic edema
221:increase of the pressure within the skull
4067:
4065:
4063:
4061:
2876:AJNR. American Journal of Neuroradiology
2375:Jha RM, Kochanek PM (November 7, 2018).
1301:Elevated blood glucose levels, known as
1015:Cerebral edema with sustained increased
982:. Historically, corticosteroids such as
783:is a severe and sometimes fatal form of
521:joined with adhesion proteins producing
383:and creation of energy sources, such as
4837:
4835:
4833:
4831:
4829:
4370:
4368:
4366:
4059:
4057:
4055:
4053:
4051:
4049:
4047:
4045:
4043:
4041:
3940:
3938:
3936:
3147:
3145:
3143:
3141:
1802:
1214:Fluid management and cerebral perfusion
908:. Complications, such as infection and
286:Infections (such as a brain abscess or
5967:Distal hereditary motor neuronopathies
5640:Template:Demyelinating diseases of CNS
4996:
4986:
4784:Current Treatment Options in Neurology
4526:
4524:
4364:
4362:
4360:
4358:
4356:
4354:
4352:
4350:
4348:
4346:
3945:Robinson N, Clancy M (November 2001).
3883:
3881:
3879:
3877:
3875:
3831:
3829:
3827:
3825:
3823:
3821:
3819:
3817:
3767:
3765:
3721:
3719:
3619:Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment
3391:
3389:
3139:
3137:
3135:
3133:
3131:
3129:
3127:
3125:
3123:
3121:
2999:
2997:
2995:
2993:
2991:
2927:
2925:
2865:
2863:
2861:
2817:
2815:
2813:
2811:
2809:
2807:
2752:
2750:
2748:
2746:
2744:
2742:
2684:
2682:
2680:
2678:
2676:
2616:
2614:
2612:
2095:"Medical management of cerebral edema"
1669:. Postoperative complications include
513:. The blood–brain barrier consists of
227:, and blood vessels, according to the
219:but are generally related to an acute
4588:
4586:
4584:
3209:The Journal of Clinical Investigation
2989:
2987:
2985:
2983:
2981:
2979:
2977:
2975:
2973:
2971:
2559:
2557:
2507:
2505:
2503:
2501:
2499:
1792:Amyloid-related imaging abnormalities
1444:is a highly concentrated solution of
961:Brain tumor-associated cerebral edema
836:Amyloid-related imaging abnormalities
251:. The Cushing reflex often indicates
7:
5818:Idiopathic intracranial hypertension
4309:The Nursing Clinics of North America
2760:Parkinsonism & Related Disorders
2446:
2444:
2442:
2440:
2438:
2436:
2434:
2432:
2430:
2428:
2370:
2368:
2366:
2364:
2362:
2360:
2358:
2356:
2354:
2352:
2302:
2300:
2298:
2296:
2294:
2250:
2248:
2246:
2244:
2242:
2240:
2238:
2194:
2192:
2190:
2188:
2186:
2134:
2132:
2130:
1524:idiopathic intracranial hypertension
791:fluid leakage due to the effects of
660:Rapid reduction of blood glucose in
4537:The Journal of Neuroscience Nursing
4531:Madden LK, DeVon HA (August 2015).
3049:Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases
2934:The New England Journal of Medicine
2201:The New England Journal of Medicine
1591:Induction of a coma via the use of
1583:has been shown to worsen outcomes.
627:) of the brain exceeds that of the
339:Higher severity of symptoms on the
115:increased pressure within the skull
6049:Infantile progressive bulbar palsy
4166:The American Journal of Physiology
4091:10.1161/01.str.0000441965.15164.d6
3371:10.1161/01.STR.0000155735.85888.13
1899:10.1016/b978-0-12-802395-2.00004-3
1685:in the early phase after surgery.
976:vascular endothelial growth factor
25:
5752:Template:Cerebrovascular diseases
5555:Frontotemporal lobar degeneration
3838:The Journal of Emergency Medicine
3778:Journal of Clinical Investigation
3453:van Dyck CH (February 15, 2018).
2255:Dehnert C, Bärtsch P (2017). "".
1931:Concise Oxford English Dictionary
257:decreased blood flow to the brain
97:is excess accumulation of fluid (
5772:For more detailed coverage, see
5750:For more detailed coverage, see
5721:For more detailed coverage, see
5687:For more detailed coverage, see
5638:For more detailed coverage, see
4955:Acta Neurochirurgica Supplements
4860:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.08.004
4226:10.1097/00003246-200201000-00021
4178:10.1152/ajpheart.1988.255.2.H343
4016:10.1097/00005373-199209000-00024
2772:10.1016/j.parkreldis.2016.09.007
1072:Intracranial pressure monitoring
931:intensity-modulated radiotherapy
739:Combined types of cerebral edema
666:hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state
430:where toxic waste, most notably
348:Decreased level of consciousness
58:
1066:digital subtraction angiography
597:increased intracranial pressure
4258:Continuum (Minneapolis, Minn.)
3850:10.1016/j.jemermed.2017.02.010
3471:10.1016/j.biopsych.2017.08.010
878:Idiopathic delayed-onset edema
462:in CNS cells which acts as an
1:
6065:Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
5950:Hereditary spastic paraplegia
5808:Normal pressure hydrocephalus
4694:10.1016/S1474-4422(09)70047-X
3740:10.1016/j.jconrel.2015.08.028
3728:Journal of Controlled Release
3061:10.1016/s0033-0620(99)70003-4
3018:10.1016/s0306-9877(03)00127-0
2093:Raslan A, Bhardwaj A (2007).
1733:central nervous system tumors
1448:in water and is administered
917:Radiation-induced brain edema
773:high-altitude pulmonary edema
769:acute mountain sickness (AMS)
708:normal pressure hydrocephalus
533:can cause excitotoxicity and
303:Radiation-induced brain edema
197:central nervous system tumors
117:, and can eventually lead to
6034:Progressive muscular atrophy
4963:10.1007/978-3-211-85578-2_52
4549:10.1097/JNN.0000000000000142
4491:10.1097/CCM.0b013e31827ca4b3
4270:10.1212/CON.0000000000000665
4135:10.1016/0013-4694(84)90085-3
3281:10.1016/j.ijrobp.2018.03.026
2531:10.1161/STROKEAHA.118.022001
2473:10.1161/STROKEAHA.117.018223
1520:carbonic anhydrase inhibitor
1496:cerebral perfusion pressures
1388:and increases the risk of a
1351:neuromusclar blocking agents
1239:cerebral perfusion pressures
781:High-altitude cerebral edema
777:high-altitude cerebral edema
763:High-altitude cerebral edema
687:Interstitial (hydrocephalic)
321:High-altitude cerebral edema
5544:Primary progressive aphasia
3414:10.1016/j.jalz.2011.05.2351
2946:10.1056/NEJM200005253422107
1613:cerebral perfusion pressure
1486:derivative of simple sugar
1380:Elevated blood glucose, or
1174:Ventilation and oxygenation
1170:and reduce venous outflow.
