701:
2158:(ATR) with integrated capture of carbon dioxide allows higher capture rates at satisfactory energy efficiencies and life cycle assessments have shown lower greenhouse gas emissions for such plants compared to SMRs with carbon dioxide capture. Application of ATR technology with integrated capture of carbon dioxide in Europe has been assessed to have a lower greenhouse gas footprint than burning natural gas, e.g. for the H21 project with a reported reduction of 68% due to a reduced carbon dioxide intensity of natural gas combined with a more suitable reactor type for capture of carbon dioxide.
686:. The lower the energy used by a generator, the higher would be its efficiency; a 100%-efficient electrolyser would consume 39.4 kilowatt-hours per kilogram (142 MJ/kg) of hydrogen, 12,749 joules per litre (12.75 MJ/m). Practical electrolysis typically uses a rotating electrolyser, where centrifugal force helps separate gas bubbles from water. Such an electrolyser at 15 bar pressure may consume 50 kilowatt-hours per kilogram (180 MJ/kg), and a further 15 kilowatt-hours (54 MJ) if the hydrogen is compressed for use in hydrogen cars.
585:
2097:
1602:
1509:
1546:
1646:
734:. The thermodynamic energy required for hydrogen by electrolysis translates to 33 kWh/kg, which is higher than steam reforming with carbon capture and higher than methane pyrolysis. One of the advantages of electrolysis over hydrogen from steam methane reforming (SMR) is that the hydrogen can be produced on-site, meaning that the costly process of delivery via truck or pipeline is avoided.
1907:. William Ayers at Energy Conversion Devices demonstrated and patented the first multijunction high efficiency photoelectrochemical system for direct splitting of water in 1983. This group demonstrated direct water splitting now referred to as an "artificial leaf" or "wireless solar water splitting" with a low cost thin film amorphous silicon multijunction sheet immersed directly in water.
390:(SMR), which uses natural gas. The energy content of the produced hydrogen is around 74% of the energy content of the original fuel, as some energy is lost as excess heat during production. In general, steam reforming emits carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, and is known as gray hydrogen. If the carbon dioxide is captured and stored, the hydrogen produced is known as blue hydrogen.
149:
1881:
potentially less energy is required to produce hydrogen. Nuclear heat could be used to split hydrogen from water. High temperature (950–1000 °C) gas cooled nuclear reactors have the potential to split hydrogen from water by thermochemical means using nuclear heat. High-temperature electrolysis has been demonstrated in a laboratory, at 108
1435:/mol glucose can be produced. Sugars are convertible to volatile fatty acids (VFAs) and alcohols as by-products during this process. Photo fermentative bacteria are able to generate hydrogen from VFAs. Hence, metabolites formed in dark fermentation can be used as feedstock in photo fermentation to enhance the overall yield of hydrogen.
1280:(S-I cycle) is a thermochemical cycle processes which generates hydrogen from water with an efficiency of approximately 50%. The sulfur and iodine used in the process are recovered and reused, and not consumed by the process. The cycle can be performed with any source of very high temperatures, approximately 950 °C, such as by
570:, low pressure electrolysis of water, or a range of other emerging electrochemical processes such as high temperature electrolysis or carbon assisted electrolysis. However, current best processes for water electrolysis have an effective electrical efficiency of 70-80%, so that producing 1 kg of hydrogen (which has a
608:
reforming). Due to their use of water, a readily available resource, electrolysis and similar water-splitting methods have attracted the interest of the scientific community. With the objective of reducing the cost of hydrogen production, renewable sources of energy have been targeted to allow electrolysis.
2259:
by electrolysis. Although requiring expensive technologies, hydrogen can be cooled, compressed and purified for use in other processes on site or sold to a customer via pipeline, cylinders or trucks. The discovery and development of less expensive methods of production of bulk hydrogen is relevant to
1969:
which uses sunlight to obtain the required 800 to 1,200 °C to heat water. Hydrosol II has been in operation since 2008. The design of this 100-kilowatt pilot plant is based on a modular concept. As a result, it may be possible that this technology could be readily scaled up to the megawatt range
607:
Water electrolysis can operate at 50–80 °C (120–180 °F), while steam methane reforming requires temperatures at 700–1,100 °C (1,300–2,000 °F). The difference between the two methods is the primary energy used; either electricity (for electrolysis) or natural gas (for steam methane
577:
In parts of the world, steam methane reforming is between $ 1–3/kg on average excluding hydrogen gas pressurization cost. This makes production of hydrogen via electrolysis cost competitive in many regions already, as outlined by Nel
Hydrogen and others, including an article by the IEA examining the
140:
is bonded to oxygen in water. Manufacturing elemental hydrogen requires the consumption of a hydrogen carrier such as a fossil fuel or water. The former carrier consumes the fossil resource and in the steam methane reforming (SMR) process produces greenhouse gas carbon dioxide. However, in the newer
1426:
Among hydrogen production methods biological routes are potentially less energy intensive. In addition, a wide variety of waste and low-value materials such as agricultural biomass as renewable sources can be utilized to produce hydrogen via biochemical or thermochemical pathways. Nevertheless, at
1924:
A method studied by Thomas Nann and his team at the
University of East Anglia consists of a gold electrode covered in layers of indium phosphide (InP) nanoparticles. They introduced an iron-sulfur complex into the layered arrangement, which when submerged in water and irradiated with light under a
1016:
is used. The process of coal gasification uses steam and oxygen to break molecular bonds in coal and form a gaseous mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Carbon dioxide and pollutants may be more easily removed from gas obtained from coal gasification versus coal combustion. Another method for
721:
The US DOE target price for hydrogen in 2020 is $ 2.30/kg, requiring an electricity cost of $ 0.037/kWh, which is achievable given recent PPA tenders for wind and solar in many regions. The report by IRENA.ORG is an extensive factual report of present-day industrial hydrogen production consuming
1880:
Hydrogen can be generated from energy supplied in the form of heat and electricity through high-temperature electrolysis (HTE). Since some of the energy in HTE is supplied in the form of heat, less of the energy must be converted twice from heat to electricity, and then to hydrogen. Therefore,
712:
As of 2020, the cost of hydrogen by electrolysis is around $ 3–8/kg. Considering the industrial production of hydrogen, and using current best processes for water electrolysis (PEM or alkaline electrolysis) which have an effective electrical efficiency of 70–82%, producing 1 kg of hydrogen
689:
Conventional alkaline electrolysis has an efficiency of about 70%, however advanced alkaline water electrolysers with efficiency of up to 82% are available. Accounting for the use of the higher heat value (because inefficiency via heat can be redirected back into the system to create the steam
1910:
Hydrogen evolved on the front amorphous silicon surface decorated with various catalysts while oxygen evolved off the back metal substrate. A Nafion membrane above the multijunction cell provided a path for ion transport. Their patent also lists a variety of other semiconductor multijunction
1479:
Fermentative hydrogen production can be done using direct biophotolysis by green algae, indirect biophotolysis by cyanobacteria, photo-fermentation by anaerobic photosynthetic bacteria and dark fermentation by anaerobic fermentative bacteria. For example, studies on hydrogen production using
1656:
of methane (natural gas) with a one-step process bubbling methane through a molten metal catalyst is a "no greenhouse gas" approach to produce hydrogen that was demonstrated in laboratory conditions in 2017 and now being tested at larger scales. The process is conducted at high temperatures
1403:
systems. However, if this process is assisted by photocatalysts suspended directly in water instead of using photovoltaic and an electrolytic system the reaction is in just one step, it can be made more efficient. Current systems, however have low performance for commercial implementation.
1430:
Biochemical routes to hydrogen are classified as dark and photo fermentation processes. In dark fermentation, carbohydrates are converted to hydrogen by fermentative microorganisms including strict anaerobe and facultative anaerobic bacteria. A theoretical maximum of 4 mol
4056:
Sebbahi, Seddiq; Nabil, Nouhaila; Alaoui-Belghiti, Amine; Laasri, Said; Rachidi, Samir; Hajjaji, Abdelowahed (2022). "Assessment of the three most developed water electrolysis technologies: Alkaline Water
Electrolysis, Proton Exchange Membrane and Solid-Oxide Electrolysis".
5406:
758:
Carbon/hydrocarbon assisted water electrolysis (CAWE) has the potential to offer a less energy intensive, cleaner method of using chemical energy in various sources of carbon, such as low-rank and high sulfur coals, biomass, alcohols and methane (Natural Gas), where pure
2088:
in Mali, producing electricity for the surrounding villages. More discoveries of naturally occurring hydrogen in continental, on-shore geological environments have been made in recent years and open the way to the novel field of natural or native hydrogen, supporting
6891:
1538:, as the latter only uses algae and with the latter, the algae itself generates the hydrogen instantly, where with biocatalysed electrolysis, this happens after running through the microbial fuel cell and a variety of aquatic plants can be used. These include
7112:
Valenti, Giovanni; Boni, Alessandro; Melchionna, Michele; Cargnello, Matteo; Nasi, Lucia; Bertoni, Giovanni; Gorte, Raymond J.; Marcaccio, Massimo; Rapino, Stefania; Bonchio, Marcella; Fornasiero, Paolo; Prato, Maurizio; Paolucci, Francesco (December 2016).
801:
by electrolysis generates a sizable amount of
Hydrogen as a byproduct. In the port of Antwerp a 1MW demonstration fuel cell power plant is powered by such byproduct. This unit has been operational since late 2011. The excess hydrogen is often managed with a
834:, resulting in a hydrogen- and carbon monoxide-rich syngas. More hydrogen and carbon dioxide are then obtained from carbon monoxide (and water) via the water-gas shift reaction. Carbon dioxide can be co-fed to lower the hydrogen to carbon monoxide ratio.
742:
In addition to reduce the voltage required for electrolysis via the increasing of the temperature of the electrolysis cell it is also possible to electrochemically consume the oxygen produced in an electrolyser by introducing a fuel (such as carbon/coal,
1915:
technology at universities and the photovoltaic industry. If this process is assisted by photocatalysts suspended directly in water instead of using photovoltaic and an electrolytic system, the reaction is in just one step, which can improve efficiency.
1427:
present hydrogen is produced mainly from fossil fuels, in particular, natural gas which are non-renewable sources. Hydrogen is not only the cleanest fuel but also widely used in a number of industries, especially fertilizer, petrochemical and food ones.
5685:
6420:
7512:
Larin, Nikolay; Zgonnik, Viacheslav; Rodina, Svetlana; Deville, Eric; Prinzhofer, Alain; Larin, Vladimir N. (September 2015). "Natural
Molecular Hydrogen Seepage Associated with Surficial, Rounded Depressions on the European Craton in Russia".
1792:
can be sequestered successfully by several methods, leaving hydrogen gas. In 2006–2007, NanoLogix first demonstrated a prototype hydrogen bioreactor using waste as a feedstock at Welch's grape juice factory in North East, Pennsylvania (U.S.).
1871:
is eliminated, the average energy consumption for internal compression is around 3%. European largest (1 400 000 kg/a, High-pressure
Electrolysis of water, alkaline technology) hydrogen production plant is operating at Kokkola, Finland.
1143:
can be divided into different types based on the pyrolysis temperature, namely low-temperature slow pyrolysis, medium-temperature rapid pyrolysis, and high-temperature flash pyrolysis. The source energy is mainly solar energy, with help of
2084:, and in petroleum refining. Although initially hydrogen gas was thought not to occur naturally in convenient reservoirs, it is now demonstrated that this is not the case; a hydrogen system is currently being exploited near Bourakebougou,
5800:
Ropero-Vega, J.L.; Pedraza-Avella, J.A.; Niño-Gómez, M.E. (September 2015). "Hydrogen production by photoelectrolysis of aqueous solutions of phenol using mixed oxide semiconductor films of Bi–Nb–M–O (M=Al, Fe, Ga, In) as photoanodes".
1324:, and water. The generator is small enough to fit a truck and requires only a small amount of electric power, the materials are stable and not combustible, and they do not generate hydrogen until mixed. The method has been in use since
7757:
Antonini, Cristina; Treyer, Karin; Streb, Anne; van der Spek, Mijndert; Bauer, Christian; Mazzotti, Marco (2020). "Hydrogen production from natural gas and biomethane with carbon capture and storage – A techno-environmental analysis".
397:), and water. It is the cheapest source of industrial hydrogen, being the source of nearly 50% of the world's hydrogen. The process consists of heating the gas to 700–1,100 °C (1,300–2,000 °F) in the presence of steam over a
5959:
Asadi, Nooshin; Karimi
Alavijeh, Masih; Zilouei, Hamid (January 2017). "Development of a mathematical methodology to investigate biohydrogen production from regional and national agricultural crop residues: A case study of Iran".
2014:, are under research and in testing phase to produce hydrogen and oxygen from water and heat without using electricity. These processes can be more efficient than high-temperature electrolysis, typical in the range from 35% – 49%
1070:
Injecting appropriate microbes into depleted oil wells allows them to extract hydrogen from the remaining, unrecoverable oil. Since the only inputs are the microbes, production costs are low. The method also produces concentrated
1268:
is used because aside from water, hydrogen and oxygen, the chemical compounds used in these processes are continuously recycled. If electricity is partially used as an input, the resulting thermochemical cycle is defined as a
2856:
6887:
755:, glycerol, etc.) into the oxygen side of the reactor. This reduces the required electrical energy and has the potential to reduce the cost of hydrogen to less than 40~60% with the remaining energy provided in this manner.
1570:
powder reacts with water to produce hydrogen gas upon contact with water. It reportedly generates hydrogen at 100 percent of the theoretical yield. Cost-effective routes for generating the aluminum alloy remain elusive.
627:(AECs). Traditionally, alkaline electrolysers are cheaper in terms of investment (they generally use nickel catalysts), but less-efficient; PEM electrolysers, conversely, are more expensive (they generally use expensive
7680:
1952:
Very high temperatures are required to dissociate water into hydrogen and oxygen. A catalyst is required to make the process operate at feasible temperatures. Heating the water can be achieved through the use of water
638:
SOECs operate at high temperatures, typically around 800 °C (1,500 °F). At these high temperatures, a significant amount of the energy required can be provided as thermal energy (heat), and as such is termed
4771:
Lamy, Claude; Devadas, Abirami; Simoes, Mario; Coutanceau, Christophe (2012). "Clean hydrogen generation through the electrocatalytic oxidation of formic acid in a Proton
Exchange Membrane Electrolysis Cell (PEMEC)".
1783:
Biological hydrogen can be produced in bioreactors that use feedstocks other than algae, the most common feedstock being waste streams. The process involves bacteria feeding on hydrocarbons and excreting hydrogen and
7182:
Navarro Yerga, Rufino M.; Álvarez Galván, M. Consuelo; del Valle, F.; Villoria de la Mano, José A.; Fierro, José L. G. (22 June 2009). "Water
Splitting on Semiconductor Catalysts under Visible-Light Irradiation".
717:
of 143 MJ/kg or about 40 kWh/kg) requires 50–55 kWh of electricity. At an electricity cost of $ 0.06/kWh, as set out in the
Department of Energy hydrogen production targets for 2015, the hydrogen cost is $ 3/kg.
7891:
5131:
1168:
thermo-chemical cycle for splitting water and high-temperature steam electrolysis (HTSE) were selected as the main processes for nuclear hydrogen production. The S-I cycle follows three chemical reactions:
5719:
Navarro Yerga, Rufino M.; Álvarez Galván, M. Consuelo; Del Valle, F.; Villoria De La Mano, José A.; Fierro, José L. G. (2009). "Water Splitting on Semiconductor Catalysts under Visible-Light Irradiation".
4985:
5532:
Chukwu, C., Naterer, G. F., Rosen, M. A., "Process Simulation of Nuclear-Produced Hydrogen with a Cu-Cl Cycle", 29th Conference of the Canadian Nuclear Society, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, June 1–4, 2008.
