701:
2142:(ATR) with integrated capture of carbon dioxide allows higher capture rates at satisfactory energy efficiencies and life cycle assessments have shown lower greenhouse gas emissions for such plants compared to SMRs with carbon dioxide capture. Application of ATR technology with integrated capture of carbon dioxide in Europe has been assessed to have a lower greenhouse gas footprint than burning natural gas, e.g. for the H21 project with a reported reduction of 68% due to a reduced carbon dioxide intensity of natural gas combined with a more suitable reactor type for capture of carbon dioxide.
686:. The lower the energy used by a generator, the higher would be its efficiency; a 100%-efficient electrolyser would consume 39.4 kilowatt-hours per kilogram (142 MJ/kg) of hydrogen, 12,749 joules per litre (12.75 MJ/m). Practical electrolysis typically uses a rotating electrolyser, where centrifugal force helps separate gas bubbles from water. Such an electrolyser at 15 bar pressure may consume 50 kilowatt-hours per kilogram (180 MJ/kg), and a further 15 kilowatt-hours (54 MJ) if the hydrogen is compressed for use in hydrogen cars.
585:
2081:
1601:
1509:
1546:
1645:
734:. The thermodynamic energy required for hydrogen by electrolysis translates to 33 kWh/kg, which is higher than steam reforming with carbon capture and higher than methane pyrolysis. One of the advantages of electrolysis over hydrogen from steam methane reforming (SMR) is that the hydrogen can be produced on-site, meaning that the costly process of delivery via truck or pipeline is avoided.
1891:. William Ayers at Energy Conversion Devices demonstrated and patented the first multijunction high efficiency photoelectrochemical system for direct splitting of water in 1983. This group demonstrated direct water splitting now referred to as an "artificial leaf" or "wireless solar water splitting" with a low cost thin film amorphous silicon multijunction sheet immersed directly in water.
390:(SMR), which uses natural gas. The energy content of the produced hydrogen is around 74% of the energy content of the original fuel, as some energy is lost as excess heat during production. In general, steam reforming emits carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, and is known as gray hydrogen. If the carbon dioxide is captured and stored, the hydrogen produced is known as blue hydrogen.
149:
1865:
potentially less energy is required to produce hydrogen. Nuclear heat could be used to split hydrogen from water. High temperature (950â1000 °C) gas cooled nuclear reactors have the potential to split hydrogen from water by thermochemical means using nuclear heat. High-temperature electrolysis has been demonstrated in a laboratory, at 108
1435:/mol glucose can be produced. Sugars are convertible to volatile fatty acids (VFAs) and alcohols as by-products during this process. Photo fermentative bacteria are able to generate hydrogen from VFAs. Hence, metabolites formed in dark fermentation can be used as feedstock in photo fermentation to enhance the overall yield of hydrogen.
1280:(S-I cycle) is a thermochemical cycle processes which generates hydrogen from water with an efficiency of approximately 50%. The sulfur and iodine used in the process are recovered and reused, and not consumed by the process. The cycle can be performed with any source of very high temperatures, approximately 950 °C, such as by
570:, low pressure electrolysis of water, or a range of other emerging electrochemical processes such as high temperature electrolysis or carbon assisted electrolysis. However, current best processes for water electrolysis have an effective electrical efficiency of 70-80%, so that producing 1 kg of hydrogen (which has a
608:
reforming). Due to their use of water, a readily available resource, electrolysis and similar water-splitting methods have attracted the interest of the scientific community. With the objective of reducing the cost of hydrogen production, renewable sources of energy have been targeted to allow electrolysis.
2243:
by electrolysis. Although requiring expensive technologies, hydrogen can be cooled, compressed and purified for use in other processes on site or sold to a customer via pipeline, cylinders or trucks. The discovery and development of less expensive methods of production of bulk hydrogen is relevant to
1953:
which uses sunlight to obtain the required 800 to 1,200 °C to heat water. Hydrosol II has been in operation since 2008. The design of this 100-kilowatt pilot plant is based on a modular concept. As a result, it may be possible that this technology could be readily scaled up to the megawatt range
607:
Water electrolysis can operate at 50â80 °C (120â180 °F), while steam methane reforming requires temperatures at 700â1,100 °C (1,300â2,000 °F). The difference between the two methods is the primary energy used; either electricity (for electrolysis) or natural gas (for steam methane
577:
In parts of the world, steam methane reforming is between $ 1â3/kg on average excluding hydrogen gas pressurization cost. This makes production of hydrogen via electrolysis cost competitive in many regions already, as outlined by Nel
Hydrogen and others, including an article by the IEA examining the
140:
is bonded to oxygen in water. Manufacturing elemental hydrogen requires the consumption of a hydrogen carrier such as a fossil fuel or water. The former carrier consumes the fossil resource and in the steam methane reforming (SMR) process produces greenhouse gas carbon dioxide. However, in the newer
1426:
Among hydrogen production methods biological routes are potentially less energy intensive. In addition, a wide variety of waste and low-value materials such as agricultural biomass as renewable sources can be utilized to produce hydrogen via biochemical or thermochemical pathways. Nevertheless, at
1908:
A method studied by Thomas Nann and his team at the
University of East Anglia consists of a gold electrode covered in layers of indium phosphide (InP) nanoparticles. They introduced an iron-sulfur complex into the layered arrangement, which when submerged in water and irradiated with light under a
1016:
is used. The process of coal gasification uses steam and oxygen to break molecular bonds in coal and form a gaseous mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Carbon dioxide and pollutants may be more easily removed from gas obtained from coal gasification versus coal combustion. Another method for
721:
The US DOE target price for hydrogen in 2020 is $ 2.30/kg, requiring an electricity cost of $ 0.037/kWh, which is achievable given recent PPA tenders for wind and solar in many regions. The report by IRENA.ORG is an extensive factual report of present-day industrial hydrogen production consuming
1864:
Hydrogen can be generated from energy supplied in the form of heat and electricity through high-temperature electrolysis (HTE). Since some of the energy in HTE is supplied in the form of heat, less of the energy must be converted twice from heat to electricity, and then to hydrogen. Therefore,
712:
As of 2020, the cost of hydrogen by electrolysis is around $ 3â8/kg. Considering the industrial production of hydrogen, and using current best processes for water electrolysis (PEM or alkaline electrolysis) which have an effective electrical efficiency of 70â82%, producing 1 kg of hydrogen
689:
Conventional alkaline electrolysis has an efficiency of about 70%, however advanced alkaline water electrolysers with efficiency of up to 82% are available. Accounting for the use of the higher heat value (because inefficiency via heat can be redirected back into the system to create the steam
1894:
Hydrogen evolved on the front amorphous silicon surface decorated with various catalysts while oxygen evolved off the back metal substrate. A Nafion membrane above the multijunction cell provided a path for ion transport. Their patent also lists a variety of other semiconductor multijunction
1479:
Fermentative hydrogen production can be done using direct biophotolysis by green algae, indirect biophotolysis by cyanobacteria, photo-fermentation by anaerobic photosynthetic bacteria and dark fermentation by anaerobic fermentative bacteria. For example, studies on hydrogen production using
1655:
of methane (natural gas) with a one-step process bubbling methane through a molten metal catalyst is a "no greenhouse gas" approach to produce hydrogen that was demonstrated in laboratory conditions in 2017 and now being tested at larger scales. The process is conducted at high temperatures
1403:
systems. However, if this process is assisted by photocatalysts suspended directly in water instead of using photovoltaic and an electrolytic system the reaction is in just one step, it can be made more efficient. Current systems, however have low performance for commercial implementation.
1430:
Biochemical routes to hydrogen are classified as dark and photo fermentation processes. In dark fermentation, carbohydrates are converted to hydrogen by fermentative microorganisms including strict anaerobe and facultative anaerobic bacteria. A theoretical maximum of 4 mol
4040:
Sebbahi, Seddiq; Nabil, Nouhaila; Alaoui-Belghiti, Amine; Laasri, Said; Rachidi, Samir; Hajjaji, Abdelowahed (2022). "Assessment of the three most developed water electrolysis technologies: Alkaline Water
Electrolysis, Proton Exchange Membrane and Solid-Oxide Electrolysis".
5390:
758:
Carbon/hydrocarbon assisted water electrolysis (CAWE) has the potential to offer a less energy intensive, cleaner method of using chemical energy in various sources of carbon, such as low-rank and high sulfur coals, biomass, alcohols and methane (Natural Gas), where pure
2072:
in Mali, producing electricity for the surrounding villages. More discoveries of naturally occurring hydrogen in continental, on-shore geological environments have been made in recent years and open the way to the novel field of natural or native hydrogen, supporting
6830:
1538:, as the latter only uses algae and with the latter, the algae itself generates the hydrogen instantly, where with biocatalysed electrolysis, this happens after running through the microbial fuel cell and a variety of aquatic plants can be used. These include
7051:
Valenti, Giovanni; Boni, Alessandro; Melchionna, Michele; Cargnello, Matteo; Nasi, Lucia; Bertoni, Giovanni; Gorte, Raymond J.; Marcaccio, Massimo; Rapino, Stefania; Bonchio, Marcella; Fornasiero, Paolo; Prato, Maurizio; Paolucci, Francesco (December 2016).
801:
by electrolysis generates a sizable amount of
Hydrogen as a byproduct. In the port of Antwerp a 1MW demonstration fuel cell power plant is powered by such byproduct. This unit has been operational since late 2011. The excess hydrogen is often managed with a
834:, resulting in a hydrogen- and carbon monoxide-rich syngas. More hydrogen and carbon dioxide are then obtained from carbon monoxide (and water) via the water-gas shift reaction. Carbon dioxide can be co-fed to lower the hydrogen to carbon monoxide ratio.
742:
In addition to reduce the voltage required for electrolysis via the increasing of the temperature of the electrolysis cell it is also possible to electrochemically consume the oxygen produced in an electrolyser by introducing a fuel (such as carbon/coal,
1899:
technology at universities and the photovoltaic industry. If this process is assisted by photocatalysts suspended directly in water instead of using photovoltaic and an electrolytic system, the reaction is in just one step, which can improve efficiency.
1427:
present hydrogen is produced mainly from fossil fuels, in particular, natural gas which are non-renewable sources. Hydrogen is not only the cleanest fuel but also widely used in a number of industries, especially fertilizer, petrochemical and food ones.
5669:
6404:
7451:
Larin, Nikolay; Zgonnik, Viacheslav; Rodina, Svetlana; Deville, Eric; Prinzhofer, Alain; Larin, Vladimir N. (September 2015). "Natural
Molecular Hydrogen Seepage Associated with Surficial, Rounded Depressions on the European Craton in Russia".
1855:
is eliminated, the average energy consumption for internal compression is around 3%. European largest (1 400 000 kg/a, High-pressure
Electrolysis of water, alkaline technology) hydrogen production plant is operating at Kokkola, Finland.
1773:, to the production of hydrogen. Biological hydrogen can also be produced using feedstocks other than algae, the most common feedstock being waste streams. The process involves bacteria feeding on hydrocarbons and excreting hydrogen and CO
1143:
can be divided into different types based on the pyrolysis temperature, namely low-temperature slow pyrolysis, medium-temperature rapid pyrolysis, and high-temperature flash pyrolysis. The source energy is mainly solar energy, with help of
2068:, and in petroleum refining. Although initially hydrogen gas was thought not to occur naturally in convenient reservoirs, it is now demonstrated that this is not the case; a hydrogen system is currently being exploited near Bourakebougou,
5784:
Ropero-Vega, J.L.; Pedraza-Avella, J.A.; Niño-GĂłmez, M.E. (September 2015). "Hydrogen production by photoelectrolysis of aqueous solutions of phenol using mixed oxide semiconductor films of BiâNbâMâO (M=Al, Fe, Ga, In) as photoanodes".
1324:, and water. The generator is small enough to fit a truck and requires only a small amount of electric power, the materials are stable and not combustible, and they do not generate hydrogen until mixed. The method has been in use since
7696:
Antonini, Cristina; Treyer, Karin; Streb, Anne; van der Spek, Mijndert; Bauer, Christian; Mazzotti, Marco (2020). "Hydrogen production from natural gas and biomethane with carbon capture and storage â A techno-environmental analysis".
397:), and water. It is the cheapest source of industrial hydrogen, being the source of nearly 50% of the world's hydrogen. The process consists of heating the gas to 700â1,100 °C (1,300â2,000 °F) in the presence of steam over a
5943:
Asadi, Nooshin; Karimi
Alavijeh, Masih; Zilouei, Hamid (January 2017). "Development of a mathematical methodology to investigate biohydrogen production from regional and national agricultural crop residues: A case study of Iran".
1998:, are under research and in testing phase to produce hydrogen and oxygen from water and heat without using electricity. These processes can be more efficient than high-temperature electrolysis, typical in the range from 35% â 49%
1070:
Injecting appropriate microbes into depleted oil wells allows them to extract hydrogen from the remaining, unrecoverable oil. Since the only inputs are the microbes, production costs are low. The method also produces concentrated
1268:
is used because aside from water, hydrogen and oxygen, the chemical compounds used in these processes are continuously recycled. If electricity is partially used as an input, the resulting thermochemical cycle is defined as a
2840:
6826:
755:, glycerol, etc.) into the oxygen side of the reactor. This reduces the required electrical energy and has the potential to reduce the cost of hydrogen to less than 40~60% with the remaining energy provided in this manner.
627:(AECs). Traditionally, alkaline electrolysers are cheaper in terms of investment (they generally use nickel catalysts), but less-efficient; PEM electrolysers, conversely, are more expensive (they generally use expensive
7619:
1936:
Very high temperatures are required to dissociate water into hydrogen and oxygen. A catalyst is required to make the process operate at feasible temperatures. Heating the water can be achieved through the use of water
638:
SOECs operate at high temperatures, typically around 800 °C (1,500 °F). At these high temperatures, a significant amount of the energy required can be provided as thermal energy (heat), and as such is termed
4755:
Lamy, Claude; Devadas, Abirami; Simoes, Mario; Coutanceau, Christophe (2012). "Clean hydrogen generation through the electrocatalytic oxidation of formic acid in a Proton
Exchange Membrane Electrolysis Cell (PEMEC)".
7121:
Navarro Yerga, Rufino M.; Ălvarez GalvĂĄn, M. Consuelo; del Valle, F.; Villoria de la Mano, JosĂ© A.; Fierro, JosĂ© L. G. (22 June 2009). "Water
Splitting on Semiconductor Catalysts under Visible-Light Irradiation".
717:
of 143 MJ/kg or about 40 kWh/kg) requires 50â55 kWh of electricity. At an electricity cost of $ 0.06/kWh, as set out in the
Department of Energy hydrogen production targets for 2015, the hydrogen cost is $ 3/kg.
7830:
5115:
1168:
thermo-chemical cycle for splitting water and high-temperature steam electrolysis (HTSE) were selected as the main processes for nuclear hydrogen production. The S-I cycle follows three chemical reactions:
5703:
Navarro Yerga, Rufino M.; Ălvarez GalvĂĄn, M. Consuelo; Del Valle, F.; Villoria De La Mano, JosĂ© A.; Fierro, JosĂ© L. G. (2009). "Water Splitting on Semiconductor Catalysts under Visible-Light Irradiation".
4969:
5516:
Chukwu, C., Naterer, G. F., Rosen, M. A., "Process Simulation of Nuclear-Produced Hydrogen with a Cu-Cl Cycle", 29th Conference of the Canadian Nuclear Society, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, June 1â4, 2008.