1112:cerebral perfusion pressure
1006:focal neurological deficits
646:Improper administration of
610:Hypertensive encephalopathy
6277:
6199:Cause of fluid collection
5866:Hashimoto's encephalopathy
5572:Posterior cortical atrophy
5393:Striatonigral degeneration
5244:Cavernous sinus thrombosis
4745:10.1016/j.wneu.2018.11.176
4650:10.1016/j.wneu.2014.12.010
4389:10.1016/j.wneu.2017.07.009
4321:10.1016/j.cnur.2017.01.002
3951:Emergency Medicine Journal
3576:10.1016/j.wneu.2019.10.196
3402:Alzheimer's & Dementia
3330:10.3171/jns.1997.87.6.0900
2836:10.1016/j.wneu.2017.12.061
2579:10.1016/j.wneu.2018.04.130
1649:to allow expansion of the
1390:hemorrhagic transformation
1045:magnetic resonance imaging
174:magnetic resonance imaging
136:, traumatic brain injury,
29:
5972:Spinal muscular atrophies
5940:Primary lateral sclerosis
5798:Intracranial hypertension
5578:Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease
4796:10.1007/s11940-014-0327-0
4437:10.1186/s13643-018-0790-x
3903:10.1007/s12028-014-0048-y
3525:10.1007/s00381-015-2954-5
3166:10.1007/s00401-009-0541-0
2393:10.1007/s11910-018-0912-9
2269:10.1024/0040-5930/a000954
2153:10.1007/s00113-017-0388-0
1663:decompressive craniectomy
1605:intracranial hypertension
1555:As mentioned previously,
1201:Rapid Sequence Intubation
1017:intracranial hypertension
951:hyperbaric oxygen therapy
902:intracranial hypertension
898:Decompressive craniectomy
419:, and the early phase of
389:sodium and potassium pump
185:decompressive craniectomy
170:computed tomography scans
66:
57:
6039:Progressive bulbar palsy
5830:Intracranial hypotension
5813:Choroid plexus papilloma
5227:Herpesviral encephalitis
4607:10.1001/jama.289.22.2992
3678:Case Reports in Medicine
2708:10.4103/0028-3886.271242
2640:10.3389/fneur.2019.01420
2326:10.3390/medicina43020021
2112:10.3171/foc.2007.22.5.13
1741:intracerebral hemorrhage
1699:traumatic brain injuries
1581:traumatic brain injuries
1454:traumatic brain injuries
1311:subarachnoid hemorrhages
1307:traumatic brain injuries
1101:intracerebral hemorrhage
653:Excessive water intake,
650:, isotonic or hypotonic.
593:Traumatic brain injuries
529:to these cells after an
454:dysfunction, leading to
417:intracerebral hemorrhage
413:traumatic brain injuries
253:compression of the brain
205:intracerebral hemorrhage
189:traumatic brain injuries
30:Not to be confused with
5551:Frontotemporal dementia
5237:Encephalitis lethargica
3317:Journal of Neurosurgery
1766:finite element analysis
1331:endotracheal intubation
1116:subarachnoid hemorrhage
1085:Brain Trauma Foundation
1049:intracranial hemorrhage
635:through the process of
158:low blood sodium levels
134:subarachnoid hemorrhage
5856:Hepatic encephalopathy
4479:Critical Care Medicine
4213:Critical Care Medicine
3513:Child's Nervous System
2627:Frontiers in Neurology
2257:Therapeutische Umschau
1729:traumatic brain injury
1715:traumatic brain injury
1708:middle cerebral artery
1526:(pseudotumor cerebri).
1424:. This will create an
1168:internal jugular veins
1081:traumatic brain injury
1051:, large masses, acute
883:Deep brain stimulation
581:central nervous system
471:methionine sulfoximine
444:central nervous system
385:adenosine triphosphate
294:Hepatic encephalopathy
272:Traumatic brain injury
259:and eventually death.
146:intracerebral hematoma
83:Differential diagnosis
5914:Ataxia–telangiectasia
5871:Static encephalopathy
5594:Mitochondrial disease
5432:Spasmodic torticollis
5342:Basal ganglia disease
4682:The Lancet. Neurology
4004:The Journal of Trauma
3459:Biological Psychiatry
3154:Acta Neuropathologica
3084:Acta Neuropathologica
2213:10.1056/NEJMra1600561
1782:Intracranial pressure
1667:brainstem compression
1403:intracranial pressure
1140:intracranial pressure
1087:guidelines recommend
1077:Intracranial pressure
1039:Serial neuroimaging (
953:, multivitamins, and
662:diabetic ketoacidosis
306:Post-surgical changes
229:Monro–Kellie doctrine
225:cerebral spinal fluid
181:intracranial pressure
5861:Toxic encephalopathy
5567:Lewy bodies dementia
4921:10.1155/2022/3948921
4908:Oxid Med Cell Longev
4172:(2 Pt 2): H343–346.
3963:10.1136/emj.18.6.453
3691:10.1155/2018/9805395
1770:thermal conductivity
1615:, cardiodepression,
1164:hydrostatic pressure
1028:, or risk of death.
527:Return of blood flow
354:Higher blood glucose
245:decreased heart rate
156:, brain infections,
5909:Friedreich's ataxia
5292:Meningoencephalitis
5232:Limbic encephalitis
4680:randomised trial".
3897:(Suppl 2): S64–84.
2099:Neurosurgical Focus
1462:hydroxyethyl starch
1422:blood–brain barrier
1407:cerebral herniation
1250:Seizure prophylaxis
1161:cerebrospinal fluid
1010:intensive care unit
980:blood–brain barrier
935:blood–brain barrier
887:Parkinson's disease
805:blood–brain barrier
750:blood–brain barrier
732:blood-brain barrier
697:cerebrospinal fluid
511:blood–brain barrier
469:Toxic exposures to
446:(CNS) cells causes
436:blood–brain barrier
428:acute liver failure
411:Commonly caused by
377:blood–brain barrier
241:cerebral blood flow
166:acute liver failure
6126:Volume contraction
5945:Pseudobulbar palsy
5683:Status epilepticus
5634:Multiple sclerosis
5471:Myoclonic epilepsy
5334:movement disorders
5280:Acute disseminated
5222:Viral encephalitis
5016:Connolly E. Sander
4733:World Neurosurgery
4638:World Neurosurgery
4424:Systematic Reviews
4377:World Neurosurgery
3891:Neurocritical Care
3632:10.2147/NDT.S46583
3564:World Neurosurgery
3096:10.1007/BF00691095
3006:Medical Hypotheses
2889:10.3174/ajnr.A3500
2824:World Neurosurgery
2567:World Neurosurgery
1228:half normal saline
1132:cerebral perfusion
1093:Glasgow Coma Scale
943:antiplatelet drugs
787:that results from
701:ventricular system
648:intravenous fluids
585:multiple sclerosis
211:Signs and symptoms
6243:
6242:
6083:
6082:
6079:
6078:
6075:
6074:
5879:
5878:
5784:
5783:
5723:Template:Headache
5689:Template:Epilepsy
5610:
5609:
5584:Vascular dementia
5427:Status dystonicus
5300:
5299:
5275:Encephalomyelitis
5145:
5144:
5040:10.1002/ana.23619
4972:978-3-211-85577-5
4854:(Pt B): 230–246.