4261:
6412:
1801:
Besides regular electrolysis, electrolysis using microbes is another possibility. With biocatalysed electrolysis, hydrogen is generated after running through the microbial fuel cell and a variety of
1332:
is filled with sodium hydroxide and ferrosilicon, closed, and a controlled amount of water is added; the dissolving of the hydroxide heats the mixture to about 93 °C and starts the reaction;
5702:
4498:
581:
A small part (2% in 2019) is produced by electrolysis using electricity and water, consuming approximately 50 to 55 kilowatt-hours of electricity per kilogram of hydrogen produced.
4741:
Ju, Hyungkuk; Giddey, Sarbjit; Badwal, Sukhvinder P.S; Mulder, Roger J (2016). "Electro-catalytic conversion of ethanol in solid electrolyte cells for distributed hydrogen generation".
6695:
Patlolla, Shashank Reddy; Katsu, Kyle; Sharafian, Amir; Wei, Kevin; Herrera, Omar E.; Mérida, Walter (July 2023). "A review of methane pyrolysis technologies for hydrogen production".
5176:
Gemayel, Jimmy El; MacChi, Arturo; Hughes, Robin; Anthony, Edward John (2014). "Simulation of the integration of a bitumen upgrading facility and an IGCC process with carbon capture".
2848:
6857:
1657:(1065 °C). Producing 1 kg of hydrogen requires about 18 kWh of electricity for process heat. The pyrolysis of methane can be expressed by the following reaction equation.
6755:
654:
PEM electrolysis cells typically operate below 100 °C (212 °F). These cells have the advantage of being comparatively simple and can be designed to accept widely varying
6532:
Palmer, Clarke; Upham, D. Chester; Smart, Simon; Gordon, Michael J.; Metiu, Horia; McFarland, Eric W. (January 2020). "Dry reforming of methane catalysed by molten metal alloys".
3741:
2207:
94 million tonnes of grey hydrogen are produced globally using fossil fuels as of 2022, primarily natural gas, and are therefore a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions.
604:
between 70 and 85%. The electrical efficiency of electrolysis is expected to reach 82–86% before 2030, while also maintaining durability as progress in this area continues apace.
2018:
efficiency. Thermochemical production of hydrogen using chemical energy from coal or natural gas is generally not considered, because the direct chemical path is more efficient.
6730:
Tao, Yongzhen; Chen, Yang; Wu, Yongqiang; He, Yanling; Zhou, Zhihua (1 February 2007). "High hydrogen yield from a two-step process of dark- and photo-fermentation of sucrose".
6150:
Strik, David P. B. T. B.; Hamelers (Bert), H. V. M.; Snel, Jan F. H.; Buisman, Cees J. N. (2008). "Green electricity production with living plants and bacteria in a fuel cell".
136:. It is unclear how much molecular hydrogen is available in natural reservoirs, but at least one company specializes in drilling wells to extract hydrogen. Most hydrogen in the
7861:
7794:
6576:
1148:
to decompose water or biomass to produce hydrogen. However, this process has relatively low hydrogen yields and high operating cost. It is not a feasible method for industry.
5235:
1885:(thermal) per kilogram of hydrogen produced, but not at a commercial scale. In addition, this is lower-quality "commercial" grade Hydrogen, unsuitable for use in fuel cells.
516:. This oxidation also provides energy to maintain the reaction. Additional heat required to drive the process is generally supplied by burning some portion of the methane.
4683:
Uhm, Sunghyun; Jeon, Hongrae; Kim, Tae Jin; Lee, Jaeyoung (2012). "Clean hydrogen production from methanol–water solutions via power-saved electrolytic reforming process".
7697:
4196:
Clarke, R.E.; Giddey, S.; Ciacchi, F.T.; Badwal, S.P.S.; Paul, B.; Andrews, J. (2009). "Direct coupling of an electrolyser to a solar PV system for generating hydrogen".
2720:
2533:
1027:
gas made from pyrolysis (oxygen free heating) of coal has about 60% hydrogen, the rest being methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, ammonia, molecular nitrogen, and
538:
O) into its components oxygen and hydrogen. When the source of energy for water splitting is renewable or low-carbon, the hydrogen produced is sometimes referred to as
6072:
Asadi, Nooshin; Zilouei, Hamid (March 2017). "Optimization of organosolv pretreatment of rice straw for enhanced biohydrogen production using Enterobacter aerogenes".
124:. The global hydrogen generation market was fairly valued at US$ 155 billion in 2022, and expected to grow at a compound annual growth rate of 9.3% from 2023 to 2030.
7469:
Prinzhofer, Alain; Tahara Cissé, Cheick Sidy; Diallo, Aliou Boubacar (October 2018). "Discovery of a large accumulation of natural hydrogen in Bourakebougou (Mali)".
6389:
152:
Illustrating inputs and outputs of steam reforming of natural gas, a process to produce hydrogen. As of 2020, the carbon sequestrastion step is not in commercial use.
7883:
186:. If most of the carbon dioxide emission is captured, it is referred to as blue hydrogen. Hydrogen produced from coal may be referred to as brown or black hydrogen.
6992:
5088:
4428:
3918:
3856:
2999:
592:
Water electrolysis is using electricity to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. As of 2020, less than 0.1% of hydrogen production comes from water electrolysis.
3779:
4904:
Ju, Hyungkuk; Badwal, Sukhvinder; Giddey, Sarbjit (2018). "A comprehensive review of carbon and hydrocarbon assisted water electrolysis for hydrogen production".
4370:
7437:
4982:
3287:
79:. Producing green hydrogen is currently more expensive than producing gray hydrogen, and the efficiency of energy conversion is inherently low. Other methods of
4559:
3671:
2556:
2021:
None of the thermochemical hydrogen production processes have been demonstrated at production levels, although several have been demonstrated in laboratories.
1911:
materials for the direct water splitting in addition to amorphous silicon and silicon germanium alloys. Research continues towards developing high-efficiency
5372:
Ping, Zhang; Laijun, Wang; Songzhe, Chen; Jingming, Xu (January 2018). "Progress of nuclear hydrogen production through the iodine–sulfur process in China".
1899:
Using electricity produced by photovoltaic systems offers the cleanest way to produce hydrogen. Water is broken into hydrogen and oxygen by electrolysis – a
7229:
Navarro, R.M.; Del Valle, F.; Villoria de la Mano, J.A.; Álvarez-Galván, M.C.; Fierro, J.L.G. (2009). "Photocatalytic Water Splitting Under Visible Light".
3707:
4224:
4166:
4089:
1231:
The hydrogen production rate of HTGR with IS cycle is approximately 0.68 kg/s, and the capital cost to build a unit of power plant is $ 100 million.
7027:
6189:
3388:
3157:
1805:
542:. The conversion can be accomplished in several ways, but all methods are currently considered more expensive than fossil-fuel based production methods.
6475:
Upham, D. Chester; Agarwal, Vishal; Khechfe, Alexander; Snodgrass, Zachary R.; Gordon, Michael J.; Metiu, Horia; McFarland, Eric W. (17 November 2017).
2978:
6194:
5535:
3017:
2111:
at scale for a renewable hydrogen economy. Water could be pumped down to hot iron-rich rock to produce hydrogen and the hydrogen could be extracted.
1289:
620:
6152:
2529:
1991:
651:. This has the potential to reduce the overall cost of the hydrogen produced by reducing the amount of electrical energy required for electrolysis.
5464:
4611:
2647:
1691:
Methane pyrolysis technologies are in the early development stages as of 2023. They have numerous obstacles to overcome before commercialization.
33:
gas is produced by several industrial methods. Nearly all of the world's current supply of hydrogen is created from fossil fuels. Most hydrogen is
6031:
1345:
1732:
reactions do not require light energy, so they are capable of constantly producing hydrogen from organic compounds throughout the day and night.
101:
As of 2023, less than 1% of dedicated hydrogen production is low-carbon, i.e. blue hydrogen, green hydrogen, and hydrogen produced from biomass.
6340:
4861:
Ju, H; Badwal, S.P.S; Giddey, S (2018). "A comprehensive review of carbon and hydrocarbon assisted water electrolysis for hydrogen production".
4490:
6607:
2143:
that is 20% greater than burning gas or coal for heat and 60% greater when compared to burning diesel for heat, assuming US up- and mid-stream
1700:
1550:
1535:
1357:
830:
Hydrogen production from natural gas and heavier hydrocarbons is achieved by partial oxidation. A fuel-air or fuel-oxygen mixture is partially
700:
5653:
697:
PEM efficiency is expected to increase to approximately 86% before 2030. Theoretical efficiency for PEM electrolysers is predicted up to 94%.
8096:
7304:
7246:
6925:
6226:
5940:
5784:
3495:
3430:
3253:
7077:
1621:, also called white hydrogen or gold hydrogen, can be extracted from wells in a similar manner as fossil fuels such as oil and natural gas.
7818:
7367:
7056:
6115:
Percival Zhang, Y-H; Sun, Jibin; Zhong, Jian-Jiang (2010). "Biofuel production by in vitro synthetic enzymatic pathway biotransformation".
3802:
7409:
7115:"Co-axial heterostructures integrating palladium/titanium dioxide with carbon nanotubes for efficient electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution"
6865:
5035:
5995:
Tao, Y; Chen, Y; Wu, Y; He, Y; Zhou, Z (2007). "High hydrogen yield from a two-step process of dark- and photo-fermentation of sucrose".
5006:
4316:
5248:
4458:
4266:
4116:
Hauch, Anne; Ebbesen, Sune Dalgaard; Jensen, Søren Højgaard; Mogensen, Mogens (2008). "Highly efficient high temperature electrolysis".
3733:
3041:
1399:
The conversion of solar energy to hydrogen by means of water splitting process is one of the most interesting ways to achieve clean and
1157:
145:
process no greenhouse gas carbon dioxide is produced. These processes typically require no further energy input beyond the fossil fuel.
7832:
7339:
4636:
2557:"Industrial decarbonization via hydrogen: A critical and systematic review of developments, socio-technical systems and policy options"
45:, the main component of natural gas. Producing one tonne of hydrogen through this process emits 6.6–9.3 tonnes of carbon dioxide. When
7084:
6643:"Mathematical modelling and simulation of the thermo-catalytic decomposition of methane for economically improved hydrogen production"
3625:
1562:
5584:
4346:
2390:
2204:
As of 2020, estimated costs of production are $ 1–1.80/kg for grey hydrogen and blue hydrogen, and $ 2.50–6.80 for green hydrogen.
2181:
to produce hydrogen in a steam reformer. Hydrogen fuel, when produced by renewable sources of energy like wind or solar power, is a
679:
6568:
3557:
Badwal, Sukhvinder P. S.; Giddey, Sarbjit S.; Munnings, Christopher; Bhatt, Anand I.; Hollenkamp, Anthony F. (24 September 2014).
5149:
Lee, Woon-Jae; Lee, Yong-Kuk (2001). "Internal Gas Pressure Characteristics Generated during Coal Carbonization in a Coke Oven".
3446:
Dincer, Ibrahim; Acar, Canan (September 2015). "Review and evaluation of hydrogen production methods for better sustainability".
1705:
1453:
1444:
841:
fuel-air mixture or fuel-oxygen is partially combusted in a reformer or partial oxidation reactor. A distinction is made between
4148:
1106:, researchers found bacteria in a naturally occurring high radiation zone. The bacterial community which was dominated by a new
6779:
5321:
4584:
2710:
2521:
1944:
of water to produce hydrogen gas. The company plans to achieve commercial application "as early as possible", not before 2020.
1867:). By pressurising the hydrogen in the electrolyser, through a process known as chemical compression, the need for an external
7641:
6366:
4983:
http://www.nedstack.com/images/stories/news/documents/20120202_Press%20release%20Solvay%20PEM%20Power%20Plant%20start%20up.pdf
2241:, the primary industrial method for the production of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer for growing 47 percent of food worldwide.
1132:
occurs at temperatures too high for usual process piping and equipment resulting in a rather low commercialization potential.
5828:
Low, Jingxiang; Yu, Jiaguo; Jaroniec, Mietek; Wageh, Swelm; Al-Ghamdi, Ahmed A. (May 2017). "Heterojunction Photocatalysts".
4013:
Badwal, Sukhvinder P.S.; Giddey, Sarbjit; Munnings, Christopher (2013). "Hydrogen production via solid electrolytic routes".
2198:
1394:
5502:
1962:
1385:(the conversion of sunlight into hydrogen) barrier. with a hydrogen production rate of 10–12 ml per liter culture per hour.
6381:
5345:
Guoxin, Hu; Hao, Huang (May 2009). "Hydrogen rich fuel gas production by gasification of wet biomass using a CO2 sorbent".
5113:
194:
Hydrogen is often referred to by various colors to indicate its origin (perhaps because gray symbolizes "dirty hydrogen").
6761:
5266:; Eoin L. Brodie; Terry C. Hazen; Gary L. Andersen; Todd Z. DeSantis; Duane P. Moser; Dave Kershaw; T. C. Onstott (2006).
4475:
2374:
1381:, to the production of hydrogen. It seems that the production is now economically feasible by surpassing the 7–10 percent
1285:
640:
616:
557:
6999:
5092:
416:
8115:
5475:
Nuclear heat for hydrogen production: Coupling a very high/high temperature reactor to a hydrogen production plant. 2009
3775:
2395:
175:. When derived from natural gas by zero greenhouse emission methane pyrolysis, it is referred to as turquoise hydrogen.
4648:
Giddey, S; Kulkarni, A; Badwal, S.P.S (2015). "Low emission hydrogen generation through carbon assisted electrolysis".
4378:
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2314:
1709:
1382:
159:
water, the latter carrier, requires electrical or heat input, generated from some primary energy source (fossil fuel,
4563:
4535:
3675:
3647:
1062:
S from the sulfur in the coke feed. Gasification is an option for producing hydrogen from almost any carbon source.
5565:
5437:
5420:
2136:
2011:
1894:
1824:
624:
567:
561:
448:
271:
46:
7262:
Nann, Thomas; Ibrahim, Saad K.; Woi, Pei-Meng; Xu, Shu; Ziegler, Jan; Pickett, Christopher J. (22 February 2010).
3975:
1293:
6382:"Researchers develop potentially low-cost, low-emissions technology that can convert methane without forming CO2"
6268:
4802:
Badwal, Sukhvinder P. S; Giddey, Sarbjit S; Munnings, Christopher; Bhatt, Anand I; Hollenkamp, Anthony F (2014).
4170:
3947:
3696:
3093:
2870:
2279:
1954:
1904:
1900:
1758:
where hydrogen is produced from organic matter (e.g. from sewage, or solid matter) while 0.2 – 0.8 V is applied.
1593:
are submerged and heated to about 80 °C (176 °F), causing a chemical reaction which produces hydrogen.
1281:
1036:
997:
6242:
4503:
green hydrogen .. current pricing of around $ 3 to $ 8 a kilogram .. gray hydrogen, which costs as little as $ 1
4235:
4174:
1423:, steam reforming, or biological conversion like biocatalysed electrolysis or fermentative hydrogen production.
3543:
2916:
2140:
2124:
2108:
1625:
1605:
776:
179:
7955:
Castelvecchi, Davide (2022-11-16). "How the hydrogen revolution can help save the planet — and how it can't".
7023:
6199:
3392:
3148:
1802:
1165:
3365:
2799:
8034:
8006:
7655:
5263:
4547:
Efficiency factors for PEM electrolysers up to 94% are predicted, but this is only theoretical at this time.
3659:
Efficiency factors for PEM electrolysers up to 94% are predicted, but this is only theoretical at this time.