4245:
6396:
1785:
Besides regular electrolysis, electrolysis using microbes is another possibility. With biocatalysed electrolysis, hydrogen is generated after running through the microbial fuel cell and a variety of
1332:
is filled with sodium hydroxide and ferrosilicon, closed, and a controlled amount of water is added; the dissolving of the hydroxide heats the mixture to about 93 °C and starts the reaction;
5686:
4482:
581:
A small part (2% in 2019) is produced by electrolysis using electricity and water, consuming approximately 50 to 55 kilowatt-hours of electricity per kilogram of hydrogen produced.
4725:
Ju, Hyungkuk; Giddey, Sarbjit; Badwal, Sukhvinder P.S; Mulder, Roger J (2016). "Electro-catalytic conversion of ethanol in solid electrolyte cells for distributed hydrogen generation".
6679:
Patlolla, Shashank Reddy; Katsu, Kyle; Sharafian, Amir; Wei, Kevin; Herrera, Omar E.; MĂ©rida, Walter (July 2023). "A review of methane pyrolysis technologies for hydrogen production".
5160:
Gemayel, Jimmy El; MacChi, Arturo; Hughes, Robin; Anthony, Edward John (2014). "Simulation of the integration of a bitumen upgrading facility and an IGCC process with carbon capture".
2832:
6796:
1656:(1065 °C). Producing 1 kg of hydrogen requires about 18 kWh of electricity for process heat. The pyrolysis of methane can be expressed by the following reaction equation.
654:
PEM electrolysis cells typically operate below 100 °C (212 °F). These cells have the advantage of being comparatively simple and can be designed to accept widely varying
6516:
Palmer, Clarke; Upham, D. Chester; Smart, Simon; Gordon, Michael J.; Metiu, Horia; McFarland, Eric W. (January 2020). "Dry reforming of methane catalysed by molten metal alloys".
3725:
2191:
94 million tonnes of grey hydrogen are produced globally using fossil fuels as of 2022, primarily natural gas, and are therefore a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions.
1570:
powder reacts with water to produce hydrogen gas upon contact with water. It reportedly generates hydrogen at 100 percent of the theoretical yield. The process is not economical.
604:
between 70 and 85%. The electrical efficiency of electrolysis is expected to reach 82â86% before 2030, while also maintaining durability as progress in this area continues apace.
2002:
efficiency. Thermochemical production of hydrogen using chemical energy from coal or natural gas is generally not considered, because the direct chemical path is more efficient.
6134:
Strik, David P. B. T. B.; Hamelers (Bert), H. V. M.; Snel, Jan F. H.; Buisman, Cees J. N. (2008). "Green electricity production with living plants and bacteria in a fuel cell".
136:. It is unclear how much molecular hydrogen is available in natural reservoirs, but at least one company specializes in drilling wells to extract hydrogen. Most hydrogen in the
7800:
7733:
6560:
1148:
to decompose water or biomass to produce hydrogen. However, this process has relatively low hydrogen yields and high operating cost. It is not a feasible method for industry.
5219:
1869:(thermal) per kilogram of hydrogen produced, but not at a commercial scale. In addition, this is lower-quality "commercial" grade Hydrogen, unsuitable for use in fuel cells.
516:. This oxidation also provides energy to maintain the reaction. Additional heat required to drive the process is generally supplied by burning some portion of the methane.
4667:
Uhm, Sunghyun; Jeon, Hongrae; Kim, Tae Jin; Lee, Jaeyoung (2012). "Clean hydrogen production from methanolâwater solutions via power-saved electrolytic reforming process".
7636:
4180:
Clarke, R.E.; Giddey, S.; Ciacchi, F.T.; Badwal, S.P.S.; Paul, B.; Andrews, J. (2009). "Direct coupling of an electrolyser to a solar PV system for generating hydrogen".
2704:
2517:
1027:
gas made from pyrolysis (oxygen free heating) of coal has about 60% hydrogen, the rest being methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, ammonia, molecular nitrogen, and
538:
O) into its components oxygen and hydrogen. When the source of energy for water splitting is renewable or low-carbon, the hydrogen produced is sometimes referred to as
6056:
Asadi, Nooshin; Zilouei, Hamid (March 2017). "Optimization of organosolv pretreatment of rice straw for enhanced biohydrogen production using Enterobacter aerogenes".
124:. The global hydrogen generation market was fairly valued at US$ 155 billion in 2022, and expected to grow at a compound annual growth rate of 9.3% from 2023 to 2030.
7408:
Prinzhofer, Alain; Tahara Cissé, Cheick Sidy; Diallo, Aliou Boubacar (October 2018). "Discovery of a large accumulation of natural hydrogen in Bourakebougou (Mali)".
6373:
152:
Illustrating inputs and outputs of steam reforming of natural gas, a process to produce hydrogen. As of 2020, the carbon sequestrastion step is not in commercial use.
7822:
186:. If most of the carbon dioxide emission is captured, it is referred to as blue hydrogen. Hydrogen produced from coal may be referred to as brown or black hydrogen.
6931:
5072:
4412:
3902:
3840:
2983:
592:
Water electrolysis is using electricity to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. As of 2020, less than 0.1% of hydrogen production comes from water electrolysis.
3763:
4888:
Ju, Hyungkuk; Badwal, Sukhvinder; Giddey, Sarbjit (2018). "A comprehensive review of carbon and hydrocarbon assisted water electrolysis for hydrogen production".
4354:
7376:
4966:
3271:
79:. Producing green hydrogen is currently more expensive than producing gray hydrogen, and the efficiency of energy conversion is inherently low. Other methods of
4543:
3655:
2540:
2005:
None of the thermochemical hydrogen production processes have been demonstrated at production levels, although several have been demonstrated in laboratories.
1895:
materials for the direct water splitting in addition to amorphous silicon and silicon germanium alloys. Research continues towards developing high-efficiency
5356:
Ping, Zhang; Laijun, Wang; Songzhe, Chen; Jingming, Xu (January 2018). "Progress of nuclear hydrogen production through the iodineâsulfur process in China".
1883:
Using electricity produced by photovoltaic systems offers the cleanest way to produce hydrogen. Water is broken into hydrogen and oxygen by electrolysis â a
7168:
Navarro, R.M.; Del Valle, F.; Villoria de la Mano, J.A.; Ălvarez-GalvĂĄn, M.C.; Fierro, J.L.G. (2009). "Photocatalytic Water Splitting Under Visible Light".
3691:
4208:
4150:
4073:
1231:
The hydrogen production rate of HTGR with IS cycle is approximately 0.68 kg/s, and the capital cost to build a unit of power plant is $ 100 million.
6966:
6173:
3372:
3141:
1789:
542:. The conversion can be accomplished in several ways, but all methods are currently considered more expensive than fossil-fuel based production methods.
6459:
Upham, D. Chester; Agarwal, Vishal; Khechfe, Alexander; Snodgrass, Zachary R.; Gordon, Michael J.; Metiu, Horia; McFarland, Eric W. (17 November 2017).
2962:
6178:
5519:
3001:
2095:
at scale for a renewable hydrogen economy. Water could be pumped down to hot iron-rich rock to produce hydrogen and the hydrogen could be extracted.
1289:
620:
6136:
2513:
1975:
651:. This has the potential to reduce the overall cost of the hydrogen produced by reducing the amount of electrical energy required for electrolysis.
5448:
4595:
2631:
1690:
Methane pyrolysis technologies are in the early development stages as of 2023. They have numerous obstacles to overcome before commercialization.
33:
gas is produced by several industrial methods. Nearly all of the world's current supply of hydrogen is created from fossil fuels. Most hydrogen is
6015:
1345:
1731:
reactions do not require light energy, so they are capable of constantly producing hydrogen from organic compounds throughout the day and night.
101:
As of 2023, less than 1% of dedicated hydrogen production is low-carbon, i.e. blue hydrogen, green hydrogen, and hydrogen produced from biomass.
6324:
4845:
Ju, H; Badwal, S.P.S; Giddey, S (2018). "A comprehensive review of carbon and hydrocarbon assisted water electrolysis for hydrogen production".
4474:
6591:
2127:
that is 20% greater than burning gas or coal for heat and 60% greater when compared to burning diesel for heat, assuming US up- and mid-stream
1699:
1550:
1535:
1357:
830:
Hydrogen production from natural gas and heavier hydrocarbons is achieved by partial oxidation. A fuel-air or fuel-oxygen mixture is partially
700:
5637:
697:
PEM efficiency is expected to increase to approximately 86% before 2030. Theoretical efficiency for PEM electrolysers is predicted up to 94%.
8035:
7243:
7185:
6864:
6210:
5924:
5768:
3479:
3414:
3237:
7016:
1620:, also called white hydrogen or gold hydrogen, can be extracted from wells in a similar manner as fossil fuels such as oil and natural gas.
7757:
7306:
6995:
6099:
Percival Zhang, Y-H; Sun, Jibin; Zhong, Jian-Jiang (2010). "Biofuel production by in vitro synthetic enzymatic pathway biotransformation".
3786:
7348:
7054:"Co-axial heterostructures integrating palladium/titanium dioxide with carbon nanotubes for efficient electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution"
6804:
5019:
5979:
Tao, Y; Chen, Y; Wu, Y; He, Y; Zhou, Z (2007). "High hydrogen yield from a two-step process of dark- and photo-fermentation of sucrose".
4990:
4300:
5232:
4442:
4250:
4100:
Hauch, Anne; Ebbesen, Sune Dalgaard; Jensen, SĂžren HĂžjgaard; Mogensen, Mogens (2008). "Highly efficient high temperature electrolysis".
3717:
3025:
1399:
The conversion of solar energy to hydrogen by means of water splitting process is one of the most interesting ways to achieve clean and
1157:
145:
process no greenhouse gas carbon dioxide is produced. These processes typically require no further energy input beyond the fossil fuel.
7771:
7278:
4620:
2541:"Industrial decarbonization via hydrogen: A critical and systematic review of developments, socio-technical systems and policy options"
45:, the main component of natural gas. Producing one tonne of hydrogen through this process emits 6.6â9.3 tonnes of carbon dioxide. When
7023:
6627:"Mathematical modelling and simulation of the thermo-catalytic decomposition of methane for economically improved hydrogen production"
3609:
1562:
5568:
4330:
2374:
2188:
As of 2020, estimated costs of production are $ 1â1.80/kg for grey hydrogen and blue hydrogen, and $ 2.50â6.80 for green hydrogen.
2165:
to produce hydrogen in a steam reformer. Hydrogen fuel, when produced by renewable sources of energy like wind or solar power, is a
679:
6552:
3541:
Badwal, Sukhvinder P. S.; Giddey, Sarbjit S.; Munnings, Christopher; Bhatt, Anand I.; Hollenkamp, Anthony F. (24 September 2014).
5133:
Lee, Woon-Jae; Lee, Yong-Kuk (2001). "Internal Gas Pressure Characteristics Generated during Coal Carbonization in a Coke Oven".
3430:
Dincer, Ibrahim; Acar, Canan (September 2015). "Review and evaluation of hydrogen production methods for better sustainability".
1704:
1453:
1444:
841:
fuel-air mixture or fuel-oxygen is partially combusted in a reformer or partial oxidation reactor. A distinction is made between
4132:
1106:, researchers found bacteria in a naturally occurring high radiation zone. The bacterial community which was dominated by a new
6718:
5305:
4568:
2694:
2505:
1928:
of water to produce hydrogen gas. The company plans to achieve commercial application "as early as possible", not before 2020.
1851:). By pressurising the hydrogen in the electrolyser, through a process known as chemical compression, the need for an external
7580:
6350:
4967:
http://www.nedstack.com/images/stories/news/documents/20120202_Press%20release%20Solvay%20PEM%20Power%20Plant%20start%20up.pdf
2225:, the primary industrial method for the production of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer for growing 47 percent of food worldwide.
1132:
occurs at temperatures too high for usual process piping and equipment resulting in a rather low commercialization potential.
5812:
Low, Jingxiang; Yu, Jiaguo; Jaroniec, Mietek; Wageh, Swelm; Al-Ghamdi, Ahmed A. (May 2017). "Heterojunction Photocatalysts".
3997:
Badwal, Sukhvinder P.S.; Giddey, Sarbjit; Munnings, Christopher (2013). "Hydrogen production via solid electrolytic routes".
2182:
1394:
5486:
1946:
1385:(the conversion of sunlight into hydrogen) barrier. with a hydrogen production rate of 10â12 ml per liter culture per hour.
6365:
5329:
Guoxin, Hu; Hao, Huang (May 2009). "Hydrogen rich fuel gas production by gasification of wet biomass using a CO2 sorbent".
5097:
194:
Hydrogen is often referred to by various colors to indicate its origin (perhaps because gray symbolizes "dirty hydrogen").
5250:; Eoin L. Brodie; Terry C. Hazen; Gary L. Andersen; Todd Z. DeSantis; Duane P. Moser; Dave Kershaw; T. C. Onstott (2006).
4459:
2358:
1381:, to the production of hydrogen. It seems that the production is now economically feasible by surpassing the 7â10 percent
1285:
640:
616:
557:
6938:
5076:
416:
8054:
5459:
Nuclear heat for hydrogen production: Coupling a very high/high temperature reactor to a hydrogen production plant. 2009
3759:
2379:
175:. When derived from natural gas by zero greenhouse emission methane pyrolysis, it is referred to as turquoise hydrogen.
4632:
Giddey, S; Kulkarni, A; Badwal, S.P.S (2015). "Low emission hydrogen generation through carbon assisted electrolysis".
4362:
3296:
8011:
7873:
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2893:
2298:
1708:
1382:
159:
water, the latter carrier, requires electrical or heat input, generated from some primary energy source (fossil fuel,
4547:
4519:
3659:
3631:
1062:
S from the sulfur in the coke feed. Gasification is an option for producing hydrogen from almost any carbon source.
5549:
5421:
5404:
2120:
1995:
1878:
1808:
624:
567:
561:
448:
271:
46:
7201:
Nann, Thomas; Ibrahim, Saad K.; Woi, Pei-Meng; Xu, Shu; Ziegler, Jan; Pickett, Christopher J. (22 February 2010).
3959:
1293:
6366:"Researchers develop potentially low-cost, low-emissions technology that can convert methane without forming CO2"
6252:
4786:
Badwal, Sukhvinder P. S; Giddey, Sarbjit S; Munnings, Christopher; Bhatt, Anand I; Hollenkamp, Anthony F (2014).
4154:
3931:
3680:
3077:
2854:
2263:
1938:
1888:
1884:
1592:
are submerged and heated to about 80 °C (176 °F), causing a chemical reaction which produces hydrogen.
1281:
1036:
997:
6226:
4487:
green hydrogen .. current pricing of around $ 3 to $ 8 a kilogram .. gray hydrogen, which costs as little as $ 1
4219:
4158:
1423:, steam reforming, or biological conversion like biocatalysed electrolysis or fermentative hydrogen production.
3527:
2900:
2124:
2108:
2092:
1624:
1604:
776:
179:
7894:
Castelvecchi, Davide (2022-11-16). "How the hydrogen revolution can help save the planet â and how it can't".
6962:
6183:
3376:
3132:
1786:
1165:
3349:
2783:
7973:
7945:
7594:
5247:
4531:
Efficiency factors for PEM electrolysers up to 94% are predicted, but this is only theoretical at this time.
3643:
Efficiency factors for PEM electrolysers up to 94% are predicted, but this is only theoretical at this time.
2954:
1534:, wastewater or plants can be used to generate power. Biocatalysed electrolysis should not be confused with
1473:
1040:
981:). Of the available energy of the feed, approximately 48% is contained in the hydrogen, 40% is contained in
648:
133:
38:
5526:
5469:
2997:
2436:
2048:. Of the available energy of the feed, approximately 48% is contained in the hydrogen, 40% is contained in
7495:
7396:
6277:
5061:
2726:
2369:
2288:
2153:. Two ways of producing hydrogen from renewable energy sources are claimed to be practical. One is to use
1844:
1292:
in Japan. There are other hybrid cycles that use both high temperatures and some electricity, such as the
588:
Illustrating inputs and outputs of electrolysis of water, for production of hydrogen and no greenhouse gas
584:
156:
5907:
HĂ€ussinger, Peter; LohmĂŒller, Reiner; Watson, Allan M. (2011). "Hydrogen, 1. Properties and Occurrence".
