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1004:, in 1950. In 1955, he appeared in public at a press conference where he explained to the world the motivations of his choice to leave the West and work in the Soviet Union. As a result, the United Kingdom revoked his British citizenship on 24 May 1955. Pontecorvo was not permitted to leave the Soviet Union for many years; his first trip abroad being in 1978 when he travelled to Italy for celebrations of Amaldi's 70th birthday. Thereafter, he made frequent trips to Italy, and occasional visits to other countries. France refused to allow him to visit in 1982 and 1984, but relented in 1989.
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1289:) were one and the same. (Thus an inability to find those reactions would be evidence that there were two types of neutrinos.) This paper introduced this notation for neutrinos, which we use today, and listed the reasons why he felt that having two types of neutrinos was "attractive from the point of view of symmetry and the classification of particles". The prediction that neutrinos associated with electrons are different from those associated with muons was confirmed in 1962. In 1988
536:, where Enrico Fermi had gathered together a group of promising young scientists known as the Via Panisperna boys after the name of the street where the Institute of Physics of Rome University was then situated. At the age of 18 he was admitted to the third year of Physics. Fermi described Pontecorvo as "scientifically one of the brightest men with whom I have come in contact in my scientific career". As their youngest member, the group nicknamed him
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596:, he adopted the ideals of communism to which he remained loyal for the rest of his life. He formed a relationship with Helene Marianne Nordblom, a Swedish woman working in Paris as a nanny. Whether because of his relationship with Marianne, his interesting work on isomers, or the deteriorating political situation in Italy, he turned down an opportunity in 1937 to apply for a tenured position at the University of Rome to stay in Paris.
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547:. Pontecorvo's name was included on the Via Panisperna boys' patent "To increase the production of artificial radioactivity with neutron bombardment". He was made a temporary assistant at the Royal Institute of Physics on 1 November 1934 and the University of Rome, and on 7 November, he was listed as co-author, along with Fermi and Rasetti, of a landmark paper on
933:. His abrupt disappearance caused much concern to many of the western intelligence services, especially those of Britain, Canada and the United States, that were worried about the escape of atomic secrets to the Soviet Union, and of Finland and Sweden, through which Pontecorvo and Marianne had been allowed to travel without valid passports and visas.
691:, they regarded Pontecorvo as an "undesirable". Fortunately, Segrè had been given an offer of employment in Tulsa, Oklahoma, by two European expatriates who were looking for an expert on neutron physics. Segrè had turned down the offer â he already had a good job at the University of California â but recommended Pontecorvo.
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1320:. Somewhere between the Sun and the Earth, electron neutrinos might transform into muon neutrinos. An important point was that for this to happen, neutrinos could not have zero mass, and therefore could not travel at the speed of light. The existence of the oscillations was finally established by the
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in Rome, and another half in Dubna in Russia. In 1995, in recognition of his scientific merits, the prestigious
Pontecorvo Prize has been instituted by the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research. The prize, awarded annually to an individual scientist, recognises "the most significant investigations in
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over his appointment, not because of
Pontecorvo's political beliefs, but because he was not a British national, and there were already a large number of foreign scientists working on Tube Alloys. Appleton was ultimately persuaded due to Pontecorvo's reputation, and the fact that good physicists were
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was arrested for espionage, and the AERE began to take security more seriously, and
Pontecorvo was interviewed by Henry Arnold, the security officer at AERE. While Arnold had no evidence that Pontecorvo was a Soviet spy, he did feel that he was a security risk, and recommended that he be moved to a
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were excited and returned to their ground state. He also discovered that some isomers do not change into other elements on decaying radioactively. This expanded the scope for their use in medical applications. For this ground-breaking research, Pontecorvo received a Curie-Carnegie scholarship, and
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materials, and of the materials used in construction of reactors. In 1949, other Via
Panisperna boys, particularly Emilio Segrè, began to press their claim over patents relating to the behaviour of slow neutrons, which were at the heart of nuclear reactorâand nuclear weaponâdesign. The American
506:. He also had two younger sisters; Laura, who was born in 1921, and Anna, who was born in 1924, and a younger brother Giovanni, who was born in 1926. His family was a wealthy family; Massimo owned three textile factories employing over 1,000 people. The family was Jewish and non-observant, from
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following an adventure in which he made a trip to Boston with two women, which culminated in
Marianne clearing out the bank account and departing for Banff with the children; but they were reconciled. Although he had previously taken steps to become a United States citizen, he instead became a
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set out for
Toulouse on bicycles. It took them ten days to reach Toulouse. Luria went to Marseilles, from whence he eventually made his way to the United States. Pontecorvo, Marianne, Gil, Giuliana and Tabet boarded a train that took them to Lisbon via Madrid on 19 July 1940. Both women were
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On 2 June 1940, he saw
Marianne and Gil off with their chattels on a train to Toulouse, where his sister Giuliana lived with her husband, Duccio Tabet. On 13 June, just a day before the Germans entered Paris, Pontecorvo, his brother Gillo, cousin Emilio Sereni and
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against the Jews. This caused the breakup of the Via
Panisperna boys, with Fermi moving to the United States. Pontecorvo's family also dispersed. Guido moved to Britain in 1938, followed by Giovanni, Laura and Anna in 1939, while Gillo joined Pontecorvo in Paris.