2970:
1746:
1534:, wastewater or plants can be used to generate power. Biocatalysed electrolysis should not be confused with
1473:
1040:
981:). Of the available energy of the feed, approximately 48% is contained in the hydrogen, 40% is contained in
648:
133:
38:
5542:
5485:
3013:
2452:
2064:. Of the available energy of the feed, approximately 48% is contained in the hydrogen, 40% is contained in
7556:
7457:
6293:
5077:
2742:
2385:
2304:
2169:. Two ways of producing hydrogen from renewable energy sources are claimed to be practical. One is to use
1860:
1292:
in Japan. There are other hybrid cycles that use both high temperatures and some electricity, such as the
588:
Illustrating inputs and outputs of electrolysis of water, for production of hydrogen and no greenhouse gas
584:
156:
5923:
Häussinger, Peter; Lohmüller, Reiner; Watson, Allan M. (2011). "Hydrogen, 1. Properties and Occurrence".
2555:
Griffiths, Steve; Sovacool, Benjamin K.; Kim, Jinsoo; Bazilian, Morgan; Uratani, Joao M. (October 2021).
5693:. Steering Committee Meeting and Workshop of APEC Research Network for Advanced Biohydrogen Technology.
5461:
4400:
3828:
2849:"A net-zero world 'would require 306 million tonnes of green hydrogen per year by 2050': IEA | Recharge"
2639:
2380:
2354:
2309:
2201:
made an agreement in January 2022 to supply commercial pink hydrogen in the order of kilograms per day.
2174:
2155:
2003:
1995:
1848:
593:
551:
6051:
1304:
reaction in one of the reaction steps, it operates at 530 °C and has an efficiency of 43 percent.
643:. The heat energy can be provided from a number of different sources, including waste industrial heat,
5763:
Navarro, R.M.; Del Valle, F.; Villoria De La Mano, J.A.; Álvarez-Galván, M.C.; Fierro, J.L.G. (2009).
7964:
7613:
7572:
7522:
7478:
7192:
7126:
6966:
6813:
6739:
6704:
6654:
6488:
6311:
6161:
6081:
6004:
5969:
5892:
5837:
5729:
5698:
5609:
5536:"Process Simulation of Nuclear-Based Thermochemical Hydrogen Production with a Copper-Chlorine Cycle"
5381:
5279:
5185:
4913:
4870:
4815:
4657:
4022:
4003:
Hordeski, M. F. Alternative fuels: the future of hydrogen. 171–199 (The Fairmont Press, inc., 2007).
3570:
3455:
3199:
2681:
2607:
2568:
2483:
2230:
1297:
1245:
1240:
973:
company of the same name, for the production of hydrogen and carbon black from liquid hydrocarbons (C
323:
6599:
7905:
6957:
Carmo, M; Fritz D; Mergel J; Stolten D (2013). "A comprehensive review on PEM water electrolysis".
6413:"BASF researchers working on fundamentally new, low-carbon production processes, Methane Pyrolysis"
3486:
Press, Roman J.; Santhanam, K. S. V.; Miri, Massoud J.; Bailey, Alla V.; Takacs, Gerald A. (2008).
3065:
2294:
2256:
2015:
2007:
1999:
1912:
1868:
1852:
1755:
1751:
1725:
1531:
1527:
1521:
1517:
1277:
1001:
663:
644:
486:
405:
7335:
7314:
5660:
3244:
7988:
7538:
7494:
7088:
7048:
6670:
6628:
6549:
6514:
6302:
6177:
5861:
5303:
4929:
4886:
4517:"Chapter 3: Production of Hydrogen. Part 4: Production from electricity by means of electrolysis"
4291:
4143:
4038:
3618:"Chapter 3: Production of Hydrogen. Part 4: Production from electricity by means of electrolysis"
3280:
National hydrogen roadmap: pathways to an economically sustainable hydrogen industry in Australia
3277:
Bruce, S; Temminghoff, M; Hayward, J; Schmidt, E; Munnings, C; Palfreyman, D; Hartley, P (2018).
2501:
2274:
1847:) by means of an electric current being passed through the water. The difference with a standard
1313:
1164:-free nuclear technique to produce hydrogen by splitting water in a large scale. In this method,
1018:
601:
7698:"Air Products to Build Europe’s Largest Blue Hydrogen Plant and Strengthens Long-term Agreement"
7360:
2822:
2076:
As of 2019, hydrogen is mainly used as an industrial feedstock, primarily for the production of
2030:
1958:
955:
817:
with 60% hydrogen by volume. The hydrogen can be extracted from the coke oven gas economically.
7402:
6477:"Catalytic molten metals for the direct conversion of methane to hydrogen and separable carbon"
5262:
Li-Hung Lin; Pei-Ling Wang; Douglas Rumble; Johanna Lippmann-Pipke; Erik Boice; Lisa M. Pratt;
5028:
4714:
in Pt-based electrocatalysts for hydrogen production in methanol assisted water electrolysis".
2096:
1601:
8092:
7980:
7862:"World first for nuclear-powered pink hydrogen as commercial deal signed in Sweden | Recharge"
7731:
7642:"The Potential for Geologic Hydrogen for Next-Generation Energy | U.S. Geological Survey"
7285:
7242:
7208:
7152:
6939:
6931:
6921:
6839:
6506:
6367:"The Potential for Geologic Hydrogen for Next-Generation Energy | U.S. Geological Survey"
6222:
6132:
6097:
5936:
5853:
5780:
5764:
5745:
5635:
5580:
5576:
5295:
4843:
4469:
4342:
3598:
3491:
3426:
3370:
3225:
2993:
2888:
2804:
2319:
2289:
2090:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1508:
1465:
1461:
1448:
1013:
986:
612:
256:
167:). Hydrogen produced by electrolysis of water using renewable energy sources such as wind and
142:
104:
In 2020, roughly 87 million tons of hydrogen was produced worldwide for various uses, such as
91:
7884:"A wake-up call on green hydrogen: the amount of wind and solar needed is immense | Recharge"
7336:"DLR Portal – DLR scientists achieve solar hydrogen production in a 100-kilowatt pilot plant"
3118:
1058:
via coal gasification. The produced syngas consists mainly of hydrogen, carbon monoxide and H
1000:
technology for the production of hydrogen, heat and carbon from methane and natural gas in a
7972:
7775:
7767:
7739:
7723:
7715:
7621:
7580:
7530:
7486:
7275:
7234:
7200:
7142:
7134:
6974:
6829:
6821:
6747:
6712:
6662:
6541:
6496:
6455:
6319:
6169:
6124:
6089:
6012:
5977:
5928:
5900:
5845:
5810:
5772:
5737:
5625:
5617:
5389:
5354:
5287:
5193:
5158:
4963:
4921:
4878:
4833:
4823:
4781:
4750:
4723:
4692:
4665:
4283:
4275:
4205:
4125:
4098:
4066:
4030:
3898:
3588:
3578:
3463:
3418:
3360:
3350:
3215:
3207:
2949:
2794:
2784:
2689:
2615:
2576:
2491:
2431:
2339:
2334:
2299:
2261:
2216:
2162:
2085:
2065:
1987:
1629:
1618:
1612:
1400:
1349:
1317:
1112:
1028:
982:
963:
691:
233:
164:
95:
76:
64:
5267:
4516:
3617:
3186:
Van de Graaf, Thijs; Overland, Indra; Scholten, Daniel; Westphal, Kirsten (December 2020).
1344:
7840:
5468:
5424:
4989:
4321:
2369:
2349:
2329:
2324:
2148:
2144:
1983:
1937:
1929:
1813:
1809:
1688:
The industrial quality solid carbon may be sold as manufacturing feedstock or landfilled.
1539:
1333:
1329:
1301:
714:
632:
597:
571:
531:
525:
387:
381:
121:
6802:"Analytical approaches to photobiological hydrogen production in unicellular green algae"
5598:"Analytical approaches to photobiological hydrogen production in unicellular green algae"
4152:
3243:
Sansom, Robert; Baxter, Jenifer; Brown, Andy; Hawksworth, Stuart; McCluskey, Ian (2020).
7968:
7617:
7576:
7526:
7482:
7196:
7130:
6970:
6817:
6743:
6708:
6658:
6492:
6315:
6165:
6085:
6008:
5973:
5896:
5841:
5733:
5613:
5385:
5283:
5212:
5189:
4917:
4874:
4819:
4710:
Ju, Hyungkuk; Giddey, Sarbjit; Badwal, Sukhvinder P.S (2017). "The role of nanosized SnO
4661:
4026:
3574:
3459:
3203:
2685:
2611:
2572:
2520:
Bonheure, Mike; Vandewalle, Laurien A.; Marin, Guy B.; Van Geem, Kevin M. (March 2021).
2487:
8030:
7147:
7114:
6834:
6801:
5765:"Photocatalytic Water Splitting Under Visible Light: Concept and Catalysts Development"
5630:
5597:
4838:
4803:
3593:
3558:
3422:
3220:
3187:
2422:
2364:
2359:
2221:
Hydrogen is used for the conversion of heavy petroleum fractions into lighter ones via
2190:
2182:
2104:
1933:
1777:
1567:
1378:
1145:
1051:
803:
628:
539:
217:
172:
59:
7929:
7238:
5776:
5002:
4464:. The Bellona Foundation. p. 20. Archived from the original on 16 September 2013.
8109:
8065:
7992:
7807:
7542:
7498:
7309:
7052:
6674:
6553:
6518:
4933:
4890:
4042:
3524:
CISAP4 4th International Conference on Safety and Environment in the Process Industry
2505:
2344:
2238:
2226:
2222:
2186:
1941:
1585:
CC-HOD (Catalytic Carbon – Hydrogen On Demand) is a low-temperature process in which
1205:
838:
352:
183:
160:
113:
51:
6775:
6181:
5865:
5307:
4785:
4754:
4727:
4295:
4102:
3512:
1284:
systems (CSP) and is regarded as being well suited to the production of hydrogen by
635:, and can therefore be possibly cheaper if the hydrogen production is large enough.
393:
Steam methane reforming (SMR) produces hydrogen from natural gas, mostly methane (CH
7836:
7833:"WSJ News Exclusive: Green Hydrogen Gets a Boost in the U.S. With $ 4 Billion Plant
7701:
7490:
6978:
6751:
6666:
6093:
6016:
5981:
5358:
4925:
4882:
4696:
4669:
4209:
3467:
2715:
2178:
2170:
2120:
2045:
2034:
1649:
Illustrating inputs and outputs of methane pyrolysis, a process to produce Hydrogen
1645:
1545:
1420:
1321:
1103:
959:
798:
530:
Methods to produce hydrogen without the use of fossil fuels involve the process of
485:
In a second stage, additional hydrogen is generated through the lower-temperature,
436:
327:
225:
105:
87:
68:
41:. In this process, hydrogen is produced from a chemical reaction between steam and
7626:
7601:
6912:
Janssen, H.; Emonts, B.; Groehn, H. G.; Mai, H.; Reichel, R.; Stolten, D. (2001).
6642:
5932:
6128:
5814:
4612:"Xcel Attracts 'Unprecedented' Low Prices for Solar and Wind Paired With Storage"
4336:
4262:"Process intensification: water electrolysis in a centrifugal acceleration field"
4142:
In the laboratory, water electrolysis can be done with a simple apparatus like a
2694:
2669:
2620:
2595:
7390:
6442:
Schneider, Stefan; Bajohr, Siegfried; Graf, Frank; Kolb, Thomas (October 2020).
5509:
4070:
2936:
Schneider, Stefan; Bajohr, Siegfried; Graf, Frank; Kolb, Thomas (October 2020).
2496:
2471:
2284:
1713:
1500:
Diverse enzymatic pathways have been designed to generate hydrogen from sugars.
1416:
1325:
1249:
1129:
889:
810:
752:
658:
inputs, which makes them ideal for use with renewable sources of energy such as
168:
137:
7976:
7780:
7403:"Development of Solar-powered Thermochemical Production of Hydrogen from Water"
6716:
5393:
5197:
4968:
4951:
4087:
Ogden, J.M. (1999). "Prospects for building a hydrogen energy infrastructure".
3803:"Green hydrogen is gaining traction, but still has massive hurdles to overcome"
3252:. London, United Kingdom: The Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET).
3211:
2580:
2436:
2417:
49:
is used to remove a large fraction of these emissions, the product is known as
7585:
7560:
7534:
7264:"Water Splitting by Visible Light: A Nanophotocathode for Hydrogen Production"
6825:
6545:
6324:
6303:
Elements: An International Magazine of Mineralogy, Geochemistry, and Petrology
6297:
5621:
5579:, István Hargittai, Magdolna Hargittai, p. 261, Imperial College Press (2000)
4338:
Hydrogen Science and Engineering: Materials, Processes, Systems and Technology
4279:
2252:
2245:
2041:
1864:
1856:
1765:
1366:
1117:
1092:
831:
659:
424:
7735:
6935:
6216:
4828:
3776:"How Much Electricity/Water Is Needed to Produce 1 kg of H2 by Electrolysis?"
3583:
17:
7743:
6501:
6476:
5417:
5291:
3337:
Hassanpouryouzband, Aliakbar; Wilkinson, Mark; Haszeldine, R Stuart (2024).
3246:
Transitioning to hydrogen: assessing the engineering risks and uncertainties
3156:. Berlin, Germany: Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy (BMWi).
2771:
Hassanpouryouzband, Aliakbar; Wilkinson, Mark; Haszeldine, R Stuart (2024).
1971:
1882:
1653:
1632:. Water could be pumped down to hot iron-rich rock to extract the hydrogen.
1590:
1484:, an anaerobic photosynthetic bacteria, coupled to a hydrogenase donor like
1140:
1107:
1099:
1024:
966:
401:
7984:
7289:
7280:
7263:
7212:
7204:
7156:
6843:
6510:
6460:
6443:
6136:
6101:
5857:
5849:
5749:
5741:
5639:
5299:
4847:
3602:
3374:
3229:
2954:
2937:
2808:
1750:
SH2C can be employed to convert small molecular fatty acids into hydrogen.
6247:
U.S. Army Combat Capabilities Development Command Army Research Laboratory
4539:
4167:"Nuclear power plants can produce hydrogen to fuel the 'hydrogen economy'"
3903:
3886:
3651:
2248:
for local electricity generation or potentially as a transportation fuel.
1970:
by multiplying the available reactor units and by connecting the plant to
512:(O) atom is stripped from the additional water (steam) to oxidize CO to CO
489:, water-gas shift reaction, performed at about 360 °C (680 °F):
443:, etc.), one ton of hydrogen produced will also produce 9 to 12 tons of CO
419:, the carbon monoxide reacts with steam to obtain further quantities of H
5694:
5687:
Renewable Energy Technology And Prospect On Biohydrogen Study In Thailand
5418:
IEA Energy Technology Essentials – Hydrogen Production & Distribution
3887:"Hydrogen Production Technologies: Current State and Future Developments"
2711:"In-depth Q&A: Does the world need hydrogen to solve climate change?"
2472:"Is heating homes with hydrogen all but a pipe dream? An evidence review"
2081:
2037:
and hydrogen process (CB&H) is a method, developed in the 1980s by a
1717:
1457:
794:
744:
578:
conditions which could lead to a competitive advantage for electrolysis.