2539:
Griffiths, Steve; Sovacool, Benjamin K.; Kim, Jinsoo; Bazilian, Morgan; Uratani, Joao M. (October 2021).
5677:. Steering Committee Meeting and Workshop of APEC Research Network for Advanced Biohydrogen Technology.
5445:
4384:
3812:
2833:"A net-zero world 'would require 306 million tonnes of green hydrogen per year by 2050': IEA | Recharge"
2623:
2364:
2338:
2293:
2185:
made an agreement in January 2022 to supply commercial pink hydrogen in the order of kilograms per day.
2158:
2139:
1987:
1979:
1832:
593:
551:
6035:
1304:
reaction in one of the reaction steps, it operates at 530 °C and has an efficiency of 43 percent.
643:. The heat energy can be provided from a number of different sources, including waste industrial heat,
5747:
Navarro, R.M.; Del Valle, F.; Villoria De La Mano, J.A.; Ălvarez-GalvĂĄn, M.C.; Fierro, J.L.G. (2009).
7903:
7552:
7511:
7461:
7417:
7131:
7065:
6905:
6752:
6688:
6638:
6472:
6295:
6145:
6065:
5988:
5953:
5876:
5821:
5713:
5682:
5593:
5520:"Process Simulation of Nuclear-Based Thermochemical Hydrogen Production with a Copper-Chlorine Cycle"
5365:
5263:
5169:
4897:
4854:
4799:
4641:
4006:
3987:
Hordeski, M. F. Alternative fuels: the future of hydrogen. 171â199 (The Fairmont Press, inc., 2007).
3554:
3439:
3183:
2665:
2591:
2552:
2467:
2214:
1297:
1245:
1240:
973:
company of the same name, for the production of hydrogen and carbon black from liquid hydrocarbons (C
323:
6583:
7844:
6896:
Carmo, M; Fritz D; Mergel J; Stolten D (2013). "A comprehensive review on PEM water electrolysis".
6397:"BASF researchers working on fundamentally new, low-carbon production processes, Methane Pyrolysis"
3470:
Press, Roman J.; Santhanam, K. S. V.; Miri, Massoud J.; Bailey, Alla V.; Takacs, Gerald A. (2008).
3049:
2278:
2240:
1999:
1991:
1983:
1896:
1852:
1836:
1748:
1744:
1724:
1531:
1527:
1521:
1517:
1277:
1001:
663:
644:
486:
405:
7274:
7253:
5644:
3228:
7927:
7477:
7433:
7027:
6987:
6654:
6612:
6533:
6498:
6286:
6161:
5845:
5287:
4913:
4870:
4501:"Chapter 3: Production of Hydrogen. Part 4: Production from electricity by means of electrolysis"
4275:
4127:
4022:
3602:"Chapter 3: Production of Hydrogen. Part 4: Production from electricity by means of electrolysis"
3264:
National hydrogen roadmap: pathways to an economically sustainable hydrogen industry in Australia
3261:
Bruce, S; Temminghoff, M; Hayward, J; Schmidt, E; Munnings, C; Palfreyman, D; Hartley, P (2018).
2485:
2258:
1831:) by means of an electric current being passed through the water. The difference with a standard
1313:
1164:-free nuclear technique to produce hydrogen by splitting water in a large scale. In this method,
1018:
601:
7637:"Air Products to Build Europeâs Largest Blue Hydrogen Plant and Strengthens Long-term Agreement"
7299:
2806:
2060:
As of 2019, hydrogen is mainly used as an industrial feedstock, primarily for the production of
2014:
1942:
955:
817:
with 60% hydrogen by volume. The hydrogen can be extracted from the coke oven gas economically.
7341:
6461:"Catalytic molten metals for the direct conversion of methane to hydrogen and separable carbon"
5246:
Li-Hung Lin; Pei-Ling Wang; Douglas Rumble; Johanna Lippmann-Pipke; Erik Boice; Lisa M. Pratt;
5012:
4698:
in Pt-based electrocatalysts for hydrogen production in methanol assisted water electrolysis".
2080:
1600:
8031:
7919:
7801:"World first for nuclear-powered pink hydrogen as commercial deal signed in Sweden | Recharge"
7670:
7581:"The Potential for Geologic Hydrogen for Next-Generation Energy | U.S. Geological Survey"
7224:
7181:
7147:
7091:
6878:
6870:
6860:
6778:
6490:
6351:"The Potential for Geologic Hydrogen for Next-Generation Energy | U.S. Geological Survey"
6206:
6116:
6081:
5920:
5837:
5764:
5748:
5729:
5619:
5564:
5560:
5279:
4827:
4453:
4326:
3582:
3475:
3410:
3354:
3209:
2977:
2872:
2788:
2303:
2273:
2074:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1508:
1465:
1461:
1448:
1013:
986:
612:
256:
167:). Hydrogen produced by electrolysis of water using renewable energy sources such as wind and
142:
104:
In 2020, roughly 87 million tons of hydrogen was produced worldwide for various uses, such as
91:
7823:"A wake-up call on green hydrogen: the amount of wind and solar needed is immense | Recharge"
7275:"DLR Portal â DLR scientists achieve solar hydrogen production in a 100-kilowatt pilot plant"
3102:
1058:
via coal gasification. The produced syngas consists mainly of hydrogen, carbon monoxide and H
1000:
technology for the production of hydrogen, heat and carbon from methane and natural gas in a
7911:
7714:
7706:
7678:
7662:
7654:
7560:
7519:
7469:
7425:
7214:
7173:
7139:
7081:
7073:
6913:
6768:
6760:
6696:
6646:
6525:
6480:
6439:
6303:
6153:
6108:
6073:
5996:
5961:
5912:
5884:
5829:
5794:
5756:
5721:
5609:
5601:
5373:
5338:
5271:
5177:
5142:
4947:
4905:
4862:
4817:
4807:
4765:
4734:
4707:
4676:
4649:
4267:
4259:
4189:
4109:
4082:
4050:
4014:
3882:
3572:
3562:
3447:
3402:
3344:
3334:
3199:
3191:
2933:
2778:
2768:
2673:
2599:
2560:
2475:
2415:
2323:
2318:
2283:
2245:
2200:
2146:
2069:
2049:
1971:
1628:
1617:
1611:
1400:
1349:
1317:
1112:
1028:
982:
963:
691:
233:
164:
95:
76:
64:
5251:
4500:
3601:
3170:
Van de Graaf, Thijs; Overland, Indra; Scholten, Daniel; Westphal, Kirsten (December 2020).
1344:
7779:
5452:
5408:
4973:
4305:
2353:
2333:
2313:
2308:
2132:
2128:
1967:
1921:
1913:
1797:
1793:
1687:
The industrial quality solid carbon may be sold as manufacturing feedstock or landfilled.
1539:
1333:
1329:
1301:
714:
632:
597:
571:
531:
525:
387:
381:
121:
6741:"Analytical approaches to photobiological hydrogen production in unicellular green algae"
5582:"Analytical approaches to photobiological hydrogen production in unicellular green algae"
4136:
3227:
Sansom, Robert; Baxter, Jenifer; Brown, Andy; Hawksworth, Stuart; McCluskey, Ian (2020).
7907:
7556:
7515:
7465:
7421:
7135:
7069:
6909:
6756:
6692:
6642:
6476:
6299:
6149:
6069:
5992:
5957:
5880:
5825:
5717:
5597:
5369:
5267:
5196:
5173:
4901:
4858:
4803:
4694:
Ju, Hyungkuk; Giddey, Sarbjit; Badwal, Sukhvinder P.S (2017). "The role of nanosized SnO
4645:
4010:
3558:
3443:
3187:
2669:
2595:
2556:
2504:
Bonheure, Mike; Vandewalle, Laurien A.; Marin, Guy B.; Van Geem, Kevin M. (March 2021).
2471:
7969:
7086:
7053:
6773:
6740:
5749:"Photocatalytic Water Splitting Under Visible Light: Concept and Catalysts Development"
5614:
5581:
4822:
4787:
3577:
3542:
3406:
3204:
3171:
2406:
2348:
2343:
2205:
Hydrogen is used for the conversion of heavy petroleum fractions into lighter ones via
2174:
2166:
2088:
1917:
1770:
1567:
1378:
1145:
1051:
803:
628:
539:
217:
172:
59:
7868:
7177:
5760:
4986:
4448:. The Bellona Foundation. p. 20. Archived from the original on 16 September 2013.
8048:
8004:
7931:
7746:
7481:
7437:
7248:
6991:
6658:
6537:
6502:
4917:
4874:
4026:
3508:
CISAP4 4th International Conference on Safety and Environment in the Process Industry
2489:
2328:
2222:
2210:
2206:
2170:
1925:
1584:
CC-HOD (Catalytic Carbon â Hydrogen On Demand) is a low-temperature process in which
1205:
838:
352:
183:
160:
113:
51:
6714:
6165:
5849:
5291:
4769:
4738:
4711:
4279:
4086:
3496:
1284:
systems (CSP) and is regarded as being well suited to the production of hydrogen by
635:, and can therefore be possibly cheaper if the hydrogen production is large enough.
393:
Steam methane reforming (SMR) produces hydrogen from natural gas, mostly methane (CH
7775:
7772:"WSJ News Exclusive: Green Hydrogen Gets a Boost in the U.S. With $ 4 Billion Plant
7640:
7429:
6917:
6650:
6077:
6000:
5965:
5342:
4909:
4866:
4680:
4653:
4193:
3451:
2699:
2162:
2154:
2104:
2029:
2018:
1648:
Illustrating inputs and outputs of methane pyrolysis, a process to produce Hydrogen
1644:
1545:
1420:
1321:
1103:
959:
798:
530:
Methods to produce hydrogen without the use of fossil fuels involve the process of
485:
In a second stage, additional hydrogen is generated through the lower-temperature,
436:
327:
225:
105:
87:
68:
41:. In this process, hydrogen is produced from a chemical reaction between steam and
7565:
7540:
6851:
Janssen, H.; Emonts, B.; Groehn, H. G.; Mai, H.; Reichel, R.; Stolten, D. (2001).
6626:
5916:
6112:
5798:
4596:"Xcel Attracts 'Unprecedented' Low Prices for Solar and Wind Paired With Storage"
4320:
4246:"Process intensification: water electrolysis in a centrifugal acceleration field"
4126:
In the laboratory, water electrolysis can be done with a simple apparatus like a
2678:
2653:
2604:
2579:
7329:
6426:
Schneider, Stefan; Bajohr, Siegfried; Graf, Frank; Kolb, Thomas (October 2020).
5493:
4054:
2920:
Schneider, Stefan; Bajohr, Siegfried; Graf, Frank; Kolb, Thomas (October 2020).
2480:
2455:
2268:
1712:
1500:
Diverse enzymatic pathways have been designed to generate hydrogen from sugars.
1416:
1325:
1249:
1129:
889:
810:
752:
658:
inputs, which makes them ideal for use with renewable sources of energy such as
168:
137:
7915:
7719:
7342:"Development of Solar-powered Thermochemical Production of Hydrogen from Water"
6700:
5377:
5181:
4952:
4935:
4071:
Ogden, J.M. (1999). "Prospects for building a hydrogen energy infrastructure".
3787:"Green hydrogen is gaining traction, but still has massive hurdles to overcome"
3236:. London, United Kingdom: The Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET).
3195:
2564:
2420:
2401:
49:
is used to remove a large fraction of these emissions, the product is known as
7524:
7499:
7473:
7203:"Water Splitting by Visible Light: A Nanophotocathode for Hydrogen Production"
6764:
6529:
6308:
6287:
Elements: An International Magazine of Mineralogy, Geochemistry, and Petrology
6281:
5605:
5563:, IstvĂĄn Hargittai, Magdolna Hargittai, p. 261, Imperial College Press (2000)
4322:
Hydrogen Science and Engineering: Materials, Processes, Systems and Technology
4263:
2236:
2229:
2025:
1848:
1840:
1758:
1366:
1117:
1092:
831:
659:
424:
17:
7674:
6874:
6200:
4812:
3760:"How Much Electricity/Water Is Needed to Produce 1 kg of H2 by Electrolysis?"
3567:
7682:
6485:
6460:
5401:
5275:
3321:
Hassanpouryouzband, Aliakbar; Wilkinson, Mark; Haszeldine, R Stuart (2024).
3230:
Transitioning to hydrogen: assessing the engineering risks and uncertainties
3140:. Berlin, Germany: Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy (BMWi).
2755:
Hassanpouryouzband, Aliakbar; Wilkinson, Mark; Haszeldine, R Stuart (2024).
1955:
1866:
1652:
1631:. Water could be pumped down to hot iron-rich rock to extract the hydrogen.
1589:
1484:, an anaerobic photosynthetic bacteria, coupled to a hydrogenase donor like
1140:
1107:
1099:
1024:
966:
401:
7923:
7228:
7219:
7202:
7151:
7143:
7095:
6782:
6494:
6444:
6427:
6120:
6085:
5841:
5833:
5733:
5725:
5623:
5283:
4831:
3586:
3358:
3213:
2938:
2921:
2792:
6231:
U.S. Army Combat Capabilities Development Command Army Research Laboratory
4523:
4151:"Nuclear power plants can produce hydrogen to fuel the 'hydrogen economy'"
3887:
3870:
3635:
2232:
for local electricity generation or potentially as a transportation fuel.
1954:
by multiplying the available reactor units and by connecting the plant to
512:(O) atom is stripped from the additional water (steam) to oxidize CO to CO
489:, water-gas shift reaction, performed at about 360 °C (680 °F):
443:, etc.), one ton of hydrogen produced will also produce 9 to 12 tons of CO
419:, the carbon monoxide reacts with steam to obtain further quantities of H
5678:
5671:
Renewable Energy Technology And Prospect On Biohydrogen Study In Thailand
5402:
IEA Energy Technology Essentials â Hydrogen Production & Distribution
3871:"Hydrogen Production Technologies: Current State and Future Developments"
2695:"In-depth Q&A: Does the world need hydrogen to solve climate change?"
2456:"Is heating homes with hydrogen all but a pipe dream? An evidence review"
2065:
2021:
and hydrogen process (CB&H) is a method, developed in the 1980s by a
1716:
1457:
794:
744:
578:
conditions which could lead to a competitive advantage for electrolysis.
117:
30:
7244:"Panasonic moves closer to home energy self-sufficiency with fuel cells"
7077:
5425:
5252:"Long-Term Sustainability of a High-Energy, Low-Diversity Crustal Biome"
1369:. In the late 1990s it was discovered that if the algae are deprived of
1270:
849:
partial oxidation (CPOX). The chemical reaction takes the general form:
148:
7710:
7397:
https://www.hfpeurope.org/infotools/energyinfos__e/hydrogen/main03.html
7116:
7114:
6882:
4936:"Carbon Neutral Fuels and Chemicals from Standalone Biomass Refineries"
4301:«Coca-Cola-oppskrift» kan gjÞre hydrogen til nytt norsk industrieventyr
3339:
3322:
3172:"The new oil? The geopolitics and international governance of hydrogen"
2773:
2756:
2437:"Hydrogen Is One Answer to Climate Change. Getting It Is the Hard Part"
2218:
2061:
2041:
1761:. In the late 1990s it was discovered that if the algae is deprived of
1412:
1096:
748:
662:. AECs optimally operate at high concentrations of electrolyte (KOH or
655:
440:
251:
109:
84:
42:
6797:"NanoLogix generates energy on-site with bioreactor-produced hydrogen"
6739:
Hemschemeier, Anja; Melis, Anastasios; Happe, Thomas (December 2009).