4848:Neuropharmacology
4601:(22): 2992–2999.
3790:10.1172/JCI118927
2940:(21): 1581–1589.
2882:(10): 1958–1965.
2524:(12): 2918–2927.
2207:(17): 1660–1670.
2141:Der Unfallchirurg
1908:978-0-12-802395-2
1617:immunosuppression
1574:cerebral ischemia
1442:Hypertonic saline
1431:Hypertonic saline
1397:Specific measures
1386:cerebral ischemia
1105:cerebral neoplasm
801:endothelial cells
785:altitude sickness
545:, into the brain
92:
91:
39:Medical condition
16:(Redirected from
6268:
6110:
6103:
6096:
6087:
5897:
5888:
5846:Brain herniation
5657:
5497:Intention tremor
5492:Essential tremor
5357:Postencephalitic
5325:
5316:
5205:
5186:Diseases of the
5180:
5173:
5166:
5157:
5073:
5062:
5061:
5051:
5011:
5005:
5004:
4998:
4994:
4992:
4984:
4950:
4944:
4943:
4933:
4923:
4899:
4890:
4889:
4879:
4839:
4824:
4823:
4779:
4773:
4772:
4728:
4722:
4721:
4676:
4670:
4669:
4633:
4627:
4626:
4590:
4579:
4578:
4568:
4528:
4519:
4518:
4485:(5): 1353–1360.
4474:
4468:
4467:
4457:
4439:
4415:
4409:
4408:
4372:
4341:
4340:
4304:
4298:
4297:
4264:(6): 1588–1602.
4253:
4247:
4246:
4228:
4204:
4198:
4197:
4161:
4155:
4154:
4118:
4112:
4111:
4093:
4084:(4): 1222–1238.
4069:
4036:
4035:
3999:
3993:
3992:
3982:
3942:
3931:
3930:
3885:
3870:
3869:
3833:
3812:
3811:
3801:
3784:(6): 1400–1408.
3769:
3760:
3759:
3723:
3714:
3713:
3703:
3693:
3669:
3663:
3662:
3652:
3634:
3610:
3604:
3603:
3559:
3553:
3552:
3507:
3501:
3500:
3490:
3450:
3444:
3443:
3433:
3393:
3384:
3383:
3373:
3349:
3343:
3342:
3332:
3308:
3302:
3301:
3283:
3259:
3253:
3252:
3242:
3224:
3222:10.1172/JCI60842
3215:(7): 2454–2468.
3200:
3194:
3193:
3149:
3116:
3115:
3079:
3073:
3072:
3044:
3038:
3037:
3001:
2966:
2965:
2929:
2920:
2919:
2909:
2891:
2867:
2856:
2855:
2819:
2802:
2801:
2783:
2754:
2737:
2736:
2710:
2701:(5): 1292–1302.
2686:
2671:
2670:
2660:
2642:
2618:
2607:
2606:
2561:
2552:
2551:
2533:
2509:
2494:
2493:
2475:
2466:(9): 2464–2471.
2457:
2448:
2423:
2422:
2412:
2372:
2347:
2346:
2328:
2304:
2289:
2288:
2252:
2233:
2232:
2196:
2181:
2180:
2136:
2125:
2124:
2114:
2090:
1935:
1926:
1920:
1919:
1886:
1671:wound dehiscence
1570:vasoconstriction
1551:Hyperventilation
1426:osmotic pressure
1353:(NMBA), such as
1315:ischemic strokes
1057:brain herniation
1021:brain herniation
614:Radiation injury
589:Brain hemorrhage
583:disease such as
569:Infections like
535:oxidative stress
491:hydrogen cyanide
448:oxidative stress
247:, is called the
62:
42:
21:
6276:
6275:
6271:
6270:
6269:
6267:
6266:
6265:
6246:
6245:
6244:
6239:
6188:
6172:pulmonary edema
6143:
6120:
6114:
6084:
6071:
5997:Congenital DSMA
5918:
5875:
5834:
5780:
5768:Sleep disorders
5756:
5733:Cerebrovascular
5727:
5693:
5650:
5644:
5606:
5588:
5513:
5459:Choreoathetosis
5332:
5309:
5296:
5260:
5194:
5184:
5152:Vasogenic Edema
5146:
5141:
5140:
5084:
5070:
5065:
5013:
5012:
5008:
4995:
4985:
4973:
4952:
4951:
4947:
4901:
4900:
4893:
4841:
4840:
4827:
4781:
4780:
4776:
4730:
4729:
4725:
4678:
4677:
4673:
4635:
4634:
4630:
4592:
4591:
4582:
4530:
4529:
4522:
4476:
4475:
4471:
4417:
4416:
4412:
4374:
4373:
4344:
4306:
4305:
4301:
4255:
4254:
4250:
4206:
4205:
4201:
4163:
4162:
4158:
4120:
4119:
4115:
4071:
4070:
4039:
4001:
4000:
3996:
3944:
3943:
3934:
3887:
3886:
3873:
3835:
3834:
3815:
3771:
3770:
3763:
3725:
3724:
3717:
3671:
3670:
3666:
3612:
3611:
3607:
3561:
3560:
3556:
3509:
3508:
3504:
3452:
3451:
3447:
3395:
3394:
3387:
3351:
3350:
3346:
3310:
3309:
3305:
3261:
3260:
3256:
3202:
3201:
3197:
3151:
3150:
3119:
3081:
3080:
3076:
3046:
3045:
3041:
3003:
3002:
2969:
2931:
2930:
2923:
2869:
2868:
2859:
2821:
2820:
2805:
2756:
2755:
2740:
2695:Neurology India
2688:
2687:
2674:
2620:
2619:
2610:
2563:
2562:
2555:
2511:
2510:
2497:
2455:
2450:
2449:
2426:
2374:
2373:
2350:
2306:
2305:
2292:
2263:(10): 535–541.