117:
30:
7305:"Panasonic moves closer to home energy self-sufficiency with fuel cells"
7138:
5441:
5268:"Long-Term Sustainability of a High-Energy, Low-Diversity Crustal Biome"
1369:. In the late 1990s it was discovered that if the algae are deprived of
1270:
849:
partial oxidation (CPOX). The chemical reaction takes the general form:
148:
7771:
7458:
https://www.hfpeurope.org/infotools/energyinfos__e/hydrogen/main03.html
7177:
7175:
6943:
4952:"Carbon Neutral Fuels and Chemicals from Standalone Biomass Refineries"
4317:«Coca-Cola-oppskrift» kan gjøre hydrogen til nytt norsk industrieventyr
3355:
3338:
3188:"The new oil? The geopolitics and international governance of hydrogen"
2789:
2772:
2453:"Hydrogen Is One Answer to Climate Change. Getting It Is the Hard Part"
2234:
2077:
2057:
1768:. In the late 1990s it was discovered that if the algae is deprived of
1412:
1096:
748:
662:. AECs optimally operate at high concentrations of electrolyte (KOH or
655:
440:
251:
109:
84:
42:
6858:"NanoLogix generates energy on-site with bioreactor-produced hydrogen"
6800:
Hemschemeier, Anja; Melis, Anastasios; Happe, Thomas (December 2009).
6444:"State of the Art of Hydrogen Production via Pyrolysis of Natural Gas"
6218:
Electricity generation by living plants in a plant microbial fuel cell
5905:
5880:
5486:"Status report 101 – Gas Turbine High Temperature Reactor (GTHTR300C)"
5322:"Dream or Reality? Electrification of the Chemical Process Industries"
5162:
2938:"State of the Art of Hydrogen Production via Pyrolysis of Natural Gas"
2668:
Squadrito, Gaetano; Maggio, Gaetano; Nicita, Agatino (November 2023).
2594:
Squadrito, Gaetano; Maggio, Gaetano; Nicita, Agatino (November 2023).
2522:"Dream or Reality? Electrification of the Chemical Process Industries"
7727:
5566:
Report No 40: The ferrosilicon process for the generation of hydrogen
5462:
https://smr.inl.gov/Document.ashx?path=DOCS%2FGCR-Int%2FNHDDELDER.pdf
4945:
4943:
4804:"Emerging electrochemical energy conversion and storage technologies"
4287:
4129:
3559:"Emerging electrochemical energy conversion and storage technologies"
2418:"Recent development of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies: A review"
2061:
2038:
1925:
small electric current, produced hydrogen with an efficiency of 60%.
1836:
1773:
1769:
1721:
1586:
1580:
1374:
1370:
1312:
Ferrosilicon is used by the military to quickly produce hydrogen for
1261:
1055:
970:
814:
772:
694:
are around 80%, or 82% using the most modern alkaline electrolysers.
509:
463:
398:
7561:"New Perspectives in the Industrial Exploration for Native Hydrogen"
7224:
7222:
7169:
William Ayers, US Patent 4,466,869 Photolytic Production of Hydrogen
6298:"New Perspectives in the Industrial Exploration for Native Hydrogen"
6173:
4034:
2743:"Natural Hydrogen: A Potential Clean Energy Source Beneath Our Feet"
1982:
There are more than 352 thermochemical cycles which can be used for
763:
produced can be easily sequestered without the need for separation.
574:
of 143 MJ/kg or about 40 kWh/kg) requires 50–55 kWh of electricity.
7681:"First element in periodic table: Why all the fuss about hydrogen?"
5879:
Djurišić, Aleksandra B.; He, Yanling; Ng, Alan M. C. (March 2020).
5771:. Advances in Chemical Engineering. Vol. 36. pp. 111–43.
5213:"Oil-eating microbes excrete the world's cheapest "clean" hydrogen"
5503:"JAEA'S VHTR FOR HYDROGEN AND ELECTRICITY COGENERATION: GTHTR300C"
3413:
Velazquez Abad, A.; Dodds, P.E. (2017). "Production of Hydrogen".
2095:
1966:
1828:
1762:
1741:
1644:
1600:
1544:
1507:
1469:
1363:
1343:
788:
699:
666:) and at high temperatures, often near 200 °C (392 °F).
631:
metal catalysts) but are more efficient and can operate at higher
583:
428:
232:
include hydrogen produced from other low-emission sources such as
147:
75:
include hydrogen produced from other low-emission sources such as
4585:"DOE Technical Targets for Hydrogen Production from Electrolysis"
4371:"Hydrogen from water electrolysis – solutions for sustainability"
3734:"Commentary: Producing industrial hydrogen from renewable energy"
1128:
Water spontaneously dissociates at around 2500 °C, but this
775:
by gasification and syngas is further converted into hydrogen by
3807:
1476:
SH2C can be employed to convert some fatty acids into hydrogen.
303:
7906:"How does the energy crisis affect the transition to net zero?"
7049:"Steam heat: researchers gear up for full-scale hydrogen plant"
7231:
Advances in Chemical Engineering - Photocatalytic Technologies
6914:
High-pressure electrolysis, the key technology for efficient H
4429:"Cost reduction and performance increase of PEM electrolysers"
3919:"Cost reduction and performance increase of PEM electrolysers"
3857:"Cost reduction and performance increase of PEM electrolysers"
3087:
3085:
708:
production cost ($ -gge untaxed) at varying natural gas prices
7391:
UNLV Thermochemical cycle automated scoring database (public)
5596:
Hemschemeier, Anja; Melis, Anastasios; Happe, Thomas (2009).
2969:
Sampson2019-02-11T10:48:00+00:00, Joanna (11 February 2019).
2127:. Hydrogen produced by this technology has been described as
1456:
converts organic substrates to hydrogen. A diverse group of
359:
Hydrogen that occurs naturally deep within the Earth's crust
7656:"Executive summary – Global Hydrogen Review 2023 – Analysis"
6569:"The reaction that would give us clean fossil fuels forever"
6243:"Aluminum Based Nanogalvanic Alloys for Hydrogen Generation"
4457:
Bjørnar Kruse; Sondre Grinna; Cato Buch (13 February 2002).
1974:
fields (fields of sun-tracking mirrors) of a suitable size.
1530:(electrolysis using microbes) is another possibility. Using
1035:
S). Hydrogen can be separated from other impurities by the
722:
about 53 to 70 kWh per kg could go down to about 45 kWh/kg
690:
required by the catalyst), average working efficiencies for
5089:"Kværner-process with plasma arc waste disposal technology"
2173:, in which electric power is used to produce hydrogen from
2072:
Extraction of naturally-occurring hydrogen – White Hydrogen
288:
Fossil hydrocarbons, mainly steam reforming of natural gas
4401:"ITM – Hydrogen Refuelling Infrastructure – February 2017"
3829:"ITM – Hydrogen Refuelling Infrastructure – February 2017"
3042:"Can a viable industry emerge from the hydrogen shakeout?"
4225:"Development of water electrolysis in the European Union"
3181:
3179:
3177:
330:
of water, or contributing steam to natural gas reforming
5881:"Visible-light photocatalysts: Prospects and challenges"
1043:
have carried out production of hydrogen by this method.
996:
A variation of this process was presented in 2009 using
674:
Efficiency of modern hydrogen generators is measured by
7795:"Facts on low-carbon hydrogen – A European perspective"
4797:
4795:
4015:
Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Energy and Environment
3885:
Kalamaras, Christos M.; Efstathiou, Angelos M. (2013).
3697:"Wide Spread Adaption of Competitive Hydrogen Solution"
2884:
7704:
press release, November 6, 2023. Retrieved 2023-11-14.
4534:
Bjørnar Kruse; Sondre Grinna; Cato Buch (2002-02-13).
3646:
Bjørnar Kruse; Sondre Grinna; Cato Buch (2002-02-13).
3014:"Brown coal the hydrogen economy stepping stone | ECT"
4560:"high-rate and high efficiency 3D water electrolysis"
3672:"high-rate and high efficiency 3D water electrolysis"
2871:"Global Hydrogen Generation Market Size Report, 2030"
1617:
Hydrogen is also present naturally underground. This
1549:
Nano-galvanic aluminum-based powder developed by the
1415:
and waste streams can in principle be converted into
596:
is 70–80% efficient (a 20–30% conversion loss) while
423:. The WGSR also requires a catalyst, typically over
6920:. HYPOTHESIS IV. Kluwer Academic. pp. 172–177.
2225:. It is also used in other processes including the
2189:
via electrolysis is sometimes viewed as a subset of
2131:when emissions are released to the atmosphere, and
1017:conversion is low-temperature and high-temperature
783:
Hydrogen as a byproduct of other chemical processes
8064:
5577:Candid science: conversations with famous chemists
4766:
4764:
3544:"HFCIT Hydrogen Production: Natural Gas Reforming"
3311:Department of Earth Sciences (12 September 2022).
2709:Evans, Simon; Gabbatiss, Josh (30 November 2020).
2139:(CCS). Blue hydrogen has been estimated to have a
8035:"How many people does synthetic fertilizer feed?"
7718:(12 August 2021). "How green is blue hydrogen?".
5954:
5952:
5684:Jenvanitpanjakul, Peesamai (February 3–4, 2010).
5029:"Production of Liquefied Hydrogen Sourced by COG"
5003:"Different Gases from Steel Production Processes"
4491:"Hydrogen Is a Trillion Dollar Bet on the Future"
4223:Luca Bertuccioli; et al. (7 February 2014).
4149:"Electrolysis of water and the concept of charge"
3366:20.500.11820/b23e204c-744e-44f6-8cf5-b6761775260d
2800:20.500.11820/b23e204c-744e-44f6-8cf5-b6761775260d
2416:Fan, Lixin; Tu, Zhengkai; Chan, Siew Hwa (2021).
1827:is the electrolysis of water by decomposition of
1624:White hydrogen could be found or produced in the
342:Sometimes understood to mean solar photovoltaics
7602:"Natural hydrogen the fuel of the 21 st century"
5438:"HTTR High Temperature engineering Test Reactor"
5237:An Introduction to Radiation Chemistry Chapter 7
4521:HyWeb: Knowledge – Hydrogen in the Energy Sector
4232:Client Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking
3622:HyWeb: Knowledge – Hydrogen in the Energy Sector
3513:"Hydrogen Production via Steam Reforming with CO
3339:"Hydrogen energy futures – foraging or farming?"
2773:"Hydrogen energy futures – foraging or farming?"
1816:, cordgrass, rice, tomatoes, lupines, and algae
1542:, cordgrass, rice, tomatoes, lupines and algae.
1091:Nuclear radiation can break water bonds through
6776:"Hydrogen production from organic solid matter"
3948:"Report and Financial Statements 30 April 2016"
3389:"Actual Worldwide Hydrogen Production from ..."
3317:Department of Earth Sciences, Oxford University
2151:(SMR) retrofitted with carbon dioxide capture.
1940:that can absorb 57% of sunlight to support the
1260:reactions to split water into its hydrogen and
676:energy consumed per standard volume of hydrogen
408:forms carbon monoxide and molecular hydrogen (H
308:Via coal gasification or in a suitable reactor
224:In most definitions, renewable electricity via
7877:
7875:
5925:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry
5250:Nuclear Hydrogen Production Handbook Chapter 8
4515:Werner Zittel; Reinhold Wurster (1996-07-08).
3616:Werner Zittel; Reinhold Wurster (1996-07-08).
362:Obtained by mining; also referred to as white
302:Fossil hydrocarbons: brown (lignite) or black
7600:Truche, Laurent; Bazarkina, Elena F. (2019).
6888:"Power from plants using microbial fuel cell"
6600:"Hydrogen from methane without CO2 emissions"
5407:Producing hydrogen: The Thermochemical cycles
4082:
4080:
1986:, around a dozen of these cycles such as the
837:The partial oxidation reaction occurs when a
546:Electrolysis of water – green, pink or yellow
8:
8087:Francesco Calise; et al., eds. (2019).
6269:"Army discovery may offer new energy source"
6040:using milk plasma as fermentative substrate"
3976:"Hydrogen Production: Natural Gas Reforming"
3142:
3140:
3138:
1740:because it only proceeds in the presence of
1468:because it only proceeds in the presence of
5918:
5916:
4438:. Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking
4090:Annual Review of Energy and the Environment
3999:
3997:
3866:. Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking
3391:Arno A Evers. December 2008. Archived from
2998:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
2766:
2764:
2762:
2451:Reed, Stanley; Ewing, Jack (13 July 2021).
454:For this process, high temperature steam (H
27:Industrial production of molecular hydrogen
7847:, December 8, 2022. Retrieved 2023-11-14.
7835:: The planned factory, a joint venture by
4950:Sasidhar, Nallapaneni (30 November 2023).
3928:. Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking
1761:Biological hydrogen can be produced in an
1362:Biological hydrogen can be produced in an
1158:high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR)
1012:For the production of hydrogen from coal,
228:of water. Less frequently, definitions of
198:Colors that refer to method of production
71:of water. Less frequently, definitions of
63:is usually understood to be produced from
7779:
7625:
7584:
7279:
7146:
6833:
6500:
6459:
6323:
6195:Wageningen University and Research Centre
6030:Rajanandam, Brijesh; Kiran, Siva (2011).
5904:
5629:
5138:. U.S. Energy Information Administration.
4967:
4956:Indian Journal of Environment Engineering
4837:
4827:
3902:
3592:
3582:
3481:
3479:
3477:
3364:
3354:
3219:
2953:
2798:
2788:
2693:
2619:
2495:
2435:
1724:systems involving three steps similar to
1290:High-temperature engineering test reactor
190:Classification based on production method
132:Molecular hydrogen was discovered in the
7471:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
6732:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
6697:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
6647:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
6153:International Journal of Energy Research
6032:"Optimization of hydrogen production by
5997:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
5962:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
5374:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
4650:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
4538:. The Bellona Foundation. Archived from
4375:thyssenkrupp-uhde-chlorine-engineers.com
4198:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
3650:. The Bellona Foundation. Archived from
3546:. U.S. Department of Energy. 2008-12-15.
3448:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
3415:Encyclopedia of Sustainable Technologies
2530:American Institute of Chemical Engineers
1992:cerium(IV) oxide-cerium(III) oxide cycle
196:
7888:Recharge | Latest renewable energy news
7866:Recharge | Latest renewable energy news
7268:Angewandte Chemie International Edition
7024:"Finland exporting TEN-T fuel stations"
2853:Recharge | Latest renewable energy news
2408:
1744:. For example, photo-fermentation with
1472:. For example, photo-fermentation with
1288:, and as such, is being studied in the
1054:can also be converted to hydrogen-rich
386:Hydrogen is industrially produced from
5114:"Emissions Advantages of Gasification"
4501:from the original on 2 December 2020.
4467:
4341:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 898.
3762:
3490:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 249.
3119:"What potential for natural hydrogen?"
2991:
2044:, for the production of hydrogen from
1772:it will switch from the production of
1701:Biological hydrogen production (Algae)
1373:it will switch from the production of
1358:Biological hydrogen production (Algae)
462:) in an endothermic reaction to yield
7930:"Hydrogen – Fuels & Technologies"
7797:, ZEP Oct 2021. Confirmed 2023-12-12.
7303:Yamamura, Tetsushi (August 2, 2015).
6221:(PhD Thesis). Wageningen University.
5118:National Energy Technology Laboratory
4260:L. Lao; C. Ramshaw; H. Yeung (2011).
3648:"Hydrogen – Status and Possibilities"
3036:
3034:
2640:"So, What Exactly Is Green Hydrogen?"
1961:is a 100-kilowatt pilot plant at the
1083:that could in principle be captured.
962:and hydrogen process (CB&H) is a
247:
7:
7819:National Renewable Energy Laboratory
6864:. September 20, 2007. Archived from
6610:from the original on 21 October 2020
6579:from the original on 26 October 2020
6423:from the original on 19 October 2020
6392:from the original on 19 October 2020
5041:from the original on 8 February 2021
3624:. Ludwig-Bölkow-Systemtechnik GmbH.
3192:Energy Research & Social Science
2723:from the original on 1 December 2020
2633:
2631:
2561:Energy Research & Social Science
2135:when emissions are captured through
1889:Photoelectrochemical water splitting
969:method, developed in the 1980s by a
534:, or splitting the water molecule (H
6598:Karlsruhe Institute of Technology.