6428:"State of the Art of Hydrogen Production via Pyrolysis of Natural Gas"
6202:
Electricity generation by living plants in a plant microbial fuel cell
5889:
5864:
5470:"Status report 101 â Gas Turbine High Temperature Reactor (GTHTR300C)"
5306:"Dream or Reality? Electrification of the Chemical Process Industries"
5146:
2922:"State of the Art of Hydrogen Production via Pyrolysis of Natural Gas"
2652:
Squadrito, Gaetano; Maggio, Gaetano; Nicita, Agatino (November 2023).
2578:
Squadrito, Gaetano; Maggio, Gaetano; Nicita, Agatino (November 2023).
2506:"Dream or Reality? Electrification of the Chemical Process Industries"
7666:
5550:
Report No 40: The ferrosilicon process for the generation of hydrogen
5446:
https://smr.inl.gov/Document.ashx?path=DOCS%2FGCR-Int%2FNHDDELDER.pdf
4929:
4927:
4788:"Emerging electrochemical energy conversion and storage technologies"
4271:
4113:
3543:"Emerging electrochemical energy conversion and storage technologies"
2402:"Recent development of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies: A review"
2045:
2022:
1909:
small electric current, produced hydrogen with an efficiency of 60%.
1820:
1766:
1762:
1720:
1585:
1579:
1374:
1370:
1312:
Ferrosilicon is used by the military to quickly produce hydrogen for
1261:
1055:
970:
814:
772:
694:
are around 80%, or 82% using the most modern alkaline electrolysers.
509:
463:
398:
7500:"New Perspectives in the Industrial Exploration for Native Hydrogen"
7163:
7161:
7108:
William Ayers, US Patent 4,466,869 Photolytic Production of Hydrogen
6282:"New Perspectives in the Industrial Exploration for Native Hydrogen"
6157:
4018:
2727:"Natural Hydrogen: A Potential Clean Energy Source Beneath Our Feet"
1966:
There are more than 352 thermochemical cycles which can be used for
763:
produced can be easily sequestered without the need for separation.
574:
of 143 MJ/kg or about 40 kWh/kg) requires 50â55 kWh of electricity.
7620:"First element in periodic table: Why all the fuss about hydrogen?"
5863:
DjuriĆĄiÄ, Aleksandra B.; He, Yanling; Ng, Alan M. C. (March 2020).
5755:. Advances in Chemical Engineering. Vol. 36. pp. 111â43.
5197:"Oil-eating microbes excrete the world's cheapest "clean" hydrogen"
5487:"JAEA'S VHTR FOR HYDROGEN AND ELECTRICITY COGENERATION: GTHTR300C"
3397:
Velazquez Abad, A.; Dodds, P.E. (2017). "Production of Hydrogen".
2079:
1950:
1812:
1755:
1740:
1643:
1599:
1544:
1507:
1469:
1363:
1343:
788:
699:
666:) and at high temperatures, often near 200 °C (392 °F).
631:
metal catalysts) but are more efficient and can operate at higher
583:
428:
232:
include hydrogen produced from other low-emission sources such as
147:
75:
include hydrogen produced from other low-emission sources such as
4569:"DOE Technical Targets for Hydrogen Production from Electrolysis"
4355:"Hydrogen from water electrolysis â solutions for sustainability"
3718:"Commentary: Producing industrial hydrogen from renewable energy"
1128:
Water spontaneously dissociates at around 2500 °C, but this
775:
by gasification and syngas is further converted into hydrogen by
3791:
1476:
SH2C can be employed to convert some fatty acids into hydrogen.
303:
7845:"How does the energy crisis affect the transition to net zero?"
6988:"Steam heat: researchers gear up for full-scale hydrogen plant"
7170:
Advances in Chemical Engineering - Photocatalytic Technologies
6853:
High-pressure electrolysis, the key technology for efficient H
4413:"Cost reduction and performance increase of PEM electrolysers"
3903:"Cost reduction and performance increase of PEM electrolysers"
3841:"Cost reduction and performance increase of PEM electrolysers"
3071:
3069:
708:
production cost ($ -gge untaxed) at varying natural gas prices
7330:
UNLV Thermochemical cycle automated scoring database (public)
5580:
Hemschemeier, Anja; Melis, Anastasios; Happe, Thomas (2009).
2953:
Sampson2019-02-11T10:48:00+00:00, Joanna (11 February 2019).
2111:. Hydrogen produced by this technology has been described as
1456:
converts organic substrates to hydrogen. A diverse group of
359:
Hydrogen that occurs naturally deep within the Earth's crust
7595:"Executive summary â Global Hydrogen Review 2023 â Analysis"
6553:"The reaction that would give us clean fossil fuels forever"
6227:"Aluminum Based Nanogalvanic Alloys for Hydrogen Generation"
4441:
BjĂžrnar Kruse; Sondre Grinna; Cato Buch (13 February 2002).
1958:
fields (fields of sun-tracking mirrors) of a suitable size.
1530:(electrolysis using microbes) is another possibility. Using
1035:
S). Hydrogen can be separated from other impurities by the
722:
about 53 to 70 kWh per kg could go down to about 45 kWh/kg
690:
required by the catalyst), average working efficiencies for
5073:"KvĂŠrner-process with plasma arc waste disposal technology"
2157:, in which electric power is used to produce hydrogen from
2056:
Extraction of naturally-occurring hydrogen â White Hydrogen
288:
Fossil hydrocarbons, mainly steam reforming of natural gas
4385:"ITM â Hydrogen Refuelling Infrastructure â February 2017"
3813:"ITM â Hydrogen Refuelling Infrastructure â February 2017"
3026:"Can a viable industry emerge from the hydrogen shakeout?"
4209:"Development of water electrolysis in the European Union"
3165:
3163:
3161:
330:
of water, or contributing steam to natural gas reforming
5865:"Visible-light photocatalysts: Prospects and challenges"
1043:
have carried out production of hydrogen by this method.
996:
A variation of this process was presented in 2009 using
674:
Efficiency of modern hydrogen generators is measured by
7734:"Facts on low-carbon hydrogen â A European perspective"
4781:
4779:
3999:
Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Energy and Environment
3869:
Kalamaras, Christos M.; Efstathiou, Angelos M. (2013).
3681:"Wide Spread Adaption of Competitive Hydrogen Solution"
2868:
7643:
press release, November 6, 2023. Retrieved 2023-11-14.
4518:
BjĂžrnar Kruse; Sondre Grinna; Cato Buch (2002-02-13).
3630:
BjĂžrnar Kruse; Sondre Grinna; Cato Buch (2002-02-13).
2998:"Brown coal the hydrogen economy stepping stone | ECT"
4544:"high-rate and high efficiency 3D water electrolysis"
3656:"high-rate and high efficiency 3D water electrolysis"
2855:"Global Hydrogen Generation Market Size Report, 2030"
1616:
Hydrogen is also present naturally underground. This
1549:
Nano-galvanic aluminum-based powder developed by the
1415:
and waste streams can in principle be converted into
596:
is 70â80% efficient (a 20â30% conversion loss) while
423:. The WGSR also requires a catalyst, typically over
6859:. HYPOTHESIS IV. Kluwer Academic. pp. 172â177.
2209:. It is also used in other processes including the
2173:
via electrolysis is sometimes viewed as a subset of
2115:when emissions are released to the atmosphere, and
1017:conversion is low-temperature and high-temperature
783:
Hydrogen as a byproduct of other chemical processes
8003:
5561:Candid science: conversations with famous chemists
4750:
4748:
3528:"HFCIT Hydrogen Production: Natural Gas Reforming"
3295:Department of Earth Sciences (12 September 2022).
2693:Evans, Simon; Gabbatiss, Josh (30 November 2020).
2123:(CCS). Blue hydrogen has been estimated to have a
7974:"How many people does synthetic fertilizer feed?"
7657:(12 August 2021). "How green is blue hydrogen?".
5938:
5936:
5668:Jenvanitpanjakul, Peesamai (February 3â4, 2010).
5013:"Production of Liquefied Hydrogen Sourced by COG"
4987:"Different Gases from Steel Production Processes"
4475:"Hydrogen Is a Trillion Dollar Bet on the Future"
4207:Luca Bertuccioli; et al. (7 February 2014).
4133:"Electrolysis of water and the concept of charge"
3350:20.500.11820/b23e204c-744e-44f6-8cf5-b6761775260d
2784:20.500.11820/b23e204c-744e-44f6-8cf5-b6761775260d
2400:Fan, Lixin; Tu, Zhengkai; Chan, Siew Hwa (2021).
1811:is the electrolysis of water by decomposition of
1623:White hydrogen could be found or produced in the
342:Sometimes understood to mean solar photovoltaics
7541:"Natural hydrogen the fuel of the 21 st century"
5422:"HTTR High Temperature engineering Test Reactor"
5221:An Introduction to Radiation Chemistry Chapter 7
4505:HyWeb: Knowledge â Hydrogen in the Energy Sector
4216:Client Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking
3606:HyWeb: Knowledge â Hydrogen in the Energy Sector
3497:"Hydrogen Production via Steam Reforming with CO
3323:"Hydrogen energy futures â foraging or farming?"
2757:"Hydrogen energy futures â foraging or farming?"
1800:, cordgrass, rice, tomatoes, lupines, and algae
1542:, cordgrass, rice, tomatoes, lupines and algae.
1091:Nuclear radiation can break water bonds through
6715:"Hydrogen production from organic solid matter"
3932:"Report and Financial Statements 30 April 2016"
3373:"Actual Worldwide Hydrogen Production from ..."
3301:Department of Earth Sciences, Oxford University
2135:(SMR) retrofitted with carbon dioxide capture.
1924:that can absorb 57% of sunlight to support the
1260:reactions to split water into its hydrogen and
676:energy consumed per standard volume of hydrogen
408:forms carbon monoxide and molecular hydrogen (H
308:Via coal gasification or in a suitable reactor
224:In most definitions, renewable electricity via
7816:
7814:
5909:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry
5234:Nuclear Hydrogen Production Handbook Chapter 8
4499:Werner Zittel; Reinhold Wurster (1996-07-08).
3600:Werner Zittel; Reinhold Wurster (1996-07-08).
362:Obtained by mining; also referred to as white
302:Fossil hydrocarbons: brown (lignite) or black
7539:Truche, Laurent; Bazarkina, Elena F. (2019).
6827:"Power from plants using microbial fuel cell"
6584:"Hydrogen from methane without CO2 emissions"
5391:Producing hydrogen: The Thermochemical cycles
4066:
4064:
1970:, around a dozen of these cycles such as the
837:The partial oxidation reaction occurs when a
546:Electrolysis of water â green, pink or yellow
8:
8026:Francesco Calise; et al., eds. (2019).
6253:"Army discovery may offer new energy source"
6024:using milk plasma as fermentative substrate"
3960:"Hydrogen Production: Natural Gas Reforming"
3126:
3124:
3122:
1739:because it only proceeds in the presence of
1468:because it only proceeds in the presence of
5902:
5900:
4422:. Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking
4074:Annual Review of Energy and the Environment
3983:
3981:
3850:. Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking
3375:Arno A Evers. December 2008. Archived from
2982:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
2750:
2748:
2746:
2435:Reed, Stanley; Ewing, Jack (13 July 2021).
454:For this process, high temperature steam (H
27:Industrial production of molecular hydrogen
7786:, December 8, 2022. Retrieved 2023-11-14.
7774:: The planned factory, a joint venture by
4934:Sasidhar, Nallapaneni (30 November 2023).
3912:. Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking
1754:Biological hydrogen can be produced in an
1362:Biological hydrogen can be produced in an
1158:high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR)
1012:For the production of hydrogen from coal,
228:of water. Less frequently, definitions of
198:Colors that refer to method of production
71:of water. Less frequently, definitions of
63:is usually understood to be produced from
7718:
7564:
7523:
7218:
7085:
6772:
6484:
6443:
6307:
6179:Wageningen University and Research Centre
6014:Rajanandam, Brijesh; Kiran, Siva (2011).
5888:
5613:
5122:. U.S. Energy Information Administration.
4951:
4940:Indian Journal of Environment Engineering
4821:
4811:
3886:
3576:
3566:
3465:
3463:
3461:
3348:
3338:
3203:
2937:
2782:
2772:
2677:
2603:
2479:
2419:
1751:to produce hydrogen from organic matter.
1723:systems involving three steps similar to
1290:High-temperature engineering test reactor
190:Classification based on production method
132:Molecular hydrogen was discovered in the
7410:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
6681:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
6631:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
6137:International Journal of Energy Research
6016:"Optimization of hydrogen production by
5981:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
5946:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
5358:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
4634:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
4522:. The Bellona Foundation. Archived from
4359:thyssenkrupp-uhde-chlorine-engineers.com
4182:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
3634:. The Bellona Foundation. Archived from
3530:. U.S. Department of Energy. 2008-12-15.
3432:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
3399:Encyclopedia of Sustainable Technologies
2514:American Institute of Chemical Engineers
1976:cerium(IV) oxide-cerium(III) oxide cycle
196:
7827:Recharge | Latest renewable energy news
7805:Recharge | Latest renewable energy news
7207:Angewandte Chemie International Edition
6963:"Finland exporting TEN-T fuel stations"
2837:Recharge | Latest renewable energy news
2392:
1472:. For example, photo-fermentation with
1288:, and as such, is being studied in the
1054:can also be converted to hydrogen-rich
386:Hydrogen is industrially produced from
5098:"Emissions Advantages of Gasification"
4485:from the original on 2 December 2020.
4451:
4325:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 898.
3746:
3474:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 249.
3103:"What potential for natural hydrogen?"
2975:
2028:, for the production of hydrogen from
1765:it will switch from the production of
1700:Biological hydrogen production (Algae)
1373:it will switch from the production of
1358:Biological hydrogen production (Algae)
462:) in an endothermic reaction to yield
7869:"Hydrogen â Fuels & Technologies"
7736:, ZEP Oct 2021. Confirmed 2023-12-12.
7242:Yamamura, Tetsushi (August 2, 2015).
6205:(PhD Thesis). Wageningen University.
5102:National Energy Technology Laboratory
4244:L. Lao; C. Ramshaw; H. Yeung (2011).
3632:"Hydrogen â Status and Possibilities"
3020:
3018:
2624:"So, What Exactly Is Green Hydrogen?"
1945:is a 100-kilowatt pilot plant at the
1083:that could in principle be captured.
962:and hydrogen process (CB&H) is a
247:
7:
7758:National Renewable Energy Laboratory
6803:. September 20, 2007. Archived from
6594:from the original on 21 October 2020
6563:from the original on 26 October 2020
6407:from the original on 19 October 2020
6376:from the original on 19 October 2020
5025:from the original on 8 February 2021
3608:. Ludwig-Bölkow-Systemtechnik GmbH.
3176:Energy Research & Social Science
2707:from the original on 1 December 2020
2617:
2615:
2545:Energy Research & Social Science
2119:when emissions are captured through
1873:Photoelectrochemical water splitting
969:method, developed in the 1980s by a
534:, or splitting the water molecule (H
6582:Karlsruhe Institute of Technology.
4520:"HydrogenâStatus and Possibilities"
4507:. Ludwig-Bölkow-Systemtechnik GmbH.
4473:Fickling, David (2 December 2020).
4443:"HydrogenâStatus and Possibilities"
4299:Stensvold, Tore (26 January 2016).
4251:Journal of Applied Electrochemistry
3472:Introduction to hydrogen Technology
2284:Hydrogen economy § Color codes
1711:conversion of organic substrate to
1336:, hydrogen and steam are produced.