853:(AERE). For the time being, he remained at Chalk River for the commissioning of the new NRX reactor in 1947. He was one of four physicists present in the control room when the NRX was started up on the night of 21â22 July 1947. At the time, it had five times the
1224:, for which Davis was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2002. The experiment was the first to successfully detect and count solar neutrinos, but the number of neutrinos detected was between one third and one half of the predicted number. This became the
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Physicists were in great demand after the war ended in August 1945, and
Pontecorvo received attractive and lucrative offers from several universities in the United States. Instead, on 21 February 1946, he accepted an offer from Cockcroft to join the British
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on 9 August 1940 on its voyage bringing refugees to the United States. Both women were seasick. On 19 August 1940, the ship reached New York City, where they stayed with his brother Paolo. While there, he visited Fermi at his new home in Leonia, New Jersey.
887:(FBI) therefore began looking into their backgrounds. It noted, from its 1943 Manhattan Project files, that Pontecorvo's siblings Giuliana, Laura and Gillo were communists, and that Pontecorvo and Marianne were probably communists too, and reported this to
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obtained a sample of uranium from the NRX after it started operation in 1947. Nunn May could not have been the culprit, so
Pontecorvo is the prime suspect. In the USSR Pontecorvo was welcomed with honours and given privileges reserved only to the Soviet
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which explained that the electrons emitted from the nucleus were created by the decay of a neutron into a proton, an electron, and a neutrino. Initially neutrinos were thought to be undetectable, but in 1945 Pontecorvo noted that a neutrino striking a
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on 4 January 1938. Their son, Gil, was born on 30 July. Her visa expired, and she had to return to Sweden in September. Pontecorvo accompanied her, leaving Gil behind in a residential nursery in Paris. Travelling back to Paris alone, he dined with
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Pontecorvo's solution to the solar neutrino problem involved an idea that he had first considered in 1957, and developed over the following decade. This was the idea that neutrinos may convert into other types of neutrinos, a phenomenon known as
1153:. Experiments were conducted at Chalk River using the NRX as a neutrino source, but were unsuccessful, and were abandoned in 1949, after Pontecorvo had left. The experiment was unsuccessful because, unknown at the time, nuclear reactors produced
837:, the decay of muons, and what would become his obsession, neutrinos. He wrote 25 papers related to reactor design, although only two were published. He also did some prospecting with his old firm, searching for uranium deposits near
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device had been successful at analysing rock outcroppings. Inspired by the work done in Italy and France, they reasoned that neutrons, being without electrical charge, might be able to detect different elements beneath the surface by
833:. A third son, Antonio, was born in July 1945. With heavy water supplied by the United States, the reactor at Chalk River, known as ZEEP went critical on 5 September 1945. In addition to reactor design, Pontecorvo also looked into
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pointed out that this implied that some interactions that had never been observed should occur, but conceded that this was only true if the neutrinos associated with electrons were the same as those associated with muons.
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The meeting with Fermi yielded no supplies, but it did result in Pontecorvo receiving an offer from von Halban and Placzek to join the Tube Alloys team at the Montreal Laboratory in Canada. There was some concern from Sir
826:"debrief" Manhattan Project scientists who visited Canada, in practice spying for Britain. Unfortunately, Nunn May was also a Soviet spy. Pontecorvo's second son was born on 20 March 1944, and was named Tito after the
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that reported that hydrogen slowed neutrons more than heavy elements, and that slow neutrons were more easily absorbed. An Italian patent was granted for the process in October 1935, in the name of Fermi, Pontecorvo,
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became director of the Montreal Laboratory in 1944. For safety reasons, he decided to build the reactor at the remote Chalk River Laboratories. With an eye on a post-war nuclear program, he had Pontecorvo and
951:, the former deputy director of Foreign Intelligence for the Soviet Union, Pontecorvo was a Soviet spy. However, Sudoplatov misidentified Pontecorvo as the spy codenamed Mlad, who is now known to be
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Pontecorvo, Bruno (21 May 1945). On a method for detecting free neutrinos (Report). Vol. Report P.D.-141. ChalkRiver, Ontario: National Research Council of Canada, Division of Atomic Energy.