4536:"Hydrogen—Status and Possibilities"
4523:. Ludwig-Bölkow-Systemtechnik GmbH.
4489:Fickling, David (2 December 2020).
4459:"Hydrogen—Status and Possibilities"
4315:Stensvold, Tore (26 January 2016).
4267:Journal of Applied Electrochemistry
3488:Introduction to hydrogen Technology
2300:Hydrogen economy § Color codes
1712:conversion of organic substrate to
1336:, hydrogen and steam are produced.
7860:Collins, Leigh (25 January 2022).
7233:. Vol. 36. pp. 111–143.
5009:from the original on 27 March 2016
3744:from the original on 22 April 2018
3423:10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.10117-4
2971:"Blue hydrogen for a green future"
2470:Rosenow, Jan (27 September 2022).
2107:could be found or produced in the
1903:(PEC) process which is also named
1563:Aluminum based nanogalvanic alloys
1557:Nanogalvanic aluminum alloy powder
813:in steel production is similar to
621:polymer electrolyte membrane cells
435:. Depending on the quality of the
356:
339:
317:
299:
285:
267:
25:
7894:from the original on 4 June 2021.
7679:Hessler, Uwe (December 6, 2020).
6388:. American Institute of Physics.
6044:Journal of Biochemical Technology
5440:. Httr.jaea.go.jp. Archived from
3801:Petrova, Magdalena (2020-12-04).
3782:from the original on 17 June 2020
2536:from the original on 17 July 2021
2193:, but can also be referred to as
1780:, to the production of hydrogen.
1716:manifested by a diverse group of
1286:high-temperature nuclear reactors
892:and coal, assuming compositions C
680:standard temperature and pressure
7882:Collins, Leigh (19 March 2020).
7720:Energy Science & Engineering
6267:McNally, David (July 25, 2017).
6117:Current Opinion in Biotechnology
4562:. Grid-shift.com. Archived from
4173:. March 25, 2012. Archived from
3674:. Grid-shift.com. Archived from
2859:from the original on 2021-05-21.
2829:. 10 July 2023. "Energy" section
2377:(partly for hydrogen production)
2165:sources is often referred to as
1920:Photoelectrocatalytic production
1706:Fermentative hydrogen production
1488:, are reported in literature.
1454:Fermentative hydrogen production
1445:fermentative hydrogen production
1439:Fermentative hydrogen production
993:is not produced in the process.
738:Chemically assisted electrolysis
670:Industrial output and efficiency
7440:from the original on 2016-06-03
7415:from the original on 2007-04-17
7373:from the original on 2009-02-05
7342:from the original on 2013-06-22
7078:"Nuclear Hydrogen R&D Plan"
7059:from the original on 2008-09-21
7030:from the original on 2016-08-28
6894:from the original on 2021-02-08
6782:from the original on 2011-07-20
6198:(Press release). Archived from
4786:10.1016/j.electacta.2011.11.006
4755:10.1016/j.electacta.2016.07.062
4728:10.1016/j.electacta.2017.01.106
4335:Stolten, Detlef (Jan 4, 2016).
4103:10.1146/annurev.energy.24.1.227
3740:. International Energy Agency.
3713:from the original on 2018-04-22
3628:from the original on 2007-02-07
3293:from the original on 2020-12-08
3259:from the original on 2020-05-08
3163:from the original on 2020-12-13
3020:from the original on 2019-04-08
2981:from the original on 2019-05-09
2891:from the original on 2020-10-25
2670:"The green hydrogen revolution"
2650:from the original on 2022-03-23
2596:"The green hydrogen revolution"
2119:Most hydrogen is produced from
1636:Experimental production methods
1340:Photobiological water splitting
1296:, it is classified as a hybrid
1160:is one of the most promising CO
447:, a greenhouse gas that may be
7760:Sustainable Energy & Fuels
7491:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.08.193
6979:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.01.151
6752:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2006.06.034
6667:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.11.057
6190:"Living plants produce energy"
6094:10.1016/j.biortech.2016.12.073
6017:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2006.06.034
5982:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.10.021
5359:10.1016/j.biombioe.2009.02.006
4926:10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.09.125
4883:10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.09.125
4697:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.09.083
4670:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.11.033
4210:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2009.01.053
4118:Journal of Materials Chemistry
3468:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.12.035
3150:The national hydrogen strategy
3094:"The hydrogen colour spectrum"
2910:"Definition of Green Hydrogen"
2199:Oskarshamn Nuclear Power Plant
2068:and 10% in superheated steam.
1928:In 2015, it was reported that
1536:biological hydrogen production
1492:is another hydrogen producer.
1395:Photocatalytic water splitting
1389:Photocatalytic water splitting
908:respectively, are as follows:
617:solid oxide electrolyser cells
611:There are three main types of
376:Steam reforming – gray or blue
324:Thermochemical water splitting
182:, is generally referred to as
178:When fossil fuel derived with
1:
7239:10.1016/S0065-2377(09)00404-9
5933:10.1002/14356007.a13_297.pub2
5777:10.1016/S0065-2377(09)00404-9
5132:"Emissions from burning coal"
3511:Collodi, Guido (2010-03-11).
2885:"Natural Hydrogen Energy LLC"
2847:Collins, Leigh (2021-05-18).
2375:Next Generation Nuclear Plant
2012:aluminum aluminum-oxide cycle
1876:High-temperature electrolysis
1641:Methane pyrolysis – turquoise
1551:U.S. Army Research Laboratory
1512:A microbial electrolysis cell
1496:Enzymatic hydrogen generation
1460:promote this transformation.
1316:. The chemical reaction uses
1146:photosynthetic microorganisms
845:partial oxidation (TPOX) and
793:The industrial production of
767:Hydrogen from biomass – green
641:high-temperature electrolysis
558:High-temperature electrolysis
7087:. March 2004. Archived from
6417:United States Sustainability
6129:10.1016/j.copbio.2010.05.005
5815:10.1016/j.cattod.2014.11.007
5120:. U.S. Department of Energy.
4059:Materials Today: Proceedings
2695:10.1016/j.renene.2023.119041
2621:10.1016/j.renene.2023.119041
2396:Underground hydrogen storage
1152:Nuclear-assisted thermolysis
8073:International Energy Agency
7808:"New Horizons for Hydrogen"
7627:10.1051/e3sconf/20199803006
7361:"353 Thermochemical cycles"
5769:Photocatalytic Technologies
5654:"DOE 2008 Report 25 %"
4071:10.1016/j.matpr.2022.04.264
3891:Conference Papers in Energy
2638:Deign, Jason (2020-06-29).
2497:10.1016/j.joule.2022.08.015
2315:Hydrogen pipeline transport
2109:Mid-continental Rift System
2100:Mid-continental Rift System
1963:Plataforma Solar de Almería
1948:Concentrating solar thermal
1812:can be used. These include
1626:Mid-continental Rift System
1606:Mid-continental Rift System
1526:Besides dark fermentation,
1116:, was feeding on primarily
625:alkaline electrolysis cells
116:, and in the production of
8132:
7977:10.1038/d41586-022-03699-0
7515:Natural Resources Research
6959:Journal of Hydrogen Energy
6717:10.1016/j.rser.2023.113323
6050:(2): 242–4. Archived from
5473:Progress in Nuclear Energy
5394:10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.275
5198:10.1016/j.fuel.2013.06.045
4969:10.54105/ijee.B1845.113223
3212:10.1016/j.erss.2020.101667
3066:"Hydrogen Color Explained"
2581:10.1016/j.erss.2021.102208
2437:10.1016/j.egyr.2021.08.003
2251:Hydrogen is produced as a
2214:
2177:, and the other is to use
2137:carbon capture and storage
1895:Photoelectrolysis of water
1892:
1825:High pressure electrolysis
1820:High-pressure electrolysis
1698:
1610:
1578:
1560:
1515:
1442:
1392:
1355:
1238:
786:
771:Biomass is converted into
568:high pressure electrolysis
562:High-pressure electrolysis
555:
549:
523:
458:O) reacts with methane (CH
379:
371:Current production methods
272:carbon capture and storage
47:carbon capture and storage
8089:Solar Hydrogen Production
7586:10.2138/gselements.16.1.8
7535:10.1007/s11053-014-9257-5
7436:. Interstatetraveler.us.
6826:10.1007/s11120-009-9415-5
6546:10.1038/s41929-019-0416-2
6325:10.2138/gselements.16.1.8
5622:10.1007/s11120-009-9415-5
5211:Blain, Loz (2022-10-04).
5065:www.interstatetraveler.us
4591:. US Department of Energy
4474:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
4280:10.1007/s10800-011-0275-2
4171:American Chemical Society
3982:. US Department of Energy
2280:Artificial photosynthesis
2185:. Hydrogen produced from
2147:rates and production via
1978:Thermochemical production
1955:concentrating solar power
1905:artificial photosynthesis
1901:photoelectrochemical cell
1797:Biocatalysed electrolysis
1628:at scale for a renewable
1504:Biocatalysed electrolysis
1282:Concentrating solar power
1037:pressure swing adsorption
998:plasma arc waste disposal
821:Other fossil fuel methods
660:photovoltaic solar panels
566:Hydrogen can be made via
216:
208:
205:
202:
8041:. Global Change Data Lab
7910:European Investment Bank
7434:"Bellona-HydrogenReport"
6034:Halobacterium salinarium
4829:10.3389/fchem.2014.00079
4685:Journal of Power Sources
3584:10.3389/fchem.2014.00079
3343:Chemical Society Reviews
3319:. Oxford, United Kingdom
3100:. London, United Kingdom
2917:Clean Energy Partnership
2777:Chemical Society Reviews
2391:Linde–Frank–Caro process
2244:Hydrogen may be used in
2141:greenhouse gas footprint
2125:carbon dioxide emissions
2042:company of the same name
1352:for hydrogen production.
1041:Japanese steel companies
777:water-gas shift reaction
417:water-gas shift reaction
221:
180:greenhouse gas emissions
7849:(subscription required)
6806:Photosynthesis Research
6641:Lumbers, Brock (2022).
6502:10.1126/science.aao5023
5602:Photosynthesis Research
5292:10.1126/science.1127376
5264:Barbara Sherwood Lollar
5061:"Hydrogen technologies"
2260:the establishment of a
2161:Hydrogen produced from
2149:steam methane reformers
1747:Rhodobacter sphaeroides
1474:Rhodobacter sphaeroides
1195:HI decomposition: 2HI→H
888:Idealized examples for
134:Kola Superdeep Borehole
108:, in the production of
39:steam methane reforming
8067:The Future of Hydrogen
7606:E3S Web of Conferences
7338:. Dlr.de. 2008-11-25.
7281:10.1002/anie.200906262
7205:10.1002/cssc.200900018
6862:Solid State Technology
6461:10.1002/cben.202000014
6215:Timmers, Ruud (2012).
6074:Bioresource Technology
5850:10.1002/adma.201601694
5742:10.1002/cssc.200900018
4808:Frontiers in Chemistry
4637:accessed June 22, 2021
3563:Frontiers in Chemistry
2955:10.1002/cben.202000014
2386:Lane hydrogen producer
2305:Hydrogen embrittlement
2233:and the production of
2101:
1855:output around 120–200
1650:
1608:
1553:
1513:
1490:Enterobacter aerogenes
1353:
709:
645:nuclear power stations
589:
276:CCS networks required
153:
7119:Nature Communications
6575:. New Scientist Ltd.
5347:Biomass and Bioenergy
2355:Hydrogen technologies
2310:Hydrogen leak testing
2175:electrolysis of water
2156:autothermal reformers
2099:
2004:copper-chlorine cycle
1996:zinc zinc-oxide cycle
1843:) and hydrogen gas (H
1695:Biological production
1684:(g) ΔH° = 74.8 kJ/mol
1648:
1604:
1548:
1511:
1347:
1294:Copper–chlorine cycle
1264:components. The term
1246:Thermochemical cycles
703:
600:of natural gas has a
594:Electrolysis of water
587:
552:Electrolysis of water
431:. The byproduct is CO
250:Thermal splitting of
151:
120:through reduction of
7085:U.S. Dept. of Energy
6993:"2003-PHOEBUS-Pag.9"
5699:Feng Chia University
4177:on December 10, 2019
3417:. pp. 293–304.
3286:. Australia: CSIRO.
2231:hydrodesulfurization
2115:Environmental impact
1756:microbial fuel cells
1726:anaerobic conversion
1532:microbial fuel cells
1298:thermochemical cycle
1241:thermochemical cycle
1235:Thermochemical cycle
1136:Pyrolysis on biomass
649:solar thermal plants
406:endothermic reaction
96:underground hydrogen
94:, and extraction of
8116:Hydrogen production
8011:energy.ec.europa.eu
7969:2022Natur.611..440C
7845:Wall Street Journal
7781:20.500.11850/422246
7714:Robert W. Howarth;
7618:2019E3SWC..9803006T
7577:2020Eleme..16....8G
7559:(1 February 2020).
7527:2015NRR....24..369L
7483:2018IJHE...4319315P
7477:(42): 19315–19326.
7197:2009ChSCh...2..471N
7139:10.1038/ncomms13549
7131:2016NatCo...713549V
6971:2013IJHE...38.4901C
6818:2009PhoRe.102..523H
6744:2007IJHE...32..200T
6709:2023RSERv.18113323P
6659:2022IJHE...47.4265L
6493:2017Sci...358..917U
6316:2020Eleme..16....8G
6166:2008IJER...32..870S
6086:2017BiTec.227..335A
6009:2007IJHE...32..200T
5974:2017IJHE...42.1989A
5897:2020APLM....8c0903D
5842:2017AdM....2901694L
5734:2009ChSCh...2..471N
5614:2009PhoRe.102..523H
5386:2018RSERv..81.1802P
5284:2006Sci...314..479L
5190:2014Fuel..117.1288G
4918:2018ApEn..231..502J
4875:2018ApEn..231..502J
4820:2014FrCh....2...79B
4774:Electrochimica Acta
4743:Electrochimica Acta
4716:Electrochimica Acta
4662:2015IJHE...40...70G
4027:2013WIREE...2..473B
3904:10.1155/2013/690627
3732:Philibert, Cédric.
3575:2014FrCh....2...79B
3460:2015IJHE...4011094D
3454:(34): 11094–11111.
3204:2020ERSS...7001667V
3098:National Grid Group
2686:2023REne..21619041S
2612:2023REne..21619041S
2573:2021ERSS...8002208G
2488:2022Joule...6.2225R
2295:Hydrogen compressor
2257:chlorine production
2008:hybrid sulfur cycle
2000:sulfur-iodine cycle
1913:multi-junction cell
1869:hydrogen compressor
1853:compressed hydrogen
1752:Electrohydrogenesis
1528:electrohydrogenesis
1522:microbial fuel cell
1518:electrohydrogenesis
1308:Ferrosilicon method
1300:because it uses an
1278:sulfur-iodine cycle
1120:produced hydrogen.
809:Gas generated from
664:potassium carbonate
315:Red, pink or purple
199:
81:hydrogen production
8091:. Academic Press.
7821:: 2–9. April 2004.
7772:10.1039/D0SE00222D
6778:. Biohydrogen.nl.
6448:ChemBioEng Reviews
6380:Fernandez, Sonia.
5830:Advanced Materials
5467:2016-12-21 at the
5423:2011-11-03 at the
5151:Energy & Fuels
4988:2014-12-08 at the
4616:greentechmedia.com
4144:Hofmann voltameter
3356:10.1039/D3CS00723E
3147:BMWi (June 2020).