2254:
2253:
2236:
2198:
2197:
2184:
2138:
2137:
2128:
2092:
2091:
1938:
1927:
1923:
1909:
1888:
1887:
1804:
1800:
1778:
1758:
1724:
1695:ischemic stroke
1691:
1655:hemicraniectomy
1642:
1629:
1619:, and systemic
1609:ischemic stroke
1595:, most notably
1589:
1553:
1544:ischemic stroke
1536:Glucocorticoids
1533:
1531:Glucocorticoids
1446:sodium chloride
1418:
1416:Osmotic therapy
1399:
1375:Enteral feeding
1371:
1363:succinylcholine
1323:
1299:
1275:
1263:anticonvulsants
1252:
1216:
1176:
1153:
1148:
1128:
1097:ischemic stroke
1074:
1064:(CTA), MRI, or
1037:
1001:
963:
939:corticosteroids
919:
895:
880:
864:pathophysiology
857:
833:
824:corticosteroids
765:
760:
741:
724:ultrafiltration
716:
689:
621:
619:Ionic (Osmotic)
604:ischemic stroke
573:, abscess, and
531:ischemic stroke
523:tight junctions
507:
487:hexachlorophene
421:ischemic stroke
373:
361:
329:
265:
213:
130:ischemic stroke
40:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6274:
6272:
6264:
6263:
6258:
6248:
6247:
6241:
6240:
6238:
6237:
6236:
6235:
6230:
6225:
6220:
6212:
6211:
6210:
6205:
6196:
6194:
6190:
6189:
6187:
6186:
6181:
6176:
6175:
6174:
6169:
6167:cerebral edema
6159:
6153:
6151:
6145:
6144:
6142:
6141:
6136:
6130:
6128:
6122:
6121:
6115:
6113:
6112:
6105:
6098:
6090:
6081:
6080:
6077:
6076:
6073:
6072:
6070:
6069:
6068:
6067:
6056:
6055:
6054:
6053:
6052:
6051:
6046:
6036:
6031:
6030:
6029:
6024:
6019:
6018:
6017:
6012:
6007:
5999:
5994:
5989:
5984:
5979:
5969:
5955:
5954:
5953:
5952:
5947:
5942:
5928:
5926:
5920:
5919:
5917:
5916:
5911:
5905:
5903:
5894:
5885:
5881:
5880:
5877:
5876:
5874:
5873:
5868:
5863:
5858:
5853:
5848:
5842:
5840:
5836:
5835:
5833:
5832:
5827:
5825:Cerebral edema
5822:
5821:
5820:
5815:
5810:
5805:
5794:
5792:
5786:
5785:
5782:
5781:
5779:
5778:
5777:
5776:
5774:Template:Sleep
5764:
5762:
5758:
5757:
5755:
5754:
5748:
5743:
5737:
5735:
5729:
5728:
5726:
5725:
5719:
5714:
5709:
5703:
5701:
5695:
5694:
5692:
5691:
5685:
5680:
5675:
5669:
5667:
5654:
5646:
5645:
5643:
5642:
5636:
5631:
5626:
5620:
5618:
5612:
5611:
5608:
5607:
5605:
5604:
5602:Leigh syndrome
5598:
5596:
5590:
5589:
5587:
5586:
5575:
5574:
5569:
5564:
5563:
5562:
5548:
5547:
5546:
5541:
5540:
5539:
5523:
5521:
5515:
5514:
5512:
5511:
5506:
5501:
5500:
5499:
5494:
5483:
5482:
5481:
5480:
5475:
5474:
5473:
5463:
5462:
5461:
5451:
5446:
5445:
5444:
5439:
5434:
5429:
5413:
5412:
5411:
5410:
5405:
5400:
5395:
5390:
5389:
5388:
5378:
5377:
5376:
5366:
5365:
5364:
5359:
5354:
5338:
5336:
5329:Extrapyramidal
5322:
5313:
5311:encephalopathy
5302:
5301:
5298:
5297:
5295:
5294:
5289:
5284:
5283:
5282:
5271:
5269:
5262:
5261:
5259:
5258:
5257:
5256:
5246:
5241:
5240:
5239:
5234:
5229:
5224:
5213:
5211:
5202:
5196:
5195:
5188:nervous system
5185:
5183:
5182:
5175:
5168:
5160:
5154:
5153:
5143:
5142:
5139:
5138:
5127:
5116:
5101:
5085:
5080:
5079:
5077:
5076:Classification
5069:
5068:External links
5066:
5064:
5063:
5006:
4997:|journal=
4971:
4945:
4891:
4825:
4774:
4723:
4688:(4): 326–333.
4671:
4644:(4): 567–573.
4628:
4580:
4543:(4): 190–203.
4520:
4469:
4410:
4342:
4315:(2): 249–260.
4299:
4248:
4219:(1): 142–156.
4199:
4156:
4129:(6): 497–506.
4113:
4037:
4010:(3): 476–481.
3994:
3957:(6): 453–457.
3932:
3871:
3813:
3761:
3715:
3664:
3605:
3554:
3519:(5): 857–863.
3502:
3465:(4): 311–319.
3445:
3408:(4): 367–385.
3385:
3364:(3): 557–560.
3344:
3303:
3274:(2): 344–357.
3254:
3195:
3160:(2): 197–217.
3117:
3090:(3): 236–239.
3074:
3039:
3012:(1): 106–109.
2967:
2921:
2857:
2803:
2738:
2672:
2608:
2553:
2495:
2424:
2348:
2319:(2): 170–176.
2290:
2234:
2182:
2147:(9): 728–733.
2126:
1936:
1921:
1907:
1891:Neuropathology
1801:
1799:
1796:
1795:
1794:
1789:
1784:
1777:
1774:
1757:
1754:
1753:
1752:
1749:
1737:brain ischemia
1723:
1720:
1719:
1718:
1711:
1690:
1687:
1641:
1638:
1628:
1625:
1588:
1585:
1552:
1549:
1532:
1529:
1528:
1527:
1513:
1502:Loop diuretics
1499:
1477:
1417:
1414:
1398:
1395:
1370:
1367:
1322:
1319:
1298:
1295:
1274:
1271:
1251:
1248:
1215:
1212:
1175:
1172:
1152:
1149:
1147:
1144:
1127:
1124:
1089:ICP monitoring
1073:
1070:
1062:CT angiography
1036:
1033:
1000:
997:
962:
959:
947:anticoagulants
918:
915:
894:
891:
879:
876:
856:
853:
832:
829:
809:truncal ataxia
764:
761:
759:
756:
740:
737:
715:
712:
688:
685:
680:
679:
672:
669:
658:
651:
620:
617:
616:
615:
612:
607:
602:Late stage of
600:
590:
587:
577:
567:
506:
503:
502:
501:
498:
467:
452:mitochrondrial
440:Hyperammonemia
424:
372:
369:
360:
359:Classification
357:
356:
355:
352:
349:
346:
343:
337:
328:
325:
324:
323:
318:
313:
307:
304:
301:
296:
291:
284:
279:
274:
264:
261:
249:Cushing reflex
212:
209:
201:brain ischemia
109:spaces of the
95:Cerebral edema
90:
89:
88:encephalopathy
85:
79:
78:
75:
69:
68:
64:
63:
55:
54:
51:
47:
46:
45:Cerebral edema
38:
26:
24:
18:Brain swelling
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6273:
6262:
6259:
6257:
6254:
6253:
6251:
6234:
6231:
6229:
6226:
6224:
6221:
6219:
6216:
6215:
6213:
6209:
6206:
6204:
6201:
6200:
6198:
6197:
6195:
6191:
6185:
6182:
6180:
6177:
6173:
6170:
6168:
6165:
6164:
6163:
6160:
6158:
6155:
6154:
6152:
6150:
6146:
6140:
6137:
6135:
6132:
6131:
6129:
6127:
6123:
6119:
6116:Disorders of
6111:
6106:
6104:
6099:
6097:
6092:
6091:
6088:
6066:
6063:
6062:
6061:
6058:
6057:
6050:
6047:
6045:
6042:
6041:
6040:
6037:
6035:
6032:
6028:
6025:
6023:
6020:
6016:
6013:
6011:
6008:
6006:
6003:
6002:
6000:
5998:
5995:
5993:
5990:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5980:
5978:
5975:
5974:
5973:
5970:
5968:
5965:
5964:
5963:
5961:
5957:
5956:
5951:
5948:
5946:
5943:
5941:
5938:
5937:
5936:
5934:
5930:
5929:
5927:
5925:
5921:
5915:
5912:
5910:
5907:
5906:
5904:
5902:
5898:
5895:
5893:
5889:
5886:
5882:
5872:
5869:
5867:
5864:
5862:
5859:
5857:
5854:
5852:
5851:Reye syndrome
5849:
5847:
5844:
5843:
5841:
5837:
5831:
5828:
5826:
5823:
5819:
5816:
5814:
5811:
5809:
5806:
5804:
5803:Hydrocephalus
5801:
5800:
5799:
5796:
5795:
5793:
5791:
5787:
5775:
5771:
5770:
5769:
5766:
5765:
5763:
5759:
5753:
5749:
5747:
5744:
5742:
5739:
5738:
5736:
5734:
5730:
5724:
5720:
5718:
5715:
5713:
5710:
5708:
5705:
5704:
5702:
5700:
5696:
5690:
5686:
5684:
5681:
5679:
5676:
5674:
5671:
5670:
5668:
5666:
5662:
5658:
5655:
5653:
5647:
5641:
5637:
5635:
5632:
5630:
5627:
5625:
5622:
5621:
5619:
5617:
5616:Demyelinating
5613:
5603:
5600:
5599:
5597:
5595:
5591:
5585:
5582:
5581:
5580:
5579:
5573:
5570:
5568:
5565:
5561:
5558:
5557:
5556:
5552:
5549:
5545:
5542:
5538:
5535:
5534:
5533:
5530:
5529:
5528:
5525:
5524:
5522:
5520:
5516:
5510:
5507:
5505:
5504:Restless legs
5502:
5498:
5495:
5493:
5490:
5489:
5488:
5485:
5484:
5479:
5476:
5472:
5469:
5468:
5467:
5464:
5460:
5457:
5456:
5455:
5452:
5450:
5447:
5443:
5442:Blepharospasm
5440:
5438:
5435:
5433:
5430:
5428:
5425:
5424:
5423:
5420:
5419:
5418:
5415:
5414:
5409:
5406:
5404:
5401:
5399:
5398:Hemiballismus
5396:
5394:
5391:
5387:
5384:
5383:
5382:
5379:
5375:
5372:
5371:
5370:
5367:
5363:
5360:
5358:
5355:
5353:
5350:
5349:
5348:
5345:
5344:
5343:
5340:
5339:
5337:
5335:
5330:
5326:
5323:
5321:
5317:
5314:
5312:
5307:
5303:
5293:
5290:
5288:
5285:
5281:
5278:
5277:
5276:
5273:
5272:
5270:
5268:
5263:
5255:
5252:
5251:
5250:
5249:Brain abscess
5247:
5245:
5242:
5238:
5235:
5233:
5230:
5228:
5225:
5223:
5220:
5219:
5218:
5215:
5214:
5212:
5210:
5206:
5203:
5201:
5197:
5193:
5189:
5181:
5176:
5174:
5169:
5167:
5162:
5161:
5158:
5151:
5148:
5147:
5137:
5133:
5132:
5128:
5126:
5122:
5121:
5117:
5115:
5111:
5110:
5106:
5102:
5100:
5096:
5095:
5091:
5087:
5086:
5083:
5078:
5074:
5067:
5059:
5055:
5050:
5045:
5041:
5037:
5034:(3): 344–50.
5033:
5029:
5025:
5021:
5017:
5010:
5007:
5002:
4990:
4982:
4978:
4974:
4968:
4964:
4960:
4956:
4949:
4946:
4941:
4937:
4932:
4927:
4922:
4917:
4913:
4909:
4905:
4898:
4896:
4892:
4887:
4883:
4878:
4873:
4869:
4865:
4861:
4857:
4853:
4849:
4845:
4838:
4836:
4834:
4832:
4830:
4826:
4821:
4817:
4813:
4809:
4805:
4801:
4797:
4793:
4789:
4785:
4778:
4775:
4770:
4766:
4762:
4758:
4754:
4750:
4746:
4742:
4738:
4734:
4727:
4724:
4719:
4715:
4711:
4707:
4703:
4699:
4695:
4691:
4687:
4683:
4675:
4672:
4667:
4663:
4659:
4655:
4651:
4647:
4643:
4639:
4632:
4629:
4624:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4608:
4604:
4600:
4596:
4589:
4587:
4585:
4581:
4576:
4572:
4567:
4562:
4558:
4554:
4550:
4546:
4542:
4538:
4534:
4527:
4525:
4521:
4516:
4512:
4508:
4504:
4500:
4496:
4492:
4488:
4484:
4480:
4473:
4470:
4465:
4461:
4456:
4451:
4447:
4443:
4438:
4433:
4429:
4425:
4421:
4414:
4411:
4406:
4402:
4398:
4394:
4390:
4386:
4382:
4378:
4371:
4369:
4367:
4365:
4363:
4361:
4359:
4357:
4355:
4353:
4351:
4349:
4347:
4343:
4338:
4334:
4330:
4326:
4322:
4318:
4314:
4310:
4303:
4300:
4295:
4291:
4287:
4283:
4279:
4275:
4271:
4267:
4263:
4259:
4252:
4249:
4244:
4240:
4236:
4232:
4227:
4222:
4218:
4214:
4210:
4203:
4200:
4195:
4191:
4187:
4183:
4179:
4175:
4171:
4167:
4160:
4157:
4152:
4148:
4144:
4140:
4136:
4132:
4128:
4124:
4117:
4114:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4092:
4087:
4083:
4079:
4075:
4068:
4066:
4064:
4062:
4060:
4058:
4056:
4054:
4052:
4050:
4048:
4046:
4044:
4042:
4038:
4033:
4029:
4025:
4021:
4017:
4013:
4009:
4005:
3998:
3995:
3990:
3986:
3981:
3976:
3972:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3956:
3952:
3948:
3941:
3939:
3937:
3933:
3928:
3924:
3920:
3916:
3912:
3908:
3904:
3900:
3896:
3892:
3884:
3882:
3880:
3878:
3876:
3872:
3867:
3863:
3859:
3855:
3851:
3847:
3843:
3839:
3832:
3830:
3828:
3826:
3824:
3822:
3820:
3818:
3814:
3809:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3791:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3775:
3768:
3766:
3762:
3757:
3753:
3749:
3745:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3722:
3720:
3716:
3711:
3707:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3687:
3683:
3679:
3675:
3668:
3665:
3660:
3656:
3651:
3646:
3642:
3638:
3633:
3628:
3625:: 1051–1066.