7799:Collins, Leigh (25 January 2022).
7172:. Vol. 36. pp. 111â143.
4993:from the original on 27 March 2016
3728:from the original on 22 April 2018
3407:10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.10117-4
2955:"Blue hydrogen for a green future"
2454:Rosenow, Jan (27 September 2022).
2091:could be found or produced in the
1887:(PEC) process which is also named
1563:Aluminum based nanogalvanic alloys
1557:Nanogalvanic aluminum alloy powder
813:in steel production is similar to
621:polymer electrolyte membrane cells
435:. Depending on the quality of the
356:
339:
317:
299:
285:
267:
25:
7833:from the original on 4 June 2021.
7618:Hessler, Uwe (December 6, 2020).
6372:. American Institute of Physics.
6028:Journal of Biochemical Technology
5424:. Httr.jaea.go.jp. Archived from
3785:Petrova, Magdalena (2020-12-04).
3766:from the original on 17 June 2020
2520:from the original on 17 July 2021
2177:, but can also be referred to as
1715:manifested by a diverse group of
1286:high-temperature nuclear reactors
892:and coal, assuming compositions C
680:standard temperature and pressure
7821:Collins, Leigh (19 March 2020).
7659:Energy Science & Engineering
6251:McNally, David (July 25, 2017).
6101:Current Opinion in Biotechnology
4546:. Grid-shift.com. Archived from
4157:. March 25, 2012. Archived from
3658:. Grid-shift.com. Archived from
2843:from the original on 2021-05-21.
2813:. 10 July 2023. "Energy" section
2361:(partly for hydrogen production)
2149:sources is often referred to as
1904:Photoelectrocatalytic production
1705:Fermentative hydrogen production
1488:, are reported in literature.
1454:Fermentative hydrogen production
1445:fermentative hydrogen production
1439:Fermentative hydrogen production
993:is not produced in the process.
738:Chemically assisted electrolysis
670:Industrial output and efficiency
7379:from the original on 2016-06-03
7354:from the original on 2007-04-17
7312:from the original on 2009-02-05
7281:from the original on 2013-06-22
7017:"Nuclear Hydrogen R&D Plan"
6998:from the original on 2008-09-21
6969:from the original on 2016-08-28
6833:from the original on 2021-02-08
6721:from the original on 2011-07-20
6182:(Press release). Archived from
4770:10.1016/j.electacta.2011.11.006
4739:10.1016/j.electacta.2016.07.062
4712:10.1016/j.electacta.2017.01.106
4319:Stolten, Detlef (Jan 4, 2016).
4087:10.1146/annurev.energy.24.1.227
3724:. International Energy Agency.
3697:from the original on 2018-04-22
3612:from the original on 2007-02-07
3277:from the original on 2020-12-08
3243:from the original on 2020-05-08
3147:from the original on 2020-12-13
3004:from the original on 2019-04-08
2965:from the original on 2019-05-09
2875:from the original on 2020-10-25
2654:"The green hydrogen revolution"
2634:from the original on 2022-03-23
2580:"The green hydrogen revolution"
2103:Most hydrogen is produced from
1635:Experimental production methods
1340:Photobiological water splitting
1296:, it is classified as a hybrid
1160:is one of the most promising CO
447:, a greenhouse gas that may be
7699:Sustainable Energy & Fuels
7430:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.08.193
6918:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.01.151
6651:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.11.057
6174:"Living plants produce energy"
6078:10.1016/j.biortech.2016.12.073
6001:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2006.06.034
5966:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.10.021
5343:10.1016/j.biombioe.2009.02.006
4910:10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.09.125
4867:10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.09.125
4681:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.09.083
4654:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.11.033
4194:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2009.01.053
4102:Journal of Materials Chemistry
3452:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.12.035
3134:The national hydrogen strategy
3078:"The hydrogen colour spectrum"
2894:"Definition of Green Hydrogen"
2183:Oskarshamn Nuclear Power Plant
2052:and 10% in superheated steam.
1912:In 2015, it was reported that
1536:biological hydrogen production
1492:is another hydrogen producer.
1395:Photocatalytic water splitting
1389:Photocatalytic water splitting
908:respectively, are as follows:
617:solid oxide electrolyser cells
611:There are three main types of
376:Steam reforming â gray or blue
324:Thermochemical water splitting
182:, is generally referred to as
178:When fossil fuel derived with
1:
7178:10.1016/S0065-2377(09)00404-9
5917:10.1002/14356007.a13_297.pub2
5761:10.1016/S0065-2377(09)00404-9
5116:"Emissions from burning coal"
3495:Collodi, Guido (2010-03-11).
2869:"Natural Hydrogen Energy LLC"
2831:Collins, Leigh (2021-05-18).
2359:Next Generation Nuclear Plant
1996:aluminum aluminum-oxide cycle
1860:High-temperature electrolysis
1640:Methane pyrolysis â turquoise
1551:U.S. Army Research Laboratory
1512:A microbial electrolysis cell
1496:Enzymatic hydrogen generation
1460:promote this transformation.
1316:. The chemical reaction uses
1146:photosynthetic microorganisms
845:partial oxidation (TPOX) and
793:The industrial production of
767:Hydrogen from biomass â green
641:high-temperature electrolysis
558:High-temperature electrolysis
7026:. March 2004. Archived from
6401:United States Sustainability
6113:10.1016/j.copbio.2010.05.005
5799:10.1016/j.cattod.2014.11.007
5104:. U.S. Department of Energy.
4043:Materials Today: Proceedings
2679:10.1016/j.renene.2023.119041
2605:10.1016/j.renene.2023.119041
2380:Underground hydrogen storage
1152:Nuclear-assisted thermolysis
8012:International Energy Agency
7747:"New Horizons for Hydrogen"
7566:10.1051/e3sconf/20199803006
7300:"353 Thermochemical cycles"
5753:Photocatalytic Technologies
5638:"DOE 2008 Report 25 %"
4055:10.1016/j.matpr.2022.04.264
3875:Conference Papers in Energy
2622:Deign, Jason (2020-06-29).
2481:10.1016/j.joule.2022.08.015
2299:Hydrogen pipeline transport
2093:Mid-continental Rift System
2084:Mid-continental Rift System
1947:Plataforma Solar de AlmerĂa
1932:Concentrating solar thermal
1796:can be used. These include
1625:Mid-continental Rift System
1605:Mid-continental Rift System
1526:Besides dark fermentation,
1116:, was feeding on primarily
625:alkaline electrolysis cells
116:, and in the production of
8071:
7916:10.1038/d41586-022-03699-0
7454:Natural Resources Research
6898:Journal of Hydrogen Energy
6701:10.1016/j.rser.2023.113323
6034:(2): 242â4. Archived from
5457:Progress in Nuclear Energy
5378:10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.275
5182:10.1016/j.fuel.2013.06.045
4953:10.54105/ijee.B1845.113223
3196:10.1016/j.erss.2020.101667
3050:"Hydrogen Color Explained"
2565:10.1016/j.erss.2021.102208
2421:10.1016/j.egyr.2021.08.003
2235:Hydrogen is produced as a
2198:
2161:, and the other is to use
2121:carbon capture and storage
1879:Photoelectrolysis of water
1876:
1809:High pressure electrolysis
1804:High-pressure electrolysis
1697:
1609:
1577:
1560:
1515:
1442:
1392:
1355:
1238:
786:
771:Biomass is converted into
568:high pressure electrolysis
562:High-pressure electrolysis
555:
549:
523:
458:O) reacts with methane (CH
379:
371:Current production methods
272:carbon capture and storage
47:carbon capture and storage
8028:Solar Hydrogen Production
7525:10.2138/gselements.16.1.8
7474:10.1007/s11053-014-9257-5
7375:. Interstatetraveler.us.
6765:10.1007/s11120-009-9415-5
6530:10.1038/s41929-019-0416-2
6309:10.2138/gselements.16.1.8
5606:10.1007/s11120-009-9415-5
5195:Blain, Loz (2022-10-04).
5049:www.interstatetraveler.us
4575:. US Department of Energy
4458:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
4264:10.1007/s10800-011-0275-2
4155:American Chemical Society
3966:. US Department of Energy
2264:Artificial photosynthesis
2169:. Hydrogen produced from
2131:rates and production via
1962:Thermochemical production
1939:concentrating solar power
1889:artificial photosynthesis
1885:photoelectrochemical cell
1781:Biocatalysed electrolysis
1627:at scale for a renewable
1504:Biocatalysed electrolysis
1282:Concentrating solar power
1037:pressure swing adsorption
998:plasma arc waste disposal
821:Other fossil fuel methods
660:photovoltaic solar panels
566:Hydrogen can be made via
216:
208:
205:
202:
7980:. Global Change Data Lab
7849:European Investment Bank
7373:"Bellona-HydrogenReport"
6018:Halobacterium salinarium
4813:10.3389/fchem.2014.00079
4669:Journal of Power Sources
3568:10.3389/fchem.2014.00079
3327:Chemical Society Reviews
3303:. Oxford, United Kingdom
3084:. London, United Kingdom
2901:Clean Energy Partnership
2761:Chemical Society Reviews
2375:LindeâFrankâCaro process
2228:Hydrogen may be used in
2125:greenhouse gas footprint
2109:carbon dioxide emissions
2026:company of the same name
1352:for hydrogen production.
1041:Japanese steel companies
777:water-gas shift reaction
417:water-gas shift reaction
221:
180:greenhouse gas emissions
7788:(subscription required)
6745:Photosynthesis Research
6625:Lumbers, Brock (2022).
6486:10.1126/science.aao5023
5586:Photosynthesis Research
5276:10.1126/science.1127376
5248:Barbara Sherwood Lollar
5045:"Hydrogen technologies"
2244:the establishment of a
2145:Hydrogen produced from
2133:steam methane reformers
1474:Rhodobacter sphaeroides
1195:HI decomposition: 2HIâH
888:Idealized examples for
134:Kola Superdeep Borehole
108:, in the production of
39:steam methane reforming
8006:The Future of Hydrogen
7545:E3S Web of Conferences
7277:. Dlr.de. 2008-11-25.
7220:10.1002/anie.200906262
7144:10.1002/cssc.200900018
6801:Solid State Technology
6445:10.1002/cben.202000014
6199:Timmers, Ruud (2012).
6058:Bioresource Technology
5834:10.1002/adma.201601694
5726:10.1002/cssc.200900018
4792:Frontiers in Chemistry
4621:accessed June 22, 2021
3547:Frontiers in Chemistry
2939:10.1002/cben.202000014
2370:Lane hydrogen producer
2289:Hydrogen embrittlement
2217:and the production of
2085:
1839:output around 120â200
1649:
1607:
1553:
1513:
1490:Enterobacter aerogenes
1353:
709:
645:nuclear power stations
589:
276:CCS networks required
153:
7058:Nature Communications
6559:. New Scientist Ltd.
5331:Biomass and Bioenergy
2339:Hydrogen technologies
2294:Hydrogen leak testing
2159:electrolysis of water
2140:autothermal reformers
2083:
1988:copper-chlorine cycle
1980:zinc zinc-oxide cycle
1827:) and hydrogen gas (H
1694:Biological production
1683:(g) ÎH° = 74.8 kJ/mol
1647:
1603:
1548:
1511:
1347:
1294:Copperâchlorine cycle
1264:components. The term
1246:Thermochemical cycles
703:
600:of natural gas has a
594:Electrolysis of water
587:
552:Electrolysis of water
431:. The byproduct is CO
250:Thermal splitting of
151:
120:through reduction of
7024:U.S. Dept. of Energy
6932:"2003-PHOEBUS-Pag.9"
5683:Feng Chia University
4161:on December 10, 2019
3401:. pp. 293â304.
3270:. Australia: CSIRO.
2215:hydrodesulfurization
2099:Environmental impact
1749:microbial fuel cells
1725:anaerobic conversion
1532:microbial fuel cells
1298:thermochemical cycle
1241:thermochemical cycle
1235:Thermochemical cycle
1136:Pyrolysis on biomass
649:solar thermal plants
406:endothermic reaction
96:underground hydrogen
94:, and extraction of
8055:Hydrogen production
7950:energy.ec.europa.eu
7908:2022Natur.611..440C
7784:Wall Street Journal
7720:20.500.11850/422246
7653:Robert W. Howarth;
7557:2019E3SWC..9803006T
7516:2020Eleme..16....8G
7498:(1 February 2020).
7466:2015NRR....24..369L
7422:2018IJHE...4319315P
7416:(42): 19315â19326.
7136:2009ChSCh...2..471N
7078:10.1038/ncomms13549
7070:2016NatCo...713549V
6910:2013IJHE...38.4901C
6757:2009PhoRe.102..523H
6693:2023RSERv.18113323P
6643:2022IJHE...47.4265L
6477:2017Sci...358..917U
6300:2020Eleme..16....8G
6150:2008IJER...32..870S
6070:2017BiTec.227..335A
5993:2007IJHE...32..200T
5958:2017IJHE...42.1989A
5881:2020APLM....8c0903D
5826:2017AdM....2901694L
5718:2009ChSCh...2..471N
5598:2009PhoRe.102..523H
5370:2018RSERv..81.1802P
5268:2006Sci...314..479L
5174:2014Fuel..117.1288G
4902:2018ApEn..231..502J
4859:2018ApEn..231..502J
4804:2014FrCh....2...79B
4758:Electrochimica Acta
4727:Electrochimica Acta
4700:Electrochimica Acta
4646:2015IJHE...40...70G
4011:2013WIREE...2..473B
3888:10.1155/2013/690627
3716:Philibert, CĂ©dric.
3559:2014FrCh....2...79B
3444:2015IJHE...4011094D
3438:(34): 11094â11111.
3188:2020ERSS...7001667V
3082:National Grid Group
2670:2023REne..21619041S
2596:2023REne..21619041S
2557:2021ERSS...8002208G
2472:2022Joule...6.2225R
2279:Hydrogen compressor
2241:chlorine production
1992:hybrid sulfur cycle
1984:sulfur-iodine cycle
1897:multi-junction cell
1853:hydrogen compressor
1837:compressed hydrogen
1745:Electrohydrogenesis
1528:electrohydrogenesis
1522:microbial fuel cell
1518:electrohydrogenesis
1308:Ferrosilicon method
1300:because it uses an
1278:sulfur-iodine cycle
1120:produced hydrogen.
809:Gas generated from
664:potassium carbonate
315:Red, pink or purple
199:
81:hydrogen production
8030:. Academic Press.
7760:: 2â9. April 2004.
7711:10.1039/D0SE00222D
6717:. Biohydrogen.nl.
6432:ChemBioEng Reviews
6364:Fernandez, Sonia.
5814:Advanced Materials
5451:2016-12-21 at the
5407:2011-11-03 at the
5135:Energy & Fuels
4972:2014-12-08 at the
4600:greentechmedia.com
4128:Hofmann voltameter
3340:10.1039/D3CS00723E
3131:BMWi (June 2020).
2926:ChemBioEng Reviews
2774:10.1039/D3CS00723E
2441:The New York Times
2259:Ammonia production
2086:
2044:, natural gas and
1792:2010-05-17 at the
1650:
1608:
1554:
1514:
1408:Biohydrogen routes
1354:
1172:Bunsen reaction: I
1166:iodine-sulfur (IS)
1066:Depleted oil wells
1019:coal carbonization
710:
613:electrolytic cells
602:thermal efficiency
590:
478:O â CO + 3 H
270:Hydrocarbons with
206:Production source
197:
154:
8037:978-0-12-814853-2
7978:Our World in Data
7902:(7936): 440â443.
7626:. Deutsche Welle.
7256:on August 7, 2015
7187:978-0-12-374763-1
6990:(Press release).