2942:ChemBioEng Reviews
2790:10.1039/D3CS00723E
2457:The New York Times
2275:Ammonia production
2102:
2060:, natural gas and
1808:2010-05-17 at the
1651:
1609:
1554:
1514:
1408:Biohydrogen routes
1354:
1172:Bunsen reaction: I
1166:iodine-sulfur (IS)
1066:Depleted oil wells
1019:coal carbonization
710:
613:electrolytic cells
602:thermal efficiency
590:
478:O → CO + 3 H
270:Hydrocarbons with
206:Production source
197:
154:
8098:978-0-12-814853-2
8039:Our World in Data
7963:(7936): 440–443.
7687:. Deutsche Welle.
7317:on August 7, 2015
7248:978-0-12-374763-1
7051:(Press release).
7026:. December 2015.
6965:(12): 4901–4934.
6927:978-3-9807963-0-9
6567:Cartwright, Jon.
6487:(6365): 917–921.
6341:"Hidden hydrogen"
6296:(February 2020).
6228:978-94-6191-282-4
5942:978-3-527-30673-2
5906:10.1063/1.5140497
5786:978-0-12-374763-1
5326:www.aiche-cep.com
5163:10.1021/ef990178a
4408:level-network.com
4169:(Press release).
3836:level-network.com
3497:978-0-471-77985-8
3432:978-0-12-804792-7
2510:Article in press.
2482:(10): 2225–2228.
2320:Hydrogen purifier
2290:Hydrogen analyzer
2091:energy transition
1738:dark fermentation
1734:Photofermentation
1730:Dark fermentation
1466:dark fermentation
1462:Photofermentation
1449:dark fermentation
1383:energy efficiency
1328:. A heavy steel
1014:coal gasification
987:superheated steam
839:substoichiometric
826:Partial oxidation
762:
678:(MJ/m), assuming
633:current densities
508:Essentially, the
368:
367:
257:Methane pyrolysis
171:, referred to as
143:methane pyrolysis
92:methane pyrolysis
16:(Redirected from
8123:
8102:
8076:
8070:
8051:
8050:
8048:
8046:
8027:
8021:
8020:
8018:
8017:
8003:
7997:
7996:
7952:
7946:
7945:
7943:
7942:
7926:
7920:
7919:
7917:
7916:
7902:
7896:
7895:
7879:
7870:
7869:
7857:
7851:
7850:
7829:
7823:
7822:
7812:
7804:
7798:
7792:
7786:
7785:
7783:
7766:(6): 2967–2986.
7754:
7748:
7747:
7728:10.1002/ESE3.956
7716:Mark Z. Jacobson
7711:
7705:
7695:
7689:
7688:
7676:
7670:
7669:
7667:
7666:
7652:
7646:
7645:
7638:
7632:
7631:
7629:
7597:
7591:
7590:
7588:
7557:Gaucher, Eric C.
7553:
7547:
7546:
7509:
7503:
7502:
7466:
7460:
7455:
7449:
7448:
7446:
7445:
7430:
7424:
7423:
7421:
7420:
7414:
7407:
7399:
7393:
7388:
7382:
7381:
7379:
7378:
7372:
7365:
7357:
7351:
7350:
7348:
7347:
7332:
7326:
7325:
7323:
7322:
7313:. Archived from
7300:
7294:
7293:
7283:
7274:(9): 1574–1577.
7259:
7253:
7252:
7226:
7217:
7216:
7179:
7170:
7167:
7161:
7160:
7150:
7109:
7103:
7102:
7100:
7099:
7093:
7082:
7074:
7068:
7067:
7065:
7064:
7045:
7039:
7038:
7036:
7035:
7020:
7014:
7013:
7011:
7010:
7004:
6998:. Archived from
6997:
6989:
6983:
6982:
6954:
6948:
6947:
6909:
6903:
6902:
6900:
6899:
6884:
6878:
6877:
6875:
6873:
6854:
6848:
6847:
6837:
6812:(2–3): 523–540.
6797:
6791:
6790:
6788:
6787:
6772:
6766:
6765:
6760:
6727:
6721:
6720:
6692:
6686:
6685:
6683:
6681:
6653:(7): 4265–4283.
6638:
6632:
6626:
6620:
6619:
6617:
6615:
6595:
6589:
6588:
6586:
6584:
6564:
6558:
6557:
6534:Nature Catalysis
6529:
6523:
6522:
6504:
6472:
6466:
6465:
6463:
6439:
6433:
6432:
6430:
6428:
6408:
6402:
6401:
6399:
6397:
6377:
6371:
6370:
6363:
6357:
6356:
6354:
6352:
6336:
6330:
6329:
6327:
6294:Gaucher, Éric C.
6290:
6284:
6283:
6281:
6279:
6264:
6258:
6257:
6255:
6253:
6239:
6233:
6232:
6212:
6206:
6203:
6185:
6147:
6141:
6140:
6112:
6106:
6105:
6069:
6063:
6062:
6060:
6059:
6027:
6021:
6020:
5992:
5986:
5985:
5968:(4): 1989–2007.
5956:
5947:
5946:
5920:
5911:
5910:
5908:
5876:
5870:
5869:
5825:
5819:
5818:
5797:
5791:
5790:
5760:
5754:
5753:
5716:
5710:
5709:
5708:on July 4, 2013.
5707:
5701:. Archived from
5692:
5681:
5675:
5674:
5672:
5671:
5665:
5659:. Archived from
5658:
5650:
5644:
5643:
5633:
5593:
5587:
5574:
5568:
5563:
5557:
5556:
5554:
5553:
5547:
5541:. Archived from
5540:
5530:
5524:
5523:
5521:
5520:
5514:
5508:. Archived from
5507:
5499:
5493:
5492:
5490:
5482:
5476:
5459:
5453:
5452:
5450:
5449:
5434:
5428:
5415:
5409:
5404:
5398:
5397:
5369:
5363:
5362:
5342:
5336:
5335:
5333:
5332:
5318:
5312:
5311:
5278:(5798): 479–82.
5259:
5253:
5246:
5240:
5233:
5227:
5226:
5224:
5223:
5208:
5202:
5201:
5173:
5167:
5166:
5146:
5140:
5139:
5128:
5122:
5121:
5110:
5104:
5103:
5101:
5100:
5091:. Archived from
5085:
5079:
5075:
5069:
5068:
5057:
5051:
5050:
5048:
5046:
5040:
5033:
5025:
5019:
5018:
5016:
5014:
4999:
4993:
4980:
4974:
4973:
4971:
4947:
4938:
4937:
4901:
4895:
4894:
4858:
4852:
4851:
4841:
4831:
4799:
4790:
4789:
4768:
4759:
4758:
4738:
4732:
4731:
4707:
4701:
4700:
4680:
4674:
4673:
4645:
4639:
4634:
4628:
4627:
4625:
4623:
4618:. Wood MacKenzie
4607:
4601:
4600:
4598:
4596:
4581:
4575:
4574:
4572:
4571:
4556:
4550:
4549:
4544:
4531:
4525:
4524:
4512:
4506:
4505:
4486:
4480:
4479:
4473:
4465:
4463:
4454:
4448:
4447:
4445:
4443:
4433:
4425:
4419:
4418:
4416:
4414:
4405:
4397:
4391:
4390:
4388:
4386:
4377:. Archived from
4366:
4360:
4359:
4357:
4355:
4332:
4326:
4313:
4307:
4306:
4304:
4302:
4257:
4251:
4250:
4248:
4246:
4241:on 31 March 2015
4240:
4234:. Archived from
4229:
4220:
4214:
4213:
4193:
4187:
4186:
4184:
4182:
4163:
4157:
4156:
4151:. Archived from
4140:
4134:
4133:
4130:10.1039/b718822f
4113:
4107:
4106:
4084:
4075:
4074:
4053:
4047:
4046:
4010:
4004:
4001:
3992:
3991:
3989:
3987:
3972:
3966:
3965:
3963:
3961:
3952:
3944:
3938:
3937:
3935:
3933:
3923:
3915:
3909:
3908:
3906:
3882:
3876:
3875:
3873:
3871:
3861:
3853:
3847:
3846:
3844:
3842:
3833:
3825:
3819:
3818:
3816:
3815:
3798:
3792:
3791:
3789:
3787:
3772:
3766:
3760:
3754:
3753:
3751:
3749:
3729:
3723:
3722:
3720:
3718:
3712:
3701:
3693:
3687:
3686:
3684:
3683:
3668:
3662:
3661:
3656:
3643:
3637:
3636:
3634:
3633:
3613:
3607:
3606:
3596:
3586:
3554:
3548:
3547:
3540:
3534:
3533:
3531:
3530:
3521:
3508:
3502:
3501:
3483:
3472:
3471:
3443:
3437:
3436:
3410:
3404:
3403:
3401:
3400:
3385:
3379:
3378:
3368:
3358:
3349:(5): 2258–2263.
3334:
3328:
3327:
3325:
3324:
3308:
3302:
3301:
3299:
3298:
3292:
3285:
3274:
3268:
3267:
3265:
3264:
3258:
3251:
3240:
3234:
3233:
3223:
3183:
3172:
3171:
3169:
3168:
3162:
3155:
3144:
3133:
3132:
3130:
3129:
3115:
3109:
3108:
3106:
3105:
3089:
3080:
3079:
3077:
3076:
3062:
3056:
3055:
3053:
3052:
3038:
3029:
3028:
3026:
3025:
3010:
3004:
3003:
2997:
2989:
2987:
2986:
2966:
2960:
2959:
2957:
2933:
2927:
2926:
2924:
2923:
2914:
2906:
2900:
2899:
2897:
2896:
2881:
2875:
2874:
2867:
2861:
2860:
2844:
2838:
2837:
2835:
2834:
2819:
2813:
2812:
2802:
2792:
2783:(5): 2258–2263.
2768:
2757:
2756:
2754:
2753:
2739:
2733:
2732:
2730:
2728:
2706:
2700:
2699:
2697:
2674:Renewable Energy
2665:
2659:
2658:
2656:
2655:
2635:
2626:
2625:
2623:
2600:Renewable Energy
2591:
2585:
2584:
2552:
2546:
2545:
2543:
2541:
2517:
2511:
2509:
2499:
2467:
2461:
2460:
2448:
2442:
2441:
2439:
2413:
2340:Hydrogen station
2335:Hydrogen storage
2262:hydrogen economy
2217:Hydrogen economy
2163:renewable energy
2086:Koulikoro Region
2066:activated carbon
1988:iron oxide cycle
1932:has developed a
1683:
1682:
1681:
1671:
1670:
1669:
1630:hydrogen economy
1619:natural hydrogen
1613:Natural hydrogen
1597:Natural hydrogen
1401:renewable energy
1350:algae bioreactor
1318:sodium hydroxide
1208:decomposition: H
1113:Desulfotomaculum
1082:
1081:
1080:
1029:hydrogen sulfide
1002:plasma converter
983:activated carbon
950:Plasma pyrolysis
760:
733:
732:
731:
692:PEM electrolysis
647:or concentrated
404:. The resulting
200:
165:renewable energy
67:electricity via
21:
8131:
8130:
8126:
8125:
8124:
8122:
8121:
8120:
8106:
8105:
8099:
8086:
8083:
8081:Further reading
8063:
8060:
8055:
8054:
8044:
8042:
8031:Ritchie, Hannah
8029:
8028:
8024:
8015:
8013:
8005:
8004:
8000:
7954:
7953:
7949:
7940:
7938:
7928:
7927:
7923:
7914:
7912:
7904:
7903:
7899:
7881:
7880:
7873:
7859:
7858:
7854:
7848:
7831:Dvorak, Phred,
7830:
7826:
7815:Research Review
7810:
7806:
7805:
7801:
7793:
7789:
7756:
7755:
7751:
7713:
7712:
7708:
7696:
7692:
7678:
7677:
7673:
7664:
7662:
7654:
7653:
7649:
7640:
7639:
7635:
7599:
7598:
7594:
7555:
7554:
7550:
7511:
7510:
7506:
7468:
7467:
7463:
7456:
7452:
7443:
7441:
7432:
7431:
7427:
7418:
7416:
7412:
7405:
7401:
7400:
7396:
7389:
7385:
7376:
7374:
7370:
7363:
7359:
7358:
7354:
7345:
7343:
7334:
7333:
7329:
7320:
7318:
7302:
7301:
7297:
7261:
7260:
7256:
7249:
7228:
7227:
7220:
7181:
7180:
7173:
7168:
7164:
7111:
7110:
7106:
7097:
7095:
7091:
7080:
7076:
7075:
7071:
7062:
7060:
7047:
7046:
7042:
7033:
7031:
7022:
7021:
7017:
7008:
7006:
7002:
6995:
6991:
6990:
6986:
6956:
6955:
6951:
6928:
6917:
6911:
6910:
6906:
6897:
6895:
6886:
6885:
6881:
6871:
6869:
6856:
6855:
6851:
6799:
6798:
6794:
6785:
6783:
6774:
6773:
6769:
6758:
6729:
6728:
6724:
6694:
6693:
6689:
6679:
6677:
6640:
6639:
6635:
6627:
6623:
6613:
6611:
6597:
6596:
6592:
6582:
6580:
6566:
6565:
6561:
6531:
6530:
6526:
6474:
6473:
6469:
6441:
6440:
6436:
6426:
6424:
6410:
6409:
6405:
6395:
6393:
6379:
6378:
6374:
6365:
6364:
6360:
6350:
6348:
6338:
6337:
6333:
6292:
6291:
6287:
6277:
6275:
6266:
6265:
6261:
6251:
6249:
6241:
6240:
6236:
6229:
6214:
6213:
6209:
6188:
6174:10.1002/er.1397
6149:
6148:
6144:
6114:
6113:
6109:
6071:
6070:
6066:
6057:
6055:
6029:
6028:
6024:
5994:
5993:
5989:
5958:
5957:
5950:
5943:
5922:
5921:
5914:
5878:
5877:
5873:
5827:
5826:
5822:
5803:Catalysis Today
5799:
5798:
5794:
5787:
5762:
5761:
5757:
5718:
5717:
5713:
5705:
5690:
5683:
5682:
5678:
5669:
5667:
5663:
5656:
5652:
5651:
5647:
5608:(2–3): 523–40.
5595:
5594:
5590:
5575:
5571:
5564:
5560:
5551:
5549:
5545:
5538:
5534:
5531:
5527:
5518:
5516:
5512:
5505:
5501:
5500:
5496:
5488:
5484:
5483:
5479:
5469:Wayback Machine
5460:
5456:
5447:
5445:
5436:
5435:
5431:
5425:Wayback Machine
5416:
5412:
5405:
5401:
5371:
5370:
5366:
5344:
5343:
5339:
5330:
5328:
5320:
5319:
5315:
5261:
5260:
5256:
5247:
5243:
5234:
5230:
5221:
5219:
5210:
5209:
5205:
5175:
5174:
5170:
5148:
5147:
5143:
5130:
5129:
5125:
5112:
5111:
5107:
5098:
5096:
5087:
5086:
5082:
5076:
5072:
5059:
5058:
5054:
5044:
5042:
5038:
5031:
5027:
5026:
5022:
5012:
5010:
5001:
5000:
4996:
4990:Wayback Machine
4981:
4977:
4949:
4948:
4941:
4903:
4902:
4898:
4860:
4859:
4855:
4801:
4800:
4793:
4770:
4769:
4762:
4740:
4739:
4735:
4713:
4709:
4708:
4704:
4682:
4681:
4677:
4647:
4646:
4642:
4635:
4631:
4621:
4619:
4609:
4608:
4604:
4594:
4592:
4583:
4582:
4578:
4569:
4567:
4558:
4557:
4553:
4545:on 2011-07-02.