3624:
3620:
3616:
3609:
3606:
3601:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3585:
3581:
3577:
3573:
3569:
3565:
3558:
3555:
3550:
3546:
3542:
3538:
3534:
3530:
3526:
3522:
3518:
3514:
3506:
3503:
3498:
3494:
3489:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3449:
3446:
3441:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3423:
3419:
3415:
3411:
3407:
3403:
3399:
3392:
3390:
3386:
3381:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3348:
3345:
3340:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3307:
3304:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3258:
3255:
3250:
3246:
3241:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3223:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3199:
3196:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3148:
3146:
3144:
3142:
3140:
3138:
3136:
3134:
3132:
3130:
3128:
3126:
3124:
3122:
3118:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3078:
3075:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3055:(3): 209–16.
3054:
3050:
3043:
3040:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3000:
2998:
2996:
2994:
2992:
2990:
2988:
2986:
2984:
2982:
2980:
2978:
2976:
2974:
2972:
2968:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2928:
2926:
2922:
2917:
2913:
2908:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2866:
2864:
2862:
2858:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2818:
2816:
2814:
2812:
2810:
2808:
2804:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2753:
2751:
2749:
2747:
2745:
2743:
2739:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2685:
2683:
2681:
2679:
2677:
2673:
2668:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2641:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2617:
2615:
2613:
2609:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2560:
2558:
2554:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2508:
2506:
2504:
2502:
2500:
2496:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2454:
2447:
2445:
2443:
2441:
2439:
2437:
2435:
2433:
2431:
2429:
2425:
2420:
2416:
2411:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2371:
2369:
2367:
2365:
2363:
2361:
2359:
2357:
2355:
2353:
2349:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2303:
2301:
2299:
2297:
2295:
2291:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2251:
2249:
2247:
2245:
2243:
2241:
2239:
2235:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2195:
2193:
2191:
2189:
2187:
2183:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2135:
2133:
2131:
2127:
2122:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2089:
2087:
2085:
2083:
2081:
2079:
2077:
2075:
2073:
2071:
2069:
2067:
2065:
2063:
2061:
2059:
2057:
2055:
2053:
2051:
2049:
2047:
2045:
2043:
2041:
2039:
2037:
2035:
2033:
2031:
2029:
2027:
2025:
2023:
2021:
2019:
2017:
2015:
2013:
2011:
2009:
2007:
2005:
2003:
2001:
1999:
1997:
1995:
1993:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1985:
1983:
1981:
1979:
1977:
1975:
1973:
1971:
1969:
1967:
1965:
1963:
1961:
1959:
1957:
1955:
1953:
1951:
1949:
1947:
1945:
1943:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1932:
1925:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1885:
1883:
1881:
1879:
1877:
1875:
1873:
1871:
1869:
1867:
1865:
1863:
1861:
1859:
1857:
1855:
1853:
1851:
1849:
1847:
1845:
1843:
1841:
1839:
1837:
1835:
1833:
1831:
1829:
1827:
1825:
1823:
1821:
1819:
1817:
1815:
1813:
1811:
1809:
1807:
1803:
1797:
1793:
1790:
1788:
1785:
1783:
1780:
1779:
1775:
1773:
1771:
1767:
1762:
1755:
1750:
1746:
1745:
1744:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1721:
1716:
1712:
1709:
1704:
1703:
1702:
1700:
1696:
1688:
1686:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1675:hydrocephalus
1672:
1668:
1664:
1659:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1639:
1637:
1635:
1626:
1624:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1597:pentobarbital
1594:
1586:
1584:
1582:
1577:
1575:
1571:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1550:
1548:
1545:
1541:
1540:dexamethasone
1537:
1530:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1516:Acetazolamide
1514:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1500:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1478:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1450:intravenously
1447:
1443:
1440:
1439:
1438:
1436:
1432:
1427:
1423:
1415:
1413:
1410:
1408:
1404:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1382:hyperglycemia
1378:
1376:
1368:
1366:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1320:
1318:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1303:hyperglycemia
1297:Hyperglycemia
1296:
1294:
1292:
1288:
1287:acetaminophen
1284:
1279:
1272:
1270:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1249:
1247:
1244:
1240:
1235:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1213:
1211:
1209:
1204:
1202:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1186:, are potent
1185:
1181:
1173:
1171:
1169:
1165:
1162:
1158:
1150:
1145:
1143:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1125:
1123:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1108:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1071:
1069:
1067:
1063:
1058:
1054:
1053:hydrocephalus
1050:
1046:
1042:
1034:
1032:
1029:
1027:
1022:
1018:
1013:
1011:
1007:
998:
996:
994:
990:
985:
984:dexamethasone
981:
977:
973:
969:
960:
958:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
916:
914:
911:
907:
903:
899:
892:
890:
888:
884:
877:
875:
873:
869:
865:
861:
854:
852:
849:
845:
841:
837:
830:
828:
825:
821:
820:acetazolamide
817:
812:
810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
762:
757:
755:
754:
751:
748:cells of the
747:
738:
736:
733:
729:
725:
721:
713:
711:
709:
704:
702:
698:
694:
693:hydrocephalus
686:
684:
677:
673:
670:
667:
663:
659:
656:
652:
649:
645:
644:
643:
640:
638:
634:
630:
626:
618:
613:
611:
608:
605:
601:
598:
594:
591:
588:
586:
582:
579:Inflammatory
578:
576:
572:
568:
566:
562:
558:
555:
554:
553:
550:
548:
544:
540:
539:extravasation
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
504:
499:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
465:
461:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
426:Also seen in
425:
422:
418:
414:
410:
409:
408:
405:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
370:
368:
365:
358:
353:
350:
347:
344:
342:
338:
335:
334:
333:
326:
322:
319:
317:
314:
311:
308:
305:
302:
300:
297:
295:
292:
289:
285:
283:
280:
278:
275:
273:
270:
269:
268:
262:
260:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
232:
230:
226:
222:
218:
210:
208:
206:
202:
198:
192:
190:
186:
182:
177:
175:
171:
167:
163:
162:high altitude
159:
155:
151:
150:hydrocephalus
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
126:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
107:extracellular
104:
103:intracellular
100:
96:
86:
84:
80:
76:
74:
70:
65:
61:
56:
52:
48:
43:
37:
33:
32:Hydrocephalus
19:
6228:hydrosalpinx
6166:
6149:Hypervolemia
6118:volume state
6059:
5958:
5931:
5892:Degenerative
5824:
5629:Inflammatory
5576:
5509:Stiff-person
5347:Parkinsonism
5320:Degenerative
5217:Encephalitis
5200:Inflammation
5190:, primarily
5129:
5118:
5103:
5088:
5031:
5027:
5009:
4954:
4948:
4911:
4907:
4851:
4847:
4787:
4783:
4777:
4736:
4732:
4726:
4685:
4681:
4674:
4641:
4637:
4631:
4598:
4594:
4540:
4536:
4482:
4478:
4472:
4427:
4423:
4413:
4380:
4376:
4312:
4308:
4302:
4261:
4257:
4251:
4216:
4212:
4202:
4169:
4165:
4159:
4126:
4122:
4116:
4081:
4077:
4007:
4003:
3997:
3954:
3950:
3894:
3890:
3844:(1): 18–29.