6965:. December 2015.
6904:(12): 4901â4934.
6866:978-3-9807963-0-9
6551:Cartwright, Jon.
6471:(6365): 917â921.
6325:"Hidden hydrogen"
6280:(February 2020).
6212:978-94-6191-282-4
5926:978-3-527-30673-2
5890:10.1063/1.5140497
5770:978-0-12-374763-1
5310:www.aiche-cep.com
5147:10.1021/ef990178a
4392:level-network.com
4153:(Press release).
3820:level-network.com
3481:978-0-471-77985-8
3416:978-0-12-804792-7
2494:Article in press.
2466:(10): 2225â2228.
2304:Hydrogen purifier
2274:Hydrogen analyzer
2075:energy transition
1737:dark fermentation
1733:Photofermentation
1729:Dark fermentation
1466:dark fermentation
1462:Photofermentation
1449:dark fermentation
1383:energy efficiency
1328:. A heavy steel
1014:coal gasification
987:superheated steam
839:substoichiometric
826:Partial oxidation
762:
678:(MJ/m), assuming
633:current densities
508:Essentially, the
368:
367:
257:Methane pyrolysis
171:, referred to as
143:methane pyrolysis
92:methane pyrolysis
16:(Redirected from
8062:
8041:
8015:
8009:
7990:
7989:
7987:
7985:
7966:
7960:
7959:
7957:
7956:
7942:
7936:
7935:
7891:
7885:
7884:
7882:
7881:
7865:
7859:
7858:
7856:
7855:
7841:
7835:
7834:
7818:
7809:
7808:
7796:
7790:
7789:
7768:
7762:
7761:
7751:
7743:
7737:
7731:
7725:
7724:
7722:
7705:(6): 2967â2986.
7693:
7687:
7686:
7667:10.1002/ESE3.956
7655:Mark Z. Jacobson
7650:
7644:
7634:
7628:
7627:
7615:
7609:
7608:
7606:
7605:
7591:
7585:
7584:
7577:
7571:
7570:
7568:
7536:
7530:
7529:
7527:
7496:Gaucher, Eric C.
7492:
7486:
7485:
7448:
7442:
7441:
7405:
7399:
7394:
7388:
7387:
7385:
7384:
7369:
7363:
7362:
7360:
7359:
7353:
7346:
7338:
7332:
7327:
7321:
7320:
7318:
7317:
7311:
7304:
7296:
7290:
7289:
7287:
7286:
7271:
7265:
7264:
7262:
7261:
7252:. Archived from
7239:
7233:
7232:
7222:
7213:(9): 1574â1577.
7198:
7192:
7191:
7165:
7156:
7155:
7118:
7109:
7106:
7100:
7099:
7089:
7048:
7042:
7041:
7039:
7038:
7032:
7021:
7013:
7007:
7006:
7004:
7003:
6984:
6978:
6977:
6975:
6974:
6959:
6953:
6952:
6950:
6949:
6943:
6937:. Archived from
6936:
6928:
6922:
6921:
6893:
6887:
6886:
6848:
6842:
6841:
6839:
6838:
6823:
6817:
6816:
6814:
6812:
6793:
6787:
6786:
6776:
6751:(2â3): 523â540.
6736:
6730:
6729:
6727:
6726:
6711:
6705:
6704:
6676:
6670:
6669:
6667:
6665:
6637:(7): 4265â4283.
6622:
6616:
6610:
6604:
6603:
6601:
6599:
6579:
6573:
6572:
6570:
6568:
6548:
6542:
6541:
6518:Nature Catalysis
6513:
6507:
6506:
6488:
6456:
6450:
6449:
6447:
6423:
6417:
6416:
6414:
6412:
6392:
6386:
6385:
6383:
6381:
6361:
6355:
6354:
6347:
6341:
6340:
6338:
6336:
6320:
6314:
6313:
6311:
6278:Gaucher, Ăric C.
6274:
6268:
6267:
6265:
6263:
6248:
6242:
6241:
6239:
6237:
6223:
6217:
6216:
6196:
6190:
6187:
6169:
6131:
6125:
6124:
6096:
6090:
6089:
6053:
6047:
6046:
6044:
6043:
6011:
6005:
6004:
5976:
5970:
5969:
5952:(4): 1989â2007.
5940:
5931:
5930:
5904:
5895:
5894:
5892:
5860:
5854:
5853:
5809:
5803:
5802:
5781:
5775:
5774:
5744:
5738:
5737:
5700:
5694:
5693:
5692:on July 4, 2013.
5691:
5685:. Archived from
5676:
5665:
5659:
5658:
5656:
5655:
5649:
5643:. Archived from
5642:
5634:
5628:
5627:
5617:
5577:
5571:
5558:
5552:
5547:
5541:
5540:
5538:
5537:
5531:
5525:. Archived from
5524:
5514:
5508:
5507:
5505:
5504:
5498:
5492:. Archived from
5491:
5483:
5477:
5476:
5474:
5466:
5460:
5443:
5437:
5436:
5434:
5433:
5418:
5412:
5399:
5393:
5388:
5382:
5381:
5353:
5347:
5346:
5326:
5320:
5319:
5317:
5316:
5302:
5296:
5295:
5262:(5798): 479â82.
5243:
5237:
5230:
5224:
5217:
5211:
5210:
5208:
5207:
5192:
5186:
5185:
5157:
5151:
5150:
5130:
5124:
5123:
5112:
5106:
5105:
5094:
5088:
5087:
5085:
5084:
5075:. Archived from
5069:
5063:
5059:
5053:
5052:
5041:
5035:
5034:
5032:
5030:
5024:
5017:
5009:
5003:
5002:
5000:
4998:
4983:
4977:
4964:
4958:
4957:
4955:
4931:
4922:
4921:
4885:
4879:
4878:
4842:
4836:
4835:
4825:
4815:
4783:
4774:
4773:
4752:
4743:
4742:
4722:
4716:
4715:
4691:
4685:
4684:
4664:
4658:
4657:
4629:
4623:
4618:
4612:
4611:
4609:
4607:
4602:. Wood MacKenzie
4591:
4585:
4584:
4582:
4580:
4565:
4559:
4558:
4556:
4555:
4540:
4534:
4533:
4528:
4515:
4509:
4508:
4496:
4490:
4489:
4470:
4464:
4463:
4457:
4449:
4447:
4438:
4432:
4431:
4429:
4427:
4417:
4409:
4403:
4402:
4400:
4398:
4389:
4381:
4375:
4374:
4372:
4370:
4361:. Archived from
4350:
4344:
4343:
4341:
4339:
4316:
4310:
4297:
4291:
4290:
4288:
4286:
4241:
4235:
4234:
4232:
4230:
4225:on 31 March 2015
4224:
4218:. Archived from
4213:
4204:
4198:
4197:
4177:
4171:
4170:
4168:
4166:
4147:
4141:
4140:
4135:. Archived from
4124:
4118:
4117:
4114:10.1039/b718822f
4097:
4091:
4090:
4068:
4059:
4058:
4037:
4031:
4030:
3994:
3988:
3985:
3976:
3975:
3973:
3971:
3956:
3950:
3949:
3947:
3945:
3936:
3928:
3922:
3921:
3919:
3917:
3907:
3899:
3893:
3892:
3890:
3866:
3860:
3859:
3857:
3855:
3845:
3837:
3831:
3830:
3828:
3826:
3817:
3809:
3803:
3802:
3800:
3799:
3782:
3776:
3775:
3773:
3771:
3756:
3750:
3744:
3738:
3737:
3735:
3733:
3713:
3707:
3706:
3704:
3702:
3696:
3685:
3677:
3671:
3670:
3668:
3667:
3652:
3646:
3645:
3640:
3627:
3621:
3620:
3618:
3617:
3597:
3591:
3590:
3580:
3570:
3538:
3532:
3531:
3524:
3518:
3517:
3515:
3514:
3505:
3492:
3486:
3485:
3467:
3456:
3455:
3427:
3421:
3420:
3394:
3388:
3387:
3385:
3384:
3369:
3363:
3362:
3352:
3342:
3333:(5): 2258â2263.
3318:
3312:
3311:
3309:
3308:
3292:
3286:
3285:
3283:
3282:
3276:
3269:
3258:
3252:
3251:
3249:
3248:
3242:
3235:
3224:
3218:
3217:
3207:
3167:
3156:
3155:
3153:
3152:
3146:
3139:
3128:
3117:
3116:
3114:
3113:
3099:
3093:
3092:
3090:
3089:
3073:
3064:
3063:
3061:
3060:
3046:
3040:
3039:
3037:
3036:
3022:
3013:
3012:
3010:
3009:
2994:
2988:
2987:
2981:
2973:
2971:
2970:
2950:
2944:
2943:
2941:
2917:
2911:
2910:
2908:
2907:
2898:
2890:
2884:
2883:
2881:
2880:
2865:
2859:
2858:
2851:
2845:
2844:
2828:
2822:
2821:
2819:
2818:
2803:
2797:
2796:
2786:
2776:
2767:(5): 2258â2263.
2752:
2741:
2740:
2738:
2737:
2723:
2717:
2716:
2714:
2712:
2690:
2684:
2683:
2681:
2658:Renewable Energy
2649:
2643:
2642:
2640:
2639:
2619:
2610:
2609:
2607:
2584:Renewable Energy
2575:
2569:
2568:
2536:
2530:
2529:
2527:
2525:
2501:
2495:
2493:
2483:
2451:
2445:
2444:
2432:
2426:
2425:
2423:
2397:
2324:Hydrogen station
2319:Hydrogen storage
2246:hydrogen economy
2201:Hydrogen economy
2147:renewable energy
2070:Koulikoro Region
2050:activated carbon
1972:iron oxide cycle
1916:has developed a
1682:
1681:
1680:
1670:
1669:
1668:
1629:hydrogen economy
1618:natural hydrogen
1612:Natural hydrogen
1596:Natural hydrogen
1401:renewable energy
1350:algae bioreactor
1318:sodium hydroxide
1208:decomposition: H
1113:Desulfotomaculum
1082:
1081:
1080:
1029:hydrogen sulfide
1002:plasma converter
983:activated carbon
950:Plasma pyrolysis
760:
733:
732:
731:
692:PEM electrolysis
647:or concentrated
404:. The resulting
200:
165:renewable energy
67:electricity via
21:
8070:
8069:
8065:
8064:
8063:
8061:
8060:
8059:
8045:
8044:
8038:
8025:
8022:
8020:Further reading
8002:
7999:
7994:
7993:
7983:
7981:
7970:Ritchie, Hannah
7968:
7967:
7963:
7954:
7952:
7944:
7943:
7939:
7893:
7892:
7888:
7879:
7877:
7867:
7866:
7862:
7853:
7851:
7843:
7842:
7838:
7820:
7819:
7812:
7798:
7797:
7793:
7787:
7770:Dvorak, Phred,
7769:
7765:
7754:Research Review
7749:
7745:
7744:
7740:
7732:
7728:
7695:
7694:
7690:
7652:
7651:
7647:
7635:
7631:
7617:
7616:
7612:
7603:
7601:
7593:
7592:
7588:
7579:
7578:
7574:
7538:
7537:
7533:
7494:
7493:
7489:
7450:
7449:
7445:
7407:
7406:
7402:
7395:
7391:
7382:
7380:
7371:
7370:
7366:
7357:
7355:
7351:
7344:
7340:
7339:
7335:
7328:
7324:
7315:
7313:
7309:
7302:
7298:
7297:
7293:
7284:
7282:
7273:
7272:
7268:
7259:
7257:
7241:
7240:
7236:
7200:
7199:
7195:
7188:
7167:
7166:
7159:
7120:
7119:
7112:
7107:
7103:
7050:
7049:
7045:
7036:
7034:
7030:
7019:
7015:
7014:
7010:
7001:
6999:
6986:
6985:
6981:
6972:
6970:
6961:
6960:
6956:
6947:
6945:
6941:
6934:
6930:
6929:
6925:
6895:
6894:
6890:
6867:
6856:
6850:
6849:
6845:
6836:
6834:
6825:
6824:
6820:
6810:
6808:
6795:
6794:
6790:
6738:
6737:
6733:
6724:
6722:
6713:
6712:
6708:
6678:
6677:
6673:
6663:
6661:
6624:
6623:
6619:
6611:
6607:
6597:
6595:
6581:
6580:
6576:
6566:
6564:
6550:
6549:
6545:
6515:
6514:
6510:
6458:
6457:
6453:
6425:
6424:
6420:
6410:
6408:
6394:
6393:
6389:
6379:
6377:
6363:
6362:
6358:
6349:
6348:
6344:
6334:
6332:
6322:
6321:
6317:
6276:
6275:
6271:
6261:
6259:
6250:
6249:
6245:
6235:
6233:
6225:
6224:
6220:
6213:
6198:
6197:
6193:
6172:
6158:10.1002/er.1397
6133:
6132:
6128:
6098:
6097:
6093:
6055:
6054:
6050:
6041:
6039:
6013:
6012:
6008:
5978:
5977:
5973:
5942:
5941:
5934:
5927:
5906:
5905:
5898:
5862:
5861:
5857:
5811:
5810:
5806:
5787:Catalysis Today
5783:
5782:
5778:
5771:
5746:
5745:
5741:
5702:
5701:
5697:
5689:
5674:
5667:
5666:
5662:
5653:
5651:
5647:
5640:
5636:
5635:
5631:
5592:(2â3): 523â40.
5579:
5578:
5574:
5559:
5555:
5548:
5544:
5535:
5533:
5529:
5522:
5518:
5515:
5511:
5502:
5500:
5496:
5489:
5485:
5484:
5480:
5472:
5468:
5467:
5463:
5453:Wayback Machine
5444:
5440:
5431:
5429:
5420:
5419:
5415:
5409:Wayback Machine
5400:
5396:
5389:
5385:
5355:
5354:
5350:
5328:
5327:
5323:
5314:
5312:
5304:
5303:
5299:
5245:
5244:
5240:
5231:
5227:
5218:
5214:
5205:
5203:
5194:
5193:
5189:
5159:
5158:
5154:
5132:
5131:
5127:
5114:
5113:
5109:
5096:
5095:
5091:
5082:
5080:
5071:
5070:
5066:
5060:
5056:
5043:
5042:
5038:
5028:
5026:
5022:
5015:
5011:
5010:
5006:
4996:
4994:
4985:
4984:
4980:
4974:Wayback Machine
4965:
4961:
4933:
4932:
4925:
4887:
4886:
4882:
4844:
4843:
4839:
4785:
4784:
4777:
4754:
4753:
4746:
4724:
4723:
4719:
4697:
4693:
4692:
4688:
4666:
4665:
4661:
4631:
4630:
4626:
4619:
4615:
4605:
4603:
4593:
4592:
4588:
4578:
4576:
4567:
4566:
4562:
4553:
4551:
4542:
4541:
4537:
4529:on 2011-07-02.
4526:
4517:
4516:
4512:
4498:
4497:
4493:
4472:
4471:
4467:
4450:
4445:
4440:
4439:
4435:
4425:
4423:
4415:
4411:
4410:
4406:
4396:
4394:
4387:
4383:
4382:
4378:
4368:
4366:
4365:on 19 July 2018
4352:
4351:
4347:
4337:
4335:
4333:
4318:
4317:
4313:
4306:Teknisk Ukeblad
4298:
4294:
4284:
4282:
4243:
4242:
4238:
4228:
4226:
4222:
4211:
4206:
4205:
4201:
4179:
4178:
4174:
4164:
4162:
4149:
4148:
4144:
4131:
4125:
4121:
4108:(20): 2331â40.