4542:
4533:
4532:
4528:
4514:
4513:
4509:
4488:
4487:
4483:
4466:
4461:
4456:
4455:
4451:
4441:
4439:
4431:
4427:
4426:
4422:
4412:
4410:
4403:
4399:
4398:
4394:
4384:
4382:
4381:on 19 July 2018
4368:
4367:
4363:
4353:
4351:
4349:
4334:
4333:
4329:
4322:Teknisk Ukeblad
4314:
4310:
4300:
4298:
4259:
4258:
4254:
4244:
4242:
4238:
4227:
4222:
4221:
4217:
4195:
4194:
4190:
4180:
4178:
4165:
4164:
4160:
4147:
4141:
4137:
4124:(20): 2331–40.
4115:
4114:
4110:
4086:
4085:
4078:
4055:
4054:
4050:
4035:10.1002/wene.50
4012:
4011:
4007:
4002:
3995:
3985:
3983:
3974:
3973:
3969:
3959:
3957:
3950:
3946:
3945:
3941:
3931:
3929:
3921:
3917:
3916:
3912:
3884:
3883:
3879:
3869:
3867:
3859:
3855:
3854:
3850:
3840:
3838:
3831:
3827:
3826:
3822:
3813:
3811:
3800:
3799:
3795:
3785:
3783:
3774:
3773:
3769:
3761:
3757:
3747:
3745:
3731:
3730:
3726:
3716:
3714:
3710:
3704:nelhydrogen.com
3699:
3695:
3694:
3690:
3681:
3679:
3670:
3669:
3665:
3657:on 2011-07-02.
3654:
3645:
3644:
3640:
3631:
3629:
3615:
3614:
3610:
3556:
3555:
3551:
3542:
3541:
3537:
3528:
3526:
3519:
3516:
3510:
3509:
3505:
3498:
3485:
3484:
3475:
3445:
3444:
3440:
3433:
3412:
3411:
3407:
3398:
3396:
3387:
3386:
3382:
3336:
3335:
3331:
3322:
3320:
3313:"Gold hydrogen"
3310:
3309:
3305:
3296:
3294:
3290:
3283:
3276:
3275:
3271:
3262:
3260:
3256:
3249:
3242:
3241:
3237:
3185:
3184:
3175:
3166:
3164:
3160:
3153:
3146:
3145:
3136:
3127:
3125:
3123:Energy Observer
3117:
3116:
3112:
3103:
3101:
3092:national grid.
3091:
3090:
3083:
3074:
3072:
3064:
3063:
3059:
3050:
3048:
3040:
3039:
3032:
3023:
3021:
3012:
3011:
3007:
2990:
2984:
2982:
2968:
2967:
2963:
2935:
2934:
2930:
2921:
2919:
2912:
2908:
2907:
2903:
2894:
2892:
2883:
2882:
2878:
2869:
2868:
2864:
2846:
2845:
2841:
2832:
2830:
2821:
2820:
2816:
2770:
2769:
2760:
2751:
2749:
2741:
2740:
2736:
2726:
2724:
2708:
2707:
2703:
2667:
2666:
2662:
2653:
2651:
2637:
2636:
2629:
2593:
2592:
2588:
2554:
2553:
2549:
2539:
2537:
2519:
2518:
2514:
2469:
2468:
2464:
2450:
2449:
2445:
2415:
2414:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2370:Liquid hydrogen
2350:Hydrogen tanker
2330:Hydrogen sensor
2325:Hydrogen safety
2270:
2219:
2213:
2145:methane leakage
2123:, resulting in
2117:
2074:
2055:
2051:
2031:Kværner process
2027:
2025:Kværner process
1984:water splitting
1980:
1950:
1938:niobium nitride
1930:Panasonic Corp.
1922:
1897:
1891:
1878:
1846:
1842:
1834:
1822:
1814:reed sweetgrass
1810:Wayback Machine
1799:
1791:
1787:
1703:
1697:
1680:
1677:
1676:
1675:
1673:
1672:(g) → C(s) + 2
1668:
1665:
1664:
1663:
1661:
1643:
1638:
1615:
1599:
1583:
1577:
1565:
1559:
1540:reed sweetgrass
1524:
1516:Main articles:
1506:
1498:
1451:
1443:Main articles:
1441:
1434:
1410:
1397:
1391:
1360:
1342:
1334:sodium silicate
1330:pressure vessel
1310:
1302:electrochemical
1248:combine solely
1243:
1237:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1202:
1198:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1163:
1154:
1138:
1126:
1089:
1079:
1076:
1075:
1074:
1072:
1068:
1061:
1049:
1034:
1010:
992:
980:
976:
956:Kværner process
952:
945:
941:
937:
933:
927:
923:
919:
915:
907:
903:
899:
895:
884:
872:
864:
858:
828:
823:
791:
785:
769:
740:
730:
727:
726:
725:
723:
715:specific energy
707:
685:
672:
598:steam reforming
572:specific energy
564:
554:
548:
537:
532:water splitting
528:
526:Water splitting
522:
515:
504:
500:
496:
481:
477:
473:
461:
457:
446:
434:
422:
411:
396:
388:steam reforming
384:
382:Steam reforming
378:
373:
192:
130:
122:carbon monoxide
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
8129:
8127:
8119:
8118:
8108:
8107:
8104:
8103:
8097:
8082:
8079:
8078:
8077:
8059:
8056:
8053:
8052:
8022:
7998:
7947:
7921:
7897:
7871:
7852:
7824:
7799:
7787:
7749:
7706:
7690:
7671:
7647:
7633:
7592:
7548:
7521:(3): 369–383.
7504:
7461:
7450:
7425:
7394:
7383:
7352:
7327:
7295:
7254:
7247:
7218:
7191:(6): 471–485.
7171:
7162:
7104:
7069:
7055:. 2008-09-18.
7040:
7015:
6984:
6949:
6926:
6915:
6904:
6879:
6849:
6792:
6767:
6738:(2): 200–206.
6722:
6687:
6633:
6621:
6590:
6559:
6524:
6467:
6454:(5): 150–158.
6434:
6403:
6372:
6358:
6331:
6285:
6259:
6234:
6227:
6207:
6205:
6204:
6202:on 2010-05-17.
6142:
6107:
6064:
6022:
5987:
5948:
5941:
5912:
5871:
5820:
5792:
5785:
5755:
5711:
5676:
5645:
5588:
5569:
5558:
5525:
5494:
5477:
5454:
5429:
5410:
5399:
5364:
5353:(5): 899–906.
5337:
5313:
5254:
5241:
5228:
5203:
5168:
5141:
5123:
5105:
5080:
5070:
5052:
5020:
4994:
4975:
4939:
4906:Applied Energy
4896:
4863:Applied Energy
4853:
4791:
4760:
4733:
4711:
4702:
4675:
4640:
4629:
4610:Deign, Jason.
4602:
4576:
4551:
4526:
4507:
4481:
4449:
4420:
4392:
4369:thyssenkrupp.
4361:
4347:
4327:
4308:
4274:(6): 645–656.
4252:
4215:
4204:(6): 2531–42.
4188:
4158:
4155:on 2010-06-13.
4135:
4108:
4076:
4048:
4021:(5): 473–487.
4005:
3993:
3967:
3939:
3910:
3877:
3848:
3820:
3793:
3767:
3755:
3724:
3688:
3663:
3638:
3608:
3549:
3535:
3514:
3503:
3496:
3473:
3438:
3431:
3405:
3380:
3329:
3303:
3269:
3235:
3173:
3134:
3110:
3081:
3057:
3030:
3005:
2961:
2948:(5): 150–158.
2928:
2901:
2876:
2862:
2839:
2814:
2758:
2734:
2701:
2660:
2644:Greentechmedia
2627:
2586:
2547:
2512:
2462:
2443:
2423:Energy Reports
2407:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2372:
2367:
2365:Industrial gas
2362:
2360:Hydrogen valve
2357:
2352:
2347:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2255:of industrial
2212:
2209:
2191:green hydrogen
2187:nuclear energy
2183:renewable fuel
2167:green hydrogen
2116:
2113:
2105:White hydrogen
2073:
2070:
2053:
2049:
2026:
2023:
1979:
1976:
1949:
1946:
1921:
1918:
1893:Main article:
1890:
1887:
1877:
1874:
1844:
1840:
1832:
1821:
1818:
1803:aquatic plants
1798:
1795:
1789:
1785:
1778:photosynthesis
1776:, i.e. normal
1699:Main article:
1696:
1693:
1686:
1685:
1678:
1666:
1642:
1639:
1637:
1634:
1611:Main article:
1598:
1595:
1579:Main article:
1576:
1573:
1568:Aluminum alloy
1561:Main article:
1558:
1555:
1505:
1502:
1497:
1494:
1440:
1437:
1432:
1409:
1406:
1393:Main article:
1390:
1387:
1379:photosynthesis
1377:, i.e. normal
1356:Main article:
1341:
1338:
1309:
1306:
1239:Main article:
1236:
1233:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1200:
1196:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1161:
1153:
1150:
1137:
1134:
1125:
1122:
1118:radiolytically
1088:
1085:
1077:
1067:
1064:
1059:
1052:Petroleum coke
1048:
1047:Petroleum coke
1045:
1032:
1009:
1006:
990:
978:
974:
951:
948:
947:
946:
943:
939:
935:
931:
928:
925:
924:→ 12 CO + 12 H
921:
917:
913:
905:
901:
897:
893:
886:
885:
882:
870:
860:
854:
827:
824:
822:
819:
804:hydrogen pinch
787:Main article:
784:
781:
768:
765:
739:
736:
728:
705:
683:
671:
668:
629:platinum group
550:Main article:
547:
544:
540:green hydrogen
535:
524:Main article:
521:
518:
513:
506:
505:
502:
498:
494:
483:
482:
479:
475:
471:
459:
455:
444:
439:(natural gas,
432:
420:
409:
394:
380:Main article:
377:
374:
372:
369:
366:
365:
363:
360:
357:
355:
349:
348:
346:
343:
340:
338:
334:
333:
331:
321:
320:Nuclear power
318:
316:
312:
311:
309:
306:
300:
298:
297:Brown or black
294:
293:
291:
289:
286:
284:
280:
279:
277:
274:
268:
266:
262:
261:
259:
254:
248:
246:
242:
241:
239:
237:
230:green hydrogen
222:
220:
214:
213:
210:
207:
204:
191:
188:
173:green hydrogen
129:
126:
73:green hydrogen
60:Green hydrogen
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8128:
8117:
8114:
8113:
8111:
8100:
8094:
8090:
8085:
8084:
8080:
8074:
8069:
8068:
8062:
8061:
8057:
8040:
8036:
8032:
8026:
8023:
8012:
8008:
8002:
7999:
7994:
7990:
7986:
7982:
7978:
7974:
7970:
7966:
7962:
7958:
7951:
7948:
7937:
7936:
7931:
7925:
7922:
7911:
7907:
7901:
7898:
7893:
7889:
7885:
7878:
7876:
7872:
7867:
7863:
7856:
7853:
7846:
7842:
7838:
7834:
7828:
7825:
7820:
7816:
7809:
7803:
7800:
7796:
7791:
7788:
7782:
7777:
7773:
7769:
7765:
7761:
7753:
7750:
7745:
7741:
7737:
7733:
7729:
7725:
7721:
7717:
7710:
7707:
7703:
7699:
7694:
7691:
7686:
7682:
7675:
7672:
7661:
7657:
7651:
7648:
7643:
7637:
7634:
7628:
7623:
7619:
7615:
7611:
7607:
7603:
7596:
7593:
7587:
7582:
7578:
7574:
7570:
7566:
7562:
7558:
7552:
7549:
7544:
7540:
7536:
7532:
7528:
7524:
7520:
7516:
7508:
7505:
7500:
7496:
7492:
7488:
7484:
7480:
7476:
7472:
7465:
7462:
7459:
7454:
7451:
7439:
7435:
7429:
7426:
7411:
7404:
7398:
7395:
7392:
7387:
7384:
7369:
7362:
7356:
7353:
7341:
7337:
7331:
7328:
7316:
7312:
7311:
7310:Asahi Shimbun
7306:
7299:
7296:
7291:
7287:
7282:
7277:
7273:
7269:
7265:
7258:
7255:
7250:
7244:
7240:
7236:
7232:
7225:
7223:
7219:
7214:
7210:
7206:
7202:
7198:
7194:
7190:
7186:
7178:
7176:
7172:
7166:
7163:
7158:
7154:
7149:
7144:
7140:
7136:
7132:
7128:
7124:
7120:
7116:
7108:
7105:
7094:on 2008-05-18
7090:
7086:
7079:
7073:
7070:
7058:
7054:
7053:Science Daily
7050:
7044:
7041:
7029:
7025:
7019:
7016:
7005:on 2009-03-27
7001:
6994:
6988:
6985:
6980:
6976:
6972:
6968:
6964:
6960:
6953:
6950:
6945:
6941:
6937:
6933:
6929:
6923:
6919:
6908:
6905:
6893:
6889:
6883:
6880:
6868:on 2018-05-15
6867:
6863:
6859:
6853:
6850:
6845:
6841:
6836:
6831:
6827:
6823:
6819:
6815:
6811:
6807:
6803:
6796:
6793:
6781:
6777:
6771:
6768:
6763:
6757:
6753:
6749:
6745:
6741:
6737:
6733:
6726:
6723:
6718:
6714:
6710:
6706:
6702:
6698:
6691:
6688:
6676:
6672:
6668:
6664:
6660:
6656:
6652:
6648:
6644:
6637:
6634:
6630:
6625:
6622:
6609:
6605:
6601:
6594:
6591:
6578:
6574:
6570:
6563:
6560:
6555:
6551:
6547:
6543:
6539:
6535:
6528:
6525:
6520:
6516:
6512:
6508:
6503:
6498:
6494:
6490:
6486:
6482:
6478:
6471:
6468:
6462:
6457:
6453:
6449:
6445:
6438:
6435:
6422:
6418:
6414:
6407:
6404:
6391:
6387:
6383:
6376:
6373:
6368:
6362:
6359:
6346:
6342:
6335:
6332:
6326:
6321:
6317:
6313:
6309:
6305:
6304:
6299:
6295:
6289:
6286:
6274:
6270:
6263:
6260:
6248:
6244:
6238:
6235:
6230:
6224:
6220:
6219:
6211:
6208:
6201:
6197:
6196:
6191:
6187:
6186:
6183:
6179:
6175:
6171:
6167:
6163:
6159:
6155:
6154:
6146:
6143:
6138:
6134:
6130:
6126:
6122:
6118:
6111:
6108:
6103:
6099:
6095:
6091:
6087:
6083:
6079:
6075:
6068:
6065:
6054:on 2013-07-31
6053:
6049:
6045:
6041:
6039:
6036:coupled with
6035:
6026:
6023:
6018:
6014:
6010:
6006:
6002:
5998:
5991:
5988:
5983:
5979:
5975:
5971:
5967:
5963:
5955:
5953:
5949:
5944:
5938:
5934:
5930:
5926:
5919:
5917:
5913:
5907:
5902:
5898:
5894:
5891:(3): 030903.
5890:
5886:
5885:APL Materials
5882:
5875:
5872:
5867:
5863:
5859:
5855:
5851:
5847:
5843:
5839:
5835:
5831:
5824:
5821:
5816:
5812:
5808:
5804:
5796:
5793:
5788:
5782:
5778:
5774:
5770:
5766:
5759:
5756:
5751:
5747:
5743:
5739:
5735:
5731:
5728:(6): 471–85.