3841:
3837:
3781:
3777:
3731:
3727:
3681:
3677:
3667:
3622:
3618:
3608:
3567:
3563:
3557:
3516:
3512:
3505:
3462:
3458:
3448:
3405:
3401:
3361:
3357:
3347:
3323:(6): 900–7.
3320:
3316:
3306:
3271:
3267:
3257:
3212:
3208:
3198:
3157:
3153:
3087:
3083:
3077:
3052:
3048:
3042:
3009:
3005:
2937:
2933:
2879:
2875:
2827:
2823:
2781:2318/1617595
2763:
2759:
2698:
2694:
2630:
2626:
2570:
2566:
2521:
2517:
2463:
2459:
2384:
2380:
2316:
2312:
2260:
2256:
2204:
2200:
2144:
2140:
2102:
2098:
1929:
1924:
1890:
1763:
1759:
1725:
1722:Epidemiology
1692:
1679:tracheostomy
1660:
1643:
1634:coagulopathy
1630:
1593:barbiturates
1590:
1587:Barbiturates
1578:
1565:vasodilators
1554:
1534:
1474:hyponatremia
1419:
1411:
1400:
1379:
1372:
1324:
1300:
1283:antipyretics
1276:
1259:prophylactic
1253:
1243:Vasopressors
1236:
1217:
1205:
1188:vasodilators
1177:
1157:jugular vein
1154:
1129:
1120:encephalitis
1109:
1075:
1038:
1030:
1014:
1002:
992:
964:
920:
906:cranioplasty
896:
881:
858:
848:bapineuzumab
834:
813:
797:mitochondria
766:
753:
742:
717:
705:
690:
681:
676:hyponatremia
641:
622:
595:can lead to
575:encephalitis
561:glioblastoma
551:
508:
406:
374:
366:
362:
330:
327:Risk factors
316:Hyponatremia
266:
237:gaze paresis
233:
214:
193:
178:
154:brain cancer
127:
94:
93:
36:
6218:hydrothorax
6139:Hypovolemia
6134:Dehydration
6044:Fazio–Londe
5884:Both/either
5678:Generalised
5537:Early-onset
5532:Alzheimer's
5267:spinal cord
5028:Ann. Neurol
5020:Mayer S. A.
4914:: 3948921.
4383:: 509–528.
3734:: 183–190.
3684:: 9805395.
3570:: 176–181.
2766:: 108–115.
2573:: 257–263.
2387:(12): 105.
1627:Hypothermia
1621:hypothermia
1563:are potent
1561:hypercapnia
1504:, commonly
1492:hypotension
1470:hypovolemia
1347:hypotension
1291:paracetamol
1220:Dehydration
1184:hypercapnia
1151:Positioning
1083:(TBI). The
968:glial cells
955:bevacizumab
923:gamma knife
868:subcortical
844:solanezumab
816:prophylaxis
746:endothelial
720:hydrostatic
714:Hydrostatic
699:within the
483:triethyltin
393:sodium ions
336:Younger age
50:Other names
6261:Body water
6250:Categories
6233:hyperaemia
6208:transudate
6184:Lymphedema
6179:Angioedema
5652:paroxysmal
5624:Autoimmune
5417:Dyskinesia
5287:Meningitis
5265:Brain and
5131:DiseasesDB
4790:(1): 327.
4430:(1): 125.
2830:: 99–108.
2105:(5): E12.
1798:References
1683:gastrotomy
1661:Timing of
1601:thiopental
1538:, such as
1506:furosemide
1405:(ICP) and
1359:atracurium
1355:doxacurium
1232:osmolality
1136:osmolality
1004:worsening
927:Cyberknife
872:MR imaging
840:aducanumab
728:parenchyma
633:parenchyma
625:osmolality
571:meningitis
565:meningioma
557:CNS tumors
547:parenchyma
515:astrocytes
495:astrocytic
456:astrocytic
381:metabolism
288:meningitis
5649:Episodic/
5527:Tauopathy
5478:Akathisia
5466:Myoclonus
5449:Athetosis
5381:Tauopathy
4999:ignored (
4989:cite book
4868:1873-7064
4820:207342854
4804:1092-8480
4753:1878-8769
4702:1474-4422
4658:1878-8769
4615:1538-3598
4557:1945-2810
4499:1530-0293
4446:2046-4053
4397:1878-8769
4329:1558-1357
4278:1538-6899
4235:0090-3493
4186:0002-9513
4143:0013-4694
4100:1524-4628
4024:0022-5282
3971:1472-0205
3911:1556-0961
3858:0736-4679
3748:1873-4995
3641:1176-6328
3600:207966789
3584:1878-8769
3533:1433-0350
3479:1873-2402
3422:1552-5260
3290:1879-355X
3231:0021-9738
3174:1432-0533
3026:0306-9877
2954:0028-4793
2898:1936-959X
2844:1878-8769
2790:1873-5126
2733:208185466
2717:1998-4022
2649:1664-2295
2587:1878-8769
2540:1524-4628
2482:1524-4628
2401:1534-6293
2335:1648-9144
2277:0040-5930
2221:1533-4406
2161:1433-044X
1369:Nutrition
1339:half-life
1327:analgesia
1267:phenytoin
1196:laryngeal
1192:intubated
1126:Treatment
1026:mortality
999:Diagnosis
989:cediranib
910:hematomas
789:capillary
519:pericytes
505:Vasogenic
479:isoniazid
475:cuprizone
460:glutamine
371:Cytotoxic
123:headaches
101:) in the
6256:Cerebrum
6214:By site
6162:Anasarca
6015:SMALED2B
6010:SMALED2A
5707:Migraine
5699:Headache
5665:epilepsy
5661:Seizures
5519:Dementia
5422:Dystonia
5058:22915171
5022:(2012).
4981:19388329
4940:36164392
4886:30086289
4812:25398467
4769:54567913
4761:30500591
4739:: 8–16.
4710:19269254
4666:25514616
4623:12799408
4575:25951311
4515:26585314
4507:23591212
4464:30115113
4405:28712906
4337:28478873
4294:54558731
4286:30516597
4243:11902255
4108:24481970
3989:11696494
3927:13733715
3919:25208680
3866:28343797
3756:26285064
3710:30425745
3659:25914538
3592:31712110
3549:29579595
3541:26584552
3497:28967385
3440:21784348
3380:15692117
3298:29726362
3249:22653056
3190:23530928
3182:19404652
3112:10920322
3069:10598921
3034:12781651
2962:10824078
2916:23578674
2852:29269069
2798:27622967
2725:31744962
2667:32116991
2633:: 1420.