4099:
4098:
4094:
4070:
4069:
4062:
4039:
4038:
4034:
4019:10.1002/wene.50
3996:
3995:
3991:
3986:
3979:
3969:
3967:
3958:
3957:
3953:
3943:
3941:
3934:
3930:
3929:
3925:
3915:
3913:
3905:
3901:
3900:
3896:
3868:
3867:
3863:
3853:
3851:
3843:
3839:
3838:
3834:
3824:
3822:
3815:
3811:
3810:
3806:
3797:
3795:
3784:
3783:
3779:
3769:
3767:
3758:
3757:
3753:
3745:
3741:
3731:
3729:
3715:
3714:
3710:
3700:
3698:
3694:
3688:nelhydrogen.com
3683:
3679:
3678:
3674:
3665:
3663:
3654:
3653:
3649:
3641:on 2011-07-02.
3638:
3629:
3628:
3624:
3615:
3613:
3599:
3598:
3594:
3540:
3539:
3535:
3526:
3525:
3521:
3512:
3510:
3503:
3500:
3494:
3493:
3489:
3482:
3469:
3468:
3459:
3429:
3428:
3424:
3417:
3396:
3395:
3391:
3382:
3380:
3371:
3370:
3366:
3320:
3319:
3315:
3306:
3304:
3297:"Gold hydrogen"
3294:
3293:
3289:
3280:
3278:
3274:
3267:
3260:
3259:
3255:
3246:
3244:
3240:
3233:
3226:
3225:
3221:
3169:
3168:
3159:
3150:
3148:
3144:
3137:
3130:
3129:
3120:
3111:
3109:
3107:Energy Observer
3101:
3100:
3096:
3087:
3085:
3076:national grid.
3075:
3074:
3067:
3058:
3056:
3048:
3047:
3043:
3034:
3032:
3024:
3023:
3016:
3007:
3005:
2996:
2995:
2991:
2974:
2968:
2966:
2952:
2951:
2947:
2919:
2918:
2914:
2905:
2903:
2896:
2892:
2891:
2887:
2878:
2876:
2867:
2866:
2862:
2853:
2852:
2848:
2830:
2829:
2825:
2816:
2814:
2805:
2804:
2800:
2754:
2753:
2744:
2735:
2733:
2725:
2724:
2720:
2710:
2708:
2692:
2691:
2687:
2651:
2650:
2646:
2637:
2635:
2621:
2620:
2613:
2577:
2576:
2572:
2538:
2537:
2533:
2523:
2521:
2503:
2502:
2498:
2453:
2452:
2448:
2434:
2433:
2429:
2399:
2398:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2354:Liquid hydrogen
2334:Hydrogen tanker
2314:Hydrogen sensor
2309:Hydrogen safety
2254:
2203:
2197:
2129:methane leakage
2107:, resulting in
2101:
2058:
2039:
2035:
2015:KvĂŠrner process
2011:
2009:KvĂŠrner process
1968:water splitting
1964:
1934:
1922:niobium nitride
1914:Panasonic Corp.
1906:
1881:
1875:
1862:
1830:
1826:
1818:
1806:
1798:reed sweetgrass
1794:Wayback Machine
1783:
1776:
1702:
1696:
1679:
1676:
1675:
1674:
1672:
1671:(g) â C(s) + 2
1667:
1664:
1663:
1662:
1660:
1642:
1637:
1614:
1598:
1582:
1576:
1565:
1559:
1540:reed sweetgrass
1524:
1516:Main articles:
1506:
1498:
1451:
1443:Main articles:
1441:
1434:
1410:
1397:
1391:
1360:
1342:
1334:sodium silicate
1330:pressure vessel
1310:
1302:electrochemical
1248:combine solely
1243:
1237:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1202:
1198:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1163:
1154:
1138:
1126:
1089:
1079:
1076:
1075:
1074:
1072:
1068:
1061:
1049:
1034:
1010:
992:
980:
976:
956:KvĂŠrner process
952:
945:
941:
937:
933:
927:
923:
919:
915:
907:
903:
899:
895:
884:
872:
864:
858:
828:
823:
791:
785:
769:
740:
730:
727:
726:
725:
723:
715:specific energy
707:
685:
672:
598:steam reforming
572:specific energy
564:
554:
548:
537:
532:water splitting
528:
526:Water splitting
522:
515:
504:
500:
496:
481:
477:
473:
461:
457:
446:
434:
422:
411:
396:
388:steam reforming
384:
382:Steam reforming
378:
373:
192:
130:
122:carbon monoxide
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
8068:
8066:
8058:
8057:
8047:
8046:
8043:
8042:
8036:
8021:
8018:
8017:
8016:
7998:
7995:
7992:
7991:
7961:
7937:
7886:
7860:
7836:
7810:
7791:
7763:
7738:
7726:
7688:
7645:
7629:
7610:
7586:
7572:
7531:
7487:
7460:(3): 369â383.
7443:
7400:
7389:
7364:
7333:
7322:
7291:
7266:
7234:
7193:
7186:
7157:
7130:(6): 471â485.
7110:
7101:
7043:
7008:
6994:. 2008-09-18.
6979:
6954:
6923:
6888:
6865:
6854:
6843:
6818:
6788:
6731:
6706:
6671:
6617:
6605:
6574:
6543:
6508:
6451:
6438:(5): 150â158.
6418:
6387:
6356:
6342:
6315:
6269:
6243:
6218:
6211:
6191:
6189:
6188:
6186:on 2010-05-17.
6126:
6091:
6048:
6006:
5971:
5932:
5925:
5896:
5855:
5804:
5776:
5769:
5739:
5695:
5660:
5629:
5572:
5553:
5542:
5509:
5478:
5461:
5438:
5413:
5394:
5383:
5348:
5337:(5): 899â906.
5321:
5297:
5238:
5225:
5212:
5187:
5152:
5125:
5107:
5089:
5064:
5054:
5036:
5004:
4978:
4959:
4923:
4890:Applied Energy
4880:
4847:Applied Energy
4837:
4775:
4744:
4717:
4695:
4686:
4659:
4624:
4613:
4594:Deign, Jason.
4586:
4560:
4535:
4510:
4491:
4465:
4433:
4404:
4376:
4353:thyssenkrupp.
4345:
4331:
4311:
4292:
4258:(6): 645â656.
4236:
4199:
4188:(6): 2531â42.
4172:
4142:
4139:on 2010-06-13.
4119:
4092:
4060:
4032:
4005:(5): 473â487.
3989:
3977:
3951:
3923:
3894:
3861:
3832:
3804:
3777:
3751:
3739:
3708:
3672:
3647:
3622:
3592:
3533:
3519:
3498:
3487:
3480:
3457:
3422:
3415:
3389:
3364:
3313:
3287:
3253:
3219:
3157:
3118:
3094:
3065:
3041:
3014:
2989:
2945:
2932:(5): 150â158.
2912:
2885:
2860:
2846:
2823:
2798:
2742:
2718:
2685:
2644:
2628:Greentechmedia
2611:
2570:
2531:
2496:
2446:
2427:
2407:Energy Reports
2391:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2356:
2351:
2349:Industrial gas
2346:
2344:Hydrogen valve
2341:
2336:
2331:
2326:
2321:
2316:
2311:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2239:of industrial
2196:
2193:
2175:green hydrogen
2171:nuclear energy
2167:renewable fuel
2151:green hydrogen
2100:
2097:
2089:White hydrogen
2057:
2054:
2037:
2033:
2010:
2007:
1963:
1960:
1933:
1930:
1905:
1902:
1877:Main article:
1874:
1871:
1861:
1858:
1828:
1824:
1816:
1805:
1802:
1787:aquatic plants
1782:
1779:
1774:
1771:photosynthesis
1769:, i.e. normal
1698:Main article:
1695:
1692:
1685:
1684:
1677:
1665:
1641:
1638:
1636:
1633:
1610:Main article:
1597:
1594:
1578:Main article:
1575:
1572:
1568:Aluminum alloy
1561:Main article:
1558:
1555:
1505:
1502:
1497:
1494:
1440:
1437:
1432:
1409:
1406:
1393:Main article:
1390:
1387:
1379:photosynthesis
1377:, i.e. normal
1356:Main article:
1341:
1338:
1309:
1306:
1239:Main article:
1236:
1233:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1200:
1196:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1161:
1153:
1150:
1137:
1134:
1125:
1122:
1118:radiolytically
1088:
1085:
1077:
1067:
1064:
1059:
1052:Petroleum coke
1048:
1047:Petroleum coke
1045:
1032:
1009:
1006:
990:
978:
974:
951:
948:
947:
946:
943:
939:
935:
931:
928:
925:
924:â 12 CO + 12 H
921:
917:
913:
905:
901:
897:
893:
886:
885:
882:
870:
860:
854:
827:
824:
822:
819:
804:hydrogen pinch
787:Main article:
784:
781:
768:
765:
739:
736:
728:
705:
683:
671:
668:
629:platinum group
550:Main article:
547:
544:
540:green hydrogen
535:
524:Main article:
521:
518:
513:
506:
505:
502:
498:
494:
483:
482:
479:
475:
471:
459:
455:
444:
439:(natural gas,
432:
420:
409:
394:
380:Main article:
377:
374:
372:
369:
366:
365:
363:
360:
357:
355:
349:
348:
346:
343:
340:
338:
334:
333:
331:
321:
320:Nuclear power
318:
316:
312:
311:
309:
306:
300:
298:
297:Brown or black
294:
293:
291:
289:
286:
284:
280:
279:
277:
274:
268:
266:
262:
261:
259:
254:
248:
246:
242:
241:
239:
237:
230:green hydrogen
222:
220:
214:
213:
210:
207:
204:
191:
188:
173:green hydrogen
129:
126:
73:green hydrogen
60:Green hydrogen
26:
24:
18:Brown hydrogen
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8067:
8056:
8053:
8052:
8050:
8039:
8033:
8029:
8024:
8023:
8019:
8013:
8008:
8007:
8001:
8000:
7996:
7979:
7975:
7971:
7965:
7962:
7951:
7947:
7941:
7938:
7933:
7929:
7925:
7921:
7917:
7913:
7909:
7905:
7901:
7897:
7890:
7887:
7876:
7875:
7870:
7864:
7861:
7850:
7846:
7840:
7837:
7832:
7828:
7824:
7817:
7815:
7811:
7806:
7802:
7795:
7792:
7785:
7781:
7777:
7773:
7767:
7764:
7759:
7755:
7748:
7742:
7739:
7735:
7730:
7727:
7721:
7716:
7712:
7708:
7704:
7700:
7692:
7689:
7684:
7680:
7676:
7672:
7668:
7664:
7660:
7656:
7649:
7646:
7642:
7638:
7633:
7630:
7625:
7621:
7614:
7611:
7600:
7596:
7590:
7587:
7582:
7576:
7573:
7567:
7562:
7558:
7554:
7550:
7546:
7542:
7535:
7532:
7526:
7521:
7517:
7513:
7509:
7505:
7501:
7497:
7491:
7488:
7483:
7479:
7475:
7471:
7467:
7463:
7459:
7455:
7447:
7444:
7439:
7435:
7431:
7427:
7423:
7419:
7415:
7411:
7404:
7401:
7398:
7393:
7390:
7378:
7374:
7368:
7365:
7350:
7343:
7337:
7334:
7331:
7326:
7323:
7308:
7301:
7295:
7292:
7280:
7276:
7270:
7267:
7255:
7251:
7250:
7249:Asahi Shimbun
7245:
7238:
7235:
7230:
7226:
7221:
7216:
7212:
7208:
7204:
7197:
7194:
7189:
7183:
7179:
7175:
7171:
7164:
7162:
7158:
7153:
7149:
7145:
7141:
7137:
7133:
7129:
7125:
7117:
7115:
7111:
7105:
7102:
7097:
7093:
7088:
7083:
7079:
7075:
7071:
7067:
7063:
7059:
7055:
7047:
7044:
7033:on 2008-05-18
7029:
7025:
7018:
7012:
7009:
6997:
6993:
6992:Science Daily
6989:
6983:
6980:
6968:
6964:
6958:
6955:
6944:on 2009-03-27
6940:
6933:
6927:
6924:
6919:
6915:
6911:
6907:
6903:
6899:
6892:
6889:
6884:
6880:
6876:
6872:
6868:
6862:
6858:
6847:
6844:
6832:
6828:
6822:
6819:
6807:on 2018-05-15
6806:
6802:
6798:
6792:
6789:
6784:
6780:
6775:
6770:
6766:
6762:
6758:
6754:
6750:
6746:
6742:
6735:
6732:
6720:
6716:
6710:
6707:
6702:
6698:
6694:
6690:
6686:
6682:
6675:
6672:
6660:
6656:
6652:
6648:
6644:
6640:
6636:
6632:
6628:
6621:
6618:
6614:
6609:
6606:
6593:
6589:
6585:
6578:
6575:
6562:
6558:
6554:
6547:
6544:
6539:
6535:
6531:
6527:
6523:
6519:
6512:
6509:
6504:
6500:
6496:
6492:
6487:
6482:
6478:
6474:
6470:
6466:
6462:
6455:
6452:
6446:
6441:
6437:
6433:
6429:
6422:
6419:
6406:
6402:
6398:
6391:
6388:
6375:
6371:
6367:
6360:
6357:
6352:
6346:
6343:
6330:
6326:
6319:
6316:
6310:
6305:
6301:
6297:
6293:
6289:
6288:
6283:
6279:
6273:
6270:
6258:
6254:
6247:
6244:
6232:
6228:
6222:
6219:
6214:
6208:
6204:
6203:
6195:
6192:
6185:
6181:
6180:
6175:
6171:
6170:
6167:
6163:
6159:
6155:
6151:
6147:
6143:
6139:
6138:
6130:
6127:
6122:
6118:
6114:
6110:
6106:
6102:
6095:
6092:
6087:
6083:
6079:
6075:
6071:
6067:
6063:
6059:
6052:
6049:
6038:on 2013-07-31
6037:
6033:
6029:
6025:
6023:
6020:coupled with
6019:
6010:
6007:
6002:
5998:
5994:
5990:
5986:
5982:
5975:
5972:
5967:
5963:
5959:
5955:
5951:
5947:
5939:
5937:
5933:
5928:
5922:
5918:
5914:
5910:
5903:
5901:
5897:
5891:
5886:
5882:
5878:
5875:(3): 030903.
5874:
5870:
5869:APL Materials
5866:
5859:
5856:
5851:
5847:
5843:
5839:
5835:
5831:
5827:
5823:
5819:
5815:
5808:
5805:
5800:
5796:
5792:
5788:
5780:
5777:
5772:
5766:
5762:
5758:
5754:
5750:
5743:
5740:
5735:
5731:
5727:
5723:
5719:
5715:
5712:(6): 471â85.
5711:
5707:
5699:
5696:
5688:
5684:
5680:
5673:
5672:
5664:
5661:
5650:on 2017-06-17
5646:
5639:
5633:
5630:
5625:
5621:
5616:
5611:
5607:
5603:
5599:
5595:
5591:
5587:
5583:
5576:
5573:
5570:
5569:1-86094-228-8
5566:
5562:
5557:
5554:
5551:
5546:
5543:
5532:on 2012-02-20
5528:
5521:
5513:
5510:
5499:on 2017-08-10
5495:
5488:
5482:
5479:
5471:
5465:
5462:
5458:
5454:
5450:
5447:
5442:
5439:
5428:on 2014-02-03
5427:
5423:
5417:
5414:
5410:
5406:
5403:
5398:
5395:
5392:
5387:
5384:
5379:
5375:
5371:
5367:
5364:: 1802â1812.