5727:
5723:
5715:
5712:
5704:
5700:
5696:
5689:
5688:
5680:
5677:
5666:on 2017-06-17
5662:
5655:
5649:
5646:
5641:
5637:
5632:
5627:
5623:
5619:
5615:
5611:
5607:
5603:
5599:
5592:
5589:
5586:
5585:1-86094-228-8
5582:
5578:
5573:
5570:
5567:
5562:
5559:
5548:on 2012-02-20
5544:
5537:
5529:
5526:
5515:on 2017-08-10
5511:
5504:
5498:
5495:
5487:
5481:
5478:
5474:
5470:
5466:
5463:
5458:
5455:
5444:on 2014-02-03
5443:
5439:
5433:
5430:
5426:
5422:
5419:
5414:
5411:
5408:
5403:
5400:
5395:
5391:
5387:
5383:
5380:: 1802–1812.
5379:
5375:
5368:
5365:
5360:
5356:
5352:
5348:
5341:
5338:
5327:
5323:
5317:
5314:
5309:
5305:
5301:
5297:
5293:
5289:
5285:
5281:
5277:
5273:
5269:
5265:
5258:
5255:
5252:
5251:
5245:
5242:
5239:
5238:
5232:
5229:
5218:
5214:
5207:
5204:
5199:
5195:
5191:
5187:
5183:
5179:
5172:
5169:
5164:
5160:
5157:(3): 618–23.
5156:
5152:
5145:
5142:
5137:
5133:
5127:
5124:
5119:
5115:
5109:
5106:
5095:on 2014-03-13
5094:
5090:
5084:
5081:
5078:
5074:
5071:
5066:
5062:
5056:
5053:
5037:
5030:
5024:
5021:
5008:
5004:
4998:
4995:
4991:
4987:
4984:
4979:
4976:
4970:
4965:
4961:
4957:
4953:
4946:
4944:
4940:
4935:
4931:
4927:
4923:
4919:
4915:
4911:
4907:
4900:
4897:
4892:
4888:
4884:
4880:
4876:
4872:
4868:
4864:
4857:
4854:
4849:
4845:
4840:
4835:
4830:
4825:
4821:
4817:
4813:
4809:
4805:
4798:
4796:
4792:
4787:
4783:
4779:
4775:
4767:
4765:
4761:
4756:
4752:
4748:
4744:
4737:
4734:
4729:
4725:
4721:
4717:
4706:
4703:
4698:
4694:
4690:
4686:
4679:
4676:
4671:
4667:
4663:
4659:
4655:
4651:
4644:
4641:
4638:
4633:
4630:
4617:
4613:
4606:
4603:
4590:
4586:
4580:
4577:
4566:on 2012-03-22
4565:
4561:
4555:
4552:
4548:
4541:
4537:
4530:
4527:
4522:
4518:
4511:
4508:
4504:
4500:
4496:
4495:Bloomberg.com
4492:
4485:
4482:
4477:
4471:
4460:
4453:
4450:
4437:
4436:fch.europa.eu
4430:
4424:
4421:
4409:
4402:
4396:
4393:
4380:
4376:
4372:
4365:
4362:
4350:
4348:9783527674299
4344:
4340:
4339:
4331:
4328:
4324:
4323:
4318:
4312:
4309:
4297:
4293:
4289:
4285:
4281:
4277:
4273:
4269:
4268:
4263:
4256:
4253:
4237:
4233:
4226:
4219:
4216:
4211:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4192:
4189:
4176:
4172:
4168:
4162:
4159:
4154:
4150:
4145:
4139:
4136:
4131:
4127:
4123:
4119:
4112:
4109:
4104:
4100:
4096:
4092:
4091:
4083:
4081:
4077:
4072:
4068:
4064:
4060:
4052:
4049:
4044:
4040:
4036:
4032:
4028:
4024:
4020:
4016:
4009:
4006:
4000:
3998:
3994:
3981:
3977:
3971:
3968:
3956:
3955:itm-power.com
3949:
3943:
3940:
3927:
3926:fch.europa.eu
3920:
3914:
3911:
3905:
3900:
3896:
3892:
3888:
3881:
3878:
3865:
3864:fch.europa.eu
3858:
3852:
3849:
3837:
3830:
3824:
3821:
3810:
3809:
3804:
3797:
3794:
3781:
3777:
3771:
3768:
3764:
3759:
3756:
3743:
3739:
3735:
3728:
3725:
3709:
3705:
3698:
3692:
3689:
3678:on 2012-03-22
3677:
3673:
3667:
3664:
3660:
3653:
3649:
3642:
3639:
3627:
3623:
3619:
3612:
3609:
3604:
3600:
3595:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3553:
3550:
3545:
3539:
3536:
3525:
3518:
3507:
3504:
3499:
3493:
3489:
3482:
3480:
3478:
3474:
3469:
3465:
3461:
3457:
3453:
3449:
3442:
3439:
3434:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3409:
3406:
3395:on 2015-02-02
3394:
3390:
3384:
3381:
3376:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3333:
3330:
3318:
3314:
3307:
3304:
3289:
3282:
3281:
3273:
3270:
3255:
3248:
3247:
3239:
3236:
3231:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3182:
3180:
3178:
3174:
3159:
3152:
3151:
3143:
3141:
3139:
3135:
3124:
3120:
3114:
3111:
3099:
3095:
3088:
3086:
3082:
3071:
3067:
3061:
3058:
3047:
3046:The Economist
3043:
3037:
3035:
3031:
3019:
3015:
3009:
3006:
3001:
2995:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2965:
2962:
2956:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2932:
2929:
2918:
2911:
2905:
2902:
2890:
2886:
2880:
2877:
2872:
2866:
2863:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2843:
2840:
2828:
2824:
2818:
2815:
2810:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2767:
2765:
2763:
2759:
2748:
2744:
2738:
2735:
2722:
2718:
2717:
2712:
2705:
2702:
2696:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2664:
2661:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2634:
2632:
2628:
2622:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2590:
2587:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2551:
2548:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2516:
2513:
2507:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2466:
2463:
2458:
2454:
2447:
2444:
2438:
2433:
2430:: 8421–8446.
2429:
2425:
2424:
2419:
2412:
2409:
2402:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2345:Hydrogen tank
2343:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2272:
2267:
2265:
2263:
2258:
2254:
2249:
2247:
2242:
2240:
2239:Haber process
2236:
2232:
2228:
2227:aromatization
2224:
2223:hydrocracking
2218:
2211:Hydrogen uses
2210:
2208:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2196:
2195:pink hydrogen
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2159:
2157:
2152:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2133:blue hydrogen
2130:
2129:grey hydrogen
2126:
2122:
2114:
2112:
2110:
2106:
2098:
2094:
2092:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2071:
2069:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2047:
2043:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1977:
1975:
1973:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1947:
1945:
1943:
1942:decomposition
1939:
1935:
1934:photocatalyst
1931:
1926:
1919:
1917:
1914:
1908:
1906:
1902:
1896:
1888:
1886:
1884:
1875:
1873:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1838:
1830:
1826:
1819:
1817:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1804:
1796:
1794:
1781:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1764:
1759:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1748:
1743:
1739:
1736:differs from
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1702:
1694:
1692:
1689:
1660:
1659:
1658:
1655:
1647:
1640:
1635:
1633:
1631:
1627:
1622:
1620:
1614:
1607:
1603:
1596:
1594:
1592:
1588:
1582:
1574:
1572:
1569:
1564:
1556:
1552:
1547:
1543:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1523:
1519:
1510:
1503:
1501:
1495:
1493:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1482:H. salinarium
1477:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1464:differs from
1463:
1459:
1455:
1450:
1446:
1438:
1436:
1428:
1424:
1422:
1419:with biomass
1418:
1414:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1396:
1388:
1386:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1365:
1359:
1351:
1346:
1339:
1337:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1307:
1305:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1274:
1272:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1242:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1207:
1206:Sulfuric acid
1203:
1193:
1170:
1167:
1159:
1151:
1149:
1147:
1142:
1135:
1133:
1131:
1123:
1121:
1119:
1115:
1114:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1098:
1094:
1086:
1084:
1065:
1063:
1057:
1053:
1046:
1044:
1042:
1038:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1020:
1015:
1007:
1005:
1003:
999:
994:
988:
984:
972:
968:
965:
961:
957:
949:
942:→ 24 CO + 6 H
929:
911:
910:
909:
891:
880:
876:
868:
863:
857:
852:
851:
850:
848:
844:
840:
835:
833:
825:
820:
818:
816:
812:
807:
805:
800:
796:
790:
782:
780:
778:
774:
766:
764:
756:
754:
750:
746:
737:
735:
719:
716:
713:(which has a
702:
698:
695:
693:
687:
681:
677:
669:
667:
665:
661:
657:
652:
650:
646:
642:
636:
634:
630:
626:
622:
618:
614:
609:
605:
603:
599:
595:
586:
582:
579:
575:
573:
569:
563:
559:
553:
545:
543:
541:
533:
527:
519:
517:
511:
492:
491:
490:
488:
469:
468:
467:
465:
452:
450:
442:
438:
430:
426:
418:
413:
407:
403:
400:
391:
389:
383:
375:
370:
364:
361:
358:
354:
353:Gold or white
351:
350:
347:
345:Photovoltaic
344:
341:
336:
335:
332:
329:
325:
322:
319:
314:
313:
310:
307:
305:
301:
296:
295:
292:
290:
287:
282:
281:
278:
275:
273:
269:
264:
263:
260:
258:
255:
253:
249:
244:
243:
240:
238:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
201:
195:
189:
187:
185:
184:grey hydrogen
181:
176:
174:
170:
166:
162:
161:nuclear power
158:
150:
146:
144:
139:
135:
127:
125:
123:
119:
115:
114:Haber process
111:
107:
102:
99:
97:
93:
89:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
61:
56:
54:
53:
52:blue hydrogen
48:
44:
40:
37:made through
36:
35:gray hydrogen
32:
19:
18:Grey hydrogen
8088:
8066:
8045:16 September
8043:. Retrieved
8038:
8025:
8014:. Retrieved
8010:
8001:
7960:
7956:
7950:
7939:. Retrieved
7933:
7924:
7913:. Retrieved
7909:
7900:
7887:
7865:
7855:
7844:
7837:Air Products
7827:
7814:
7802:
7790:
7763:
7759:
7752:
7719:
7709:
7702:Air Products
7693:
7684:
7674:
7663:. Retrieved
7659:
7650:
7636:
7609:
7605:
7595:
7568:
7564:
7551:
7518:
7514:
7507:
7474:
7470:
7464:
7453:
7442:. Retrieved
7428:
7417:. Retrieved
7397:
7386:
7375:. Retrieved
7355:
7344:. Retrieved
7330:
7319:. Retrieved
7315:the original
7308:
7298:
7271:
7267:
7257:
7230:
7188:
7184:
7165:
7125:(1): 13549.
7122:
7118:
7107:
7096:. Retrieved
7089:the original
7072:
7061:. Retrieved
7043:
7032:. Retrieved
7018:
7007:. Retrieved
7000:the original
6987:
6962:
6958:
6952:
6913:
6907:
6896:. Retrieved
6890:(in Dutch).
6882:
6870:. Retrieved
6866:the original
6861:
6852:
6809:
6805:
6795:
6784:. Retrieved
6770:
6735:
6731:
6725:
6700:
6696:
6690:
6678:. Retrieved
6650:
6646:
6636:
6624:
6612:. Retrieved
6603:
6593:
6581:. Retrieved
6573:NewScientist
6572:
6562:
6540:(1): 83–89.
6537:
6533:
6527:
6484:
6480:
6470:
6451:
6447:
6437:
6425:. Retrieved
6416:
6406:
6394:. Retrieved
6385:
6375:
6361:
6349:. Retrieved
6344:
6339:Hand, Eric.
6334:
6307:
6301:
6288:
6276:. Retrieved
6272:
6262:
6250:. Retrieved
6246:
6237:
6217:
6210:
6200:the original
6193:
6160:(9): 870–6.
6157:
6151:
6145:
6123:(5): 663–9.
6120:
6116:
6110:
6077:
6073:
6067:
6056:. Retrieved
6052:the original
6047:
6043:
6037:
6033:
6025:
6003:(2): 200–6.
6000:
5996:
5990:
5965:
5961:
5924:
5888:
5884:
5874:
5833:
5829:
5823:
5806:
5802:
5795:
5768:
5758:
5725:
5721:
5714:
5703:the original
5686:
5679:
5668:. Retrieved
5661:the original
5648:
5605:
5601:
5591:
5572:
5561:
5550:. Retrieved
5543:the original
5528:
5517:. Retrieved
5510:the original
5497:
5480:
5472:
5457:
5446:. Retrieved
5442:the original
5432:
5427:, April 2007
5413:
5402:
5377:
5373:
5367:
5350:
5346:
5340:
5329:. Retrieved
5325:
5316:
5275:
5271:
5257:
5249:
5244:
5236:
5231:
5220:. Retrieved
5216:
5206:
5181:
5177:
5171:
5154:
5150:
5144:
5135:
5126:
5117:
5108:
5097:. Retrieved
5093:the original
5083:
5073:
5064:
5055:
5043:. Retrieved
5023:
5011:. Retrieved
4997:
4978:
4959:
4955:
4909:
4905:
4899:
4866:
4862:
4856:
4811:
4807:
4777:
4773:
4746:
4742:
4736:
4719:
4715:
4705:
4688:
4684:
4678:
4653:
4649:
4643:
4632:
4620:. Retrieved
4615:
4605:
4593:. Retrieved
4588:
4579:
4568:. Retrieved
4564:the original
4554:
4546:
4540:the original
4529:
4520:
4510:
4502:
4494:
4484:
4452:
4440:. Retrieved
4435:
4423:
4411:. Retrieved
4407:
4395:
4383:. Retrieved
4379:the original
4374:
4364:
4352:. Retrieved
4337:
4330:
4320:
4311:
4299:. Retrieved
4271:
4265:
4255:
4243:. Retrieved
4236:the original
4231:
4218:
4201:
4197:
4191:
4179:. Retrieved
4175:the original
4161:
4153:the original
4138:
4121:
4117:
4111:
4094:
4088:
4062:
4058:
4051:
4018:
4014:
4008:
3984:. Retrieved
3979:
3970:
3958:. Retrieved
3954:
3942:
3930:. Retrieved
3925:
3913:
3894:
3890:
3880:
3868:. Retrieved
3863:
3851:
3839:. Retrieved
3835:
3823:
3812:. Retrieved
3806:
3796:
3784:. Retrieved
3770:
3765:, p. 37
3758:
3746:. Retrieved
3737:
3727:
3715:. Retrieved
3703:
3691:
3680:. Retrieved
3676:the original
3666:
3658:
3652:the original
3641:
3630:. Retrieved
3621:
3611:
3566:
3562:
3552:
3538:
3527:. Retrieved
3523:
3506:
3487:
3451:
3447:
3441:
3414:
3408:
3397:. Retrieved
3393:the original
3383:
3346:
3342:
3332:
3321:. Retrieved
3316:
3306:
3295:. Retrieved
3279:
3272:
3261:. Retrieved
3245:
3238:
3195:
3191:
3165:. Retrieved
3149:
3126:. Retrieved
3122:
3113:
3102:. Retrieved
3097:
3073:. Retrieved
3069:
3060:
3049:. Retrieved
3045:
3022:. Retrieved
3008:
2983:. Retrieved
2974:
2964:
2945:
2941:
2931:
2920:. Retrieved
2904:
2893:. Retrieved
2879:
2865:
2852:
2842:
2831:. Retrieved
2826:
2817:
2780:
2776:
2750:. Retrieved
2746:
2737:
2725:. Retrieved
2716:Carbon Brief
2714:
2704:
2677:
2673:
2663:
2652:. Retrieved
2643:
2603:
2599:
2589:
2564:
2560:
2550:
2538:. Retrieved
2526:CEP Magazine
2525:
2515:
2479:
2475:
2465:
2456:
2446:
2427:
2421:
2411:
2250:
2243:
2220:
2206:
2203:
2194:
2179:landfill gas
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