2603:14028576
2595:29705232
2548:30571414
2490:28775140
2419:30406315
2343:17329953
2313:Medicina
2285:29690831
2229:27783916
2169:28812113
2121:17613230
1917:28987174
1776:See also
1756:Research
1689:Outcomes
1510:diuresis
1480:Mannitol
1466:mannitol
1435:mannitol
1343:propofol
1335:propofol
1321:Sedation
1285:such as
1265:such as
1255:Seizures
1041:CT scans
779:(HACE).
758:Subtypes
657:(SIADH).
464:osmolyte
312:(ARIA-E)
217:etiology
142:epidural
138:subdural
73:Symptoms
6223:ascites
6203:exudate
6027:SMA-PME
6022:SMA-PCH
6005:SMALED1
5717:Tension
5712:Cluster
5437:Meige's
5254:Amoebic
5125:D001929
5049:3464349
4931:9509250
4877:6309515
4718:3339644
4566:4497869
4455:6097326
4194:3136668
4151:6202480
4032:1404521
3980:1725712
3808:8823305
3701:6218751
3650:4399519
3488:5767539
3431:3693547
3339:9384402
3240:3386814
3104:3564903
2907:7965435
2658:7029435
2410:6589108
2177:7750535
1640:Surgery
1557:hypoxia
1488:mannose
1484:alcohol
1458:dextran
1180:hypoxia
1118:, TBI,
1035:Imaging
1012:(ICU).
803:of the
795:on the
793:hypoxia
637:osmosis
559:, like
543:albumin
432:ammonia
401:oncotic
397:osmosis
5746:Stroke
5560:Pick's
5487:Tremor
5454:Chorea
5150:MedPix
5056:
5046:
4979:
4969:
4938:
4928:
4884:
4874:
4866:
4818:
4810:
4802:
4767:
4759:
4751:
4716:
4708:
4700:
4664:
4656:
4621:
4613:
4573:
4563:
4555:
4513:
4505:
4497:
4462:
4452:
4444:
4403:
4395:
4335:
4327:
4292:
4284:
4276:
4241:
4233:
4192:
4184:
4149:
4141:
4106:
4098:
4078:Stroke
4030:
4022:
3987:
3977:
3969:
3925:
3917:
3909:
3864:
3856:
3806:
3799:507566
3796:
3754:
3746:
3708:
3698:
3657:
3647:
3639:
3598:
3590:
3582:
3547:
3539:
3531:
3495:
3485:
3477:
3438:
3428:
3420:
3378:
3358:Stroke
3337:
3296:
3288:
3247:
3237:
3229:
3188:
3180:
3172:
3110:
3102:
3067:
3032:
3024:
2960:
2952:
2914:
2904:
2896:
2850:
2842:
2796:
2788:
2731:
2723:
2715:
2665:
2655:
2647:
2601:
2593:
2585:
2546:
2538:
2518:Stroke
2488:
2480:
2460:Stroke
2417:
2407:
2399:
2341:
2333:
2283:
2275:
2227:
2219:
2175:
2167:
2159:
2119:
1915:
1905:
1739:, and
1607:, and
1482:is an
1313:, and
972:glioma
929:, and
846:, and
799:-rich
775:, and
730:. The
629:plasma
497:cells.
489:, and
282:Tumors
277:Stroke
263:Causes
203:, and
164:, and
6193:Other
6157:Edema
6060:both:
5992:DSMA1
5987:SMAX2
5982:SMAX1
5962:only:
5935:only:
5839:Other
5761:Other
5673:Focal
5306:Brain
5209:Brain
5114:348.5
5099:G93.6
4816:S2CID
4765:S2CID
4714:S2CID
4511:S2CID
4290:S2CID
3923:S2CID
3596:S2CID
3545:S2CID
3186:S2CID
3108:S2CID
2729:S2CID
2599:S2CID
2456:(PDF)
2173:S2CID
1787:Edema
1713:Mild
1647:skull
1278:Fever
1273:Fever
1055:, or
818:with
144:, or
111:brain
99:edema
5663:and
5374:PKAN
5369:NBIA
5136:2227
5120:MeSH
5109:9-CM
5054:PMID
5001:help
4977:PMID
4967:ISBN
4936:PMID
4912:2022
4882:PMID
4864:ISSN
4808:PMID
4800:ISSN
4757:PMID
4749:ISSN
4706:PMID
4698:ISSN
4662:PMID
4654:ISSN
4619:PMID
4611:ISSN
4595:JAMA
4571:PMID
4553:ISSN
4503:PMID
4495:ISSN
4460:PMID
4442:ISSN
4401:PMID
4393:ISSN
4333:PMID
4325:ISSN
4282:PMID
4274:ISSN
4239:PMID
4231:ISSN
4190:PMID
4182:ISSN
4147:PMID
4139:ISSN
4104:PMID
4096:ISSN
4028:PMID
4020:ISSN
3985:PMID
3967:ISSN
3915:PMID
3907:ISSN
3862:PMID
3854:ISSN
3804:PMID
3752:PMID
3744:ISSN
3706:PMID
3682:2018
3655:PMID
3637:ISSN
3588:PMID
3580:ISSN
3537:PMID
3529:ISSN
3493:PMID
3475:ISSN
3436:PMID
3418:ISSN
3376:PMID
3335:PMID
3294:PMID
3286:ISSN
3245:PMID
3227:ISSN
3178:PMID
3170:ISSN
3100:PMID
3065:PMID
3030:PMID
3022:ISSN
2958:PMID
2950:ISSN
2912:PMID
2894:ISSN
2848:PMID
2840:ISSN
2794:PMID
2786:ISSN
2721:PMID
2713:ISSN
2663:PMID
2645:ISSN
2591:PMID
2583:ISSN
2544:PMID
2536:ISSN
2486:PMID
2478:ISSN
2415:PMID
2397:ISSN
2339:PMID
2331:ISSN
2281:PMID
2273:ISSN
2225:PMID
2217:ISSN
2165:PMID
2157:ISSN
2117:PMID
1913:PMID
1903:ISBN
1697:and
1681:and
1651:dura
1599:and
1559:and
1518:, a
1433:and
1208:PEEP
1043:and
1019:and
563:and
517:and
450:and
172:and
5977:SMA
5960:LMN
5933:UMN
5924:MND
5790:CSF
5741:TIA
5386:PSP
5362:NMS
5331:and
5192:CNS
5105:ICD
5090:ICD
5044:PMC
5036:doi
4959:doi
4926:PMC
4916:doi
4872:PMC
4856:doi
4852:145
4792:doi
4741:doi
4737:123
4690:doi
4646:doi
4603:doi
4599:289
4561:PMC
4545:doi
4487:doi
4450:PMC
4432:doi
4385:doi
4381:106
4317:doi
4266:doi
4221:doi
4174:doi
4170:255
4131:doi
4086:doi
4012:doi
3975:PMC
3959:doi
3899:doi
3846:doi
3794:PMC
3786:doi
3736:doi
3732:217
3696:PMC
3686:doi
3645:PMC
3627:doi
3572:doi
3568:134
3521:doi
3483:PMC
3467:doi
3426:PMC
3410:doi
3366:doi
3325:doi
3276:doi
3272:101
3235:PMC
3217:doi
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