5363:
5359:
5352:
5349:
5344:
5340:
5336:
5332:
5325:
5322:
5311:
5307:
5301:
5298:
5293:
5289:
5285:
5281:
5277:
5273:
5269:
5265:
5261:
5257:
5253:
5249:
5242:
5239:
5236:
5235:
5229:
5226:
5223:
5222:
5216:
5213:
5202:
5198:
5191:
5188:
5183:
5179:
5175:
5171:
5167:
5163:
5156:
5153:
5148:
5144:
5141:(3): 618â23.
5140:
5136:
5129:
5126:
5121:
5117:
5111:
5108:
5103:
5099:
5093:
5090:
5079:on 2014-03-13
5078:
5074:
5068:
5065:
5062:
5058:
5055:
5050:
5046:
5040:
5037:
5021:
5014:
5008:
5005:
4992:
4988:
4982:
4979:
4975:
4971:
4968:
4963:
4960:
4954:
4949:
4945:
4941:
4937:
4930:
4928:
4924:
4919:
4915:
4911:
4907:
4903:
4899:
4895:
4891:
4884:
4881:
4876:
4872:
4868:
4864:
4860:
4856:
4852:
4848:
4841:
4838:
4833:
4829:
4824:
4819:
4814:
4809:
4805:
4801:
4797:
4793:
4789:
4782:
4780:
4776:
4771:
4767:
4763:
4759:
4751:
4749:
4745:
4740:
4736:
4732:
4728:
4721:
4718:
4713:
4709:
4705:
4701:
4690:
4687:
4682:
4678:
4674:
4670:
4663:
4660:
4655:
4651:
4647:
4643:
4639:
4635:
4628:
4625:
4622:
4617:
4614:
4601:
4597:
4590:
4587:
4574:
4570:
4564:
4561:
4550:on 2012-03-22
4549:
4545:
4539:
4536:
4532:
4525:
4521:
4514:
4511:
4506:
4502:
4495:
4492:
4488:
4484:
4480:
4479:Bloomberg.com
4476:
4469:
4466:
4461:
4455:
4444:
4437:
4434:
4421:
4420:fch.europa.eu
4414:
4408:
4405:
4393:
4386:
4380:
4377:
4364:
4360:
4356:
4349:
4346:
4334:
4332:9783527674299
4328:
4324:
4323:
4315:
4312:
4308:
4307:
4302:
4296:
4293:
4281:
4277:
4273:
4269:
4265:
4261:
4257:
4253:
4252:
4247:
4240:
4237:
4221:
4217:
4210:
4203:
4200:
4195:
4191:
4187:
4183:
4176:
4173:
4160:
4156:
4152:
4146:
4143:
4138:
4134:
4129:
4123:
4120:
4115:
4111:
4107:
4103:
4096:
4093:
4088:
4084:
4080:
4076:
4075:
4067:
4065:
4061:
4056:
4052:
4048:
4044:
4036:
4033:
4028:
4024:
4020:
4016:
4012:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3993:
3990:
3984:
3982:
3978:
3965:
3961:
3955:
3952:
3940:
3939:itm-power.com
3933:
3927:
3924:
3911:
3910:fch.europa.eu
3904:
3898:
3895:
3889:
3884:
3880:
3876:
3872:
3865:
3862:
3849:
3848:fch.europa.eu
3842:
3836:
3833:
3821:
3814:
3808:
3805:
3794:
3793:
3788:
3781:
3778:
3765:
3761:
3755:
3752:
3748:
3743:
3740:
3727:
3723:
3719:
3712:
3709:
3693:
3689:
3682:
3676:
3673:
3662:on 2012-03-22
3661:
3657:
3651:
3648:
3644:
3637:
3633:
3626:
3623:
3611:
3607:
3603:
3596:
3593:
3588:
3584:
3579:
3574:
3569:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3537:
3534:
3529:
3523:
3520:
3509:
3502:
3491:
3488:
3483:
3477:
3473:
3466:
3464:
3462:
3458:
3453:
3449:
3445:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3426:
3423:
3418:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3400:
3393:
3390:
3379:on 2015-02-02
3378:
3374:
3368:
3365:
3360:
3356:
3351:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3317:
3314:
3302:
3298:
3291:
3288:
3273:
3266:
3265:
3257:
3254:
3239:
3232:
3231:
3223:
3220:
3215:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3166:
3164:
3162:
3158:
3143:
3136:
3135:
3127:
3125:
3123:
3119:
3108:
3104:
3098:
3095:
3083:
3079:
3072:
3070:
3066:
3055:
3051:
3045:
3042:
3031:
3030:The Economist
3027:
3021:
3019:
3015:
3003:
2999:
2993:
2990:
2985:
2979:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2949:
2946:
2940:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2916:
2913:
2902:
2895:
2889:
2886:
2874:
2870:
2864:
2861:
2856:
2850:
2847:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2827:
2824:
2812:
2808:
2802:
2799:
2794:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2751:
2749:
2747:
2743:
2732:
2728:
2722:
2719:
2706:
2702:
2701:
2696:
2689:
2686:
2680:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2648:
2645:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2618:
2616:
2612:
2606:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2574:
2571:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2535:
2532:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2500:
2497:
2491:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2450:
2447:
2442:
2438:
2431:
2428:
2422:
2417:
2414:: 8421â8446.
2413:
2409:
2408:
2403:
2396:
2393:
2386:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2335:
2332:
2330:
2329:Hydrogen tank
2327:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2256:
2251:
2249:
2247:
2242:
2238:
2233:
2231:
2226:
2224:
2223:Haber process
2220:
2216:
2212:
2211:aromatization
2208:
2207:hydrocracking
2202:
2195:Hydrogen uses
2194:
2192:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2180:
2179:pink hydrogen
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2143:
2141:
2136:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2117:blue hydrogen
2114:
2113:grey hydrogen
2110:
2106:
2098:
2096:
2094:
2090:
2082:
2078:
2076:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2055:
2053:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2031:
2027:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1961:
1959:
1957:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1931:
1929:
1927:
1926:decomposition
1923:
1919:
1918:photocatalyst
1915:
1910:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1892:
1890:
1886:
1880:
1872:
1870:
1868:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1822:
1814:
1810:
1803:
1801:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1788:
1780:
1778:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1757:
1752:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1735:differs from
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1701:
1693:
1691:
1688:
1659:
1658:
1657:
1654:
1646:
1639:
1634:
1632:
1630:
1626:
1621:
1619:
1613:
1606:
1602:
1595:
1593:
1591:
1587:
1581:
1573:
1571:
1569:
1564:
1556:
1552:
1547:
1543:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1523:
1519:
1510:
1503:
1501:
1495:
1493:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1482:H. salinarium
1477:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1464:differs from
1463:
1459:
1455:
1450:
1446:
1438:
1436:
1428:
1424:
1422:
1419:with biomass
1418:
1414:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1396:
1388:
1386:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1365:
1359:
1351:
1346:
1339:
1337:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1307:
1305:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1274:
1272:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1242:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1207:
1206:Sulfuric acid
1203:
1193:
1170:
1167:
1159:
1151:
1149:
1147:
1142:
1135:
1133:
1131:
1123:
1121:
1119:
1115:
1114:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1098:
1094:
1086:
1084:
1065:
1063:
1057:
1053:
1046:
1044:
1042:
1038:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1020:
1015:
1007:
1005:
1003:
999:
994:
988:
984:
972:
968:
965:
961:
957:
949:
942:â 24 CO + 6 H
929:
911:
910:
909:
891:
880:
876:
868:
863:
857:
852:
851:
850:
848:
844:
840:
835:
833:
825:
820:
818:
816:
812:
807:
805:
800:
796:
790:
782:
780:
778:
774:
766:
764:
756:
754:
750:
746:
737:
735:
719:
716:
713:(which has a
702:
698:
695:
693:
687:
681:
677:
669:
667:
665:
661:
657:
652:
650:
646:
642:
636:
634:
630:
626:
622:
618:
614:
609:
605:
603:
599:
595:
586:
582:
579:
575:
573:
569:
563:
559:
553:
545:
543:
541:
533:
527:
519:
517:
511:
492:
491:
490:
488:
469:
468:
467:
465:
452:
450:
442:
438:
430:
426:
418:
413:
407:
403:
400:
391:
389:
383:
375:
370:
364:
361:
358:
354:
353:Gold or white
351:
350:
347:
345:Photovoltaic
344:
341:
336:
335:
332:
329:
325:
322:
319:
314:
313:
310:
307:
305:
301:
296:
295:
292:
290:
287:
282:
281:
278:
275:
273:
269:
264:
263:
260:
258:
255:
253:
249:
244:
243:
240:
238:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
201:
195:
189:
187:
185:
184:grey hydrogen
181:
176:
174:
170:
166:
162:
161:nuclear power
158:
150:
146:
144:
139:
135:
127:
125:
123:
119:
115:
114:Haber process
111:
107:
102:
99:
97:
93:
89:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
61:
56:
54:
53:
52:blue hydrogen
48:
44:
40:
37:made through
36:
35:gray hydrogen
32:
19:
8027:
8005:
7984:16 September
7982:. Retrieved
7977:
7964:
7953:. Retrieved
7949:
7940:
7899:
7895:
7889:
7878:. Retrieved
7872:
7863:
7852:. Retrieved
7848:
7839:
7826:
7804:
7794:
7783:
7776:Air Products
7766:
7753:
7741:
7729:
7702:
7698:
7691:
7658:
7648:
7641:Air Products
7632:
7623:
7613:
7602:. Retrieved
7598:
7589:
7575:
7548:
7544:
7534:
7507:
7503:
7490:
7457:
7453:
7446:
7413:
7409:
7403:
7392:
7381:. Retrieved
7367:
7356:. Retrieved
7336:
7325:
7314:. Retrieved
7294:
7283:. Retrieved
7269:
7258:. Retrieved
7254:the original
7247:
7237:
7210:
7206:
7196:
7169:
7127:
7123:
7104:
7064:(1): 13549.
7061:
7057:
7046:
7035:. Retrieved
7028:the original
7011:
7000:. Retrieved
6982:
6971:. Retrieved
6957:
6946:. Retrieved
6939:the original
6926:
6901:
6897:
6891:
6852:
6846:
6835:. Retrieved
6829:(in Dutch).
6821:
6809:. Retrieved
6805:the original
6800:
6791:
6748:
6744:
6734:
6723:. Retrieved
6709:
6684:
6680:
6674:
6662:. Retrieved
6634:
6630:
6620:
6608:
6596:. Retrieved
6587:
6577:
6565:. Retrieved
6557:NewScientist
6556:
6546:
6524:(1): 83â89.
6521:
6517:
6511:
6468:
6464:
6454:
6435:
6431:
6421:
6409:. Retrieved
6400:
6390:
6378:. Retrieved
6369:
6359:
6345:
6333:. Retrieved
6328:
6323:Hand, Eric.
6318:
6291:
6285:
6272:
6260:. Retrieved
6256:
6246:
6234:. Retrieved
6230:
6221:
6201:
6194:
6184:the original
6177:
6144:(9): 870â6.
6141:
6135:
6129:
6107:(5): 663â9.
6104:
6100:
6094:
6061:
6057:
6051:
6040:. Retrieved
6036:the original
6031:
6027:
6021:
6017:
6009:
5987:(2): 200â6.
5984:
5980:
5974:
5949:
5945:
5908:
5872:
5868:
5858:
5817:
5813:
5807:
5790:
5786:
5779:
5752:
5742:
5709:
5705:
5698:
5687:the original
5670:
5663:
5652:. Retrieved
5645:the original
5632:
5589:
5585:
5575:
5556:
5545:
5534:. Retrieved
5527:the original
5512:
5501:. Retrieved
5494:the original
5481:
5464:
5456:
5441:
5430:. Retrieved
5426:the original
5416:
5411:, April 2007
5397:
5386:
5361:
5357:
5351:
5334:
5330:
5324:
5313:. Retrieved
5309:
5300:
5259:
5255:
5241:
5233:
5228:
5220:
5215:
5204:. Retrieved
5200:
5190:
5165:
5161:
5155:
5138:
5134:
5128:
5119:
5110:
5101:
5092:
5081:. Retrieved
5077:the original
5067:
5057:
5048:
5039:
5027:. Retrieved
5007:
4995:. Retrieved
4981:
4962:
4943:
4939:
4893:
4889:
4883:
4850:
4846:
4840:
4795:
4791:
4761:
4757:
4730:
4726:
4720:
4703:
4699:
4689:
4672:
4668:
4662:
4637:
4633:
4627:
4616:
4604:. Retrieved
4599:
4589:
4577:. Retrieved
4572:
4563:
4552:. Retrieved
4548:the original
4538:
4530:
4524:the original
4513:
4504:
4494:
4486:
4478:
4468:
4436:
4424:. Retrieved
4419:
4407:
4395:. Retrieved
4391:
4379:
4367:. Retrieved
4363:the original
4358:
4348:
4336:. Retrieved
4321:
4314:
4304:
4295:
4283:. Retrieved
4255:
4249:
4239:
4227:. Retrieved
4220:the original
4215:
4202:
4185:
4181:
4175:
4163:. Retrieved
4159:the original
4145:
4137:the original
4122:
4105:
4101:
4095:
4078:
4072:
4046:
4042:
4035:
4002:
3998:
3992:
3968:. Retrieved
3963:
3954:
3942:. Retrieved
3938:
3926:
3914:. Retrieved
3909:
3897:
3878:
3874:
3864:
3852:. Retrieved
3847:
3835:
3823:. Retrieved
3819:
3807:
3796:. Retrieved
3790:
3780:
3768:. Retrieved
3754:
3749:, p. 37
3742:
3730:. Retrieved
3721:
3711:
3699:. Retrieved
3687:
3675:
3664:. Retrieved
3660:the original
3650:
3642:
3636:the original
3625:
3614:. Retrieved
3605:
3595:
3550:
3546:
3536:
3522:
3511:. Retrieved
3507:
3490:
3471:
3435:
3431:
3425:
3398:
3392:
3381:. Retrieved
3377:the original
3367:
3330:
3326:
3316:
3305:. Retrieved
3300:
3290:
3279:. Retrieved
3263:
3256:
3245:. Retrieved
3229:
3222:
3179:
3175:
3149:. Retrieved
3133:
3110:. Retrieved
3106:
3097:
3086:. Retrieved
3081:
3057:. Retrieved
3053:
3044:
3033:. Retrieved
3029:
3006:. Retrieved
2992:
2967:. Retrieved
2958:
2948:
2929:
2925:
2915:
2904:. Retrieved
2888:
2877:. Retrieved
2863:
2849:
2836:
2826:
2815:. Retrieved
2810:
2801:
2764:
2760:
2734:. Retrieved
2730:
2721:
2709:. Retrieved
2700:Carbon Brief
2698:
2688:
2661:
2657:
2647:
2636:. Retrieved
2627:
2587:
2583:
2573:
2548:
2544:
2534:
2522:. Retrieved
2510:CEP Magazine
2509:
2499:
2463:
2459:
2449:
2440:
2430:
2411:
2405:
2395:
2234:
2227:
2204:
2190:
2187:
2178:
2163:landfill gas
2155:power to gas
2150:
2144:
2137:
2116:
2112:
2105:fossil fuels
2102:
2087:
2059:
2030:hydrocarbons
2019:carbon black
2017:or Kvaerner
2012:
2004:
1965:
1935:
1911:
1907:
1893:
1882:
1863:
1833:electrolyzer
1807:
1784:
1753:
1719:using multi
1709:fermentative
1703:
1689:
1686:
1651:
1622:
1615:
1583:
1566:
1525:
1499:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1478:
1452:
1429:
1425:
1421:gasification
1411:
1398:
1361:
1322:ferrosilicon
1311:
1275:
1265:
1257:
1253:
1250:heat sources
1244:
1230:
1204:
1194:
1171:
1155:
1139:
1127:
1111:
1104:South Africa
1090:
1069:
1050:
1023:
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