955:. While Pontecorvo always denied working on nuclear weapons, in Canada, Britain or the Soviet Union, he never confirmed or denied that he was a spy. The actual evidence against him was flimsy.
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fled the city on bicycles. He eventually made his way to Tulsa, Oklahoma, where he applied his knowledge of nuclear physics to prospecting for oil and minerals. In 1943, he joined the British
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In Tulsa, Pontecorvo went to work for two European migrants, Jakov "Jake" Neufeld and Serge Alexandrovich Scherbatskoy, who had founded a company called Well Surveys with funds provided by
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976:, concentrating entirely on theoretical studies of high energy particles and continuing his research on neutrinos and decay of muons. In recognition of his research he was awarded the
755:, and map the transitions between them. The technique may be considered the first practical application of the discovery of slow neutrons, and would still be in use decades later for
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Pontecorvo, Bruno (13 November 1946). Inverse β process (Report). Vol. Report P.D.-205. ChalkRiver, Ontario: National Research Council of Canada, Division of Atomic Energy.
878:, Pontecorvo continued to be involved in reactor design projects. As a member of the Power Steering Committee (PSC), he was involved in discussions of the production and use of
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in short supply. Pontecorvo was officially appointed to Tube Alloys on 15 January 1943, and arrived in Montreal with his family on 7 February 1943. The Montreal team designed a
496:. Another older brother Paolo, who was born in 1909, became an engineer who worked on radar during World War II. His older sister Giuliana was born in 1911. His younger brother
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as a neutron moderator, and measured the absorption of different minerals using methods developed by Fermi and Amaldi. By June 1941, he had a device that could differentiate
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The scientific work of Pontecorvo is full of formidable intuitions, some of which have represented milestones in modern physics. Much of this involved the neutrino, a
3549:"Confessions of an atom spy: Forty years after Bruno Pontecorvo, a British scientist, went to work for Moscow, he tells Charles Richards in Rome why he changed side"
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1235:(that was never built) was being designed, and he began considering experiments that could be performed with it. He contemplated a project investigating muons.
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By late 1941, Pontecorvo was having difficulty securing the radioisotopes that he needed. Unbeknown to him, the Manhattan Project, the wartime effort to build
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intending to study engineering, but after two years he decided to switch to physics in 1931. On the advice of his brother Guido, he decided to study at the
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In a 1959 paper, Pontecorvo listed 21 possible reactions involving neutrinos and noted that some of them could not occur unless the electron neutrino (
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As the Germans closed in on the city in May 1940, they decided to leave. Although the British offered refuge to French nuclear scientists, including
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in New York in April 1942. He was unable to secure the supplies he wanted, but Fermi showed an unexpected keen interest in the Wells Surveys work.
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the next day as an affirmation of his personal faith in the Soviet Union. Marianne rejoined him in Paris on 6 September 1939, three days after the
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with his wife and three sons without informing friends or relatives. On 2 September he was helped by Soviet agents to enter the Soviet Union from
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In 1934, Pontecorvo contributed to Fermi's famous experiment showing the properties of slow neutrons that led the way to the discovery of
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on a one-year scholarship to study the effects of collisions of neutrons with protons and on the electromagnetic transitions among
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of any other reactor, and was the most powerful research reactor in the world. He acquired the nickname "Ramon Novarro" after the
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In June 1939, Pontecorvo applied for a visa to visit Sweden, but his application was rejected. On 23 August came the news of the
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Mumm, A.M.; Pontecorvo, B. (1947). "Spatial Distribution of Neutrons in Hydrogenous Media containing Bismuth, Lead, and Iron".
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as a neutron moderator, but lacked the quantity of heavy water needed. In August 1943, Churchill and Roosevelt negotiated the
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Hincks, E. P.; Pontecorvo, Bruno (1 February 1948). "Search for Gamma-Radiation in the 2.2-Microsecond Meson Decay Process".
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Hincks, E. P.; Pontecorvo, Bruno (15 September 1948). "The Absorption of Charged Particles from the 2.2-Îźsec. Meson Decay".
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elementary particle physics", as acknowledged by the international scientific community. In 2006, Moscow historical society
1335:"for the discovery of neutrino oscillations, which shows that neutrinos have mass". Pontecorvo also predicted in 1958 that
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The idea was taken up again in the search for solar neutrinos. Theoretically, the Sun produced neutrinos in the course of
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In 1952, Pontecorvo's potential role in the transfer of nuclear secrets to Russia was discussed in American newspapers.
514:- on his mother's. His grandfather on the maternal side, Arrigo Maroni (1852â1924), born in Mantua, was director of the
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918:, where Skinner held the Lyon Jones chair of experimental physics. In June 1950, Pontecorvo was offered the position.
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Auger, P.; Mumm, A.M.; Pontecorvo, B. (1947). "The Transport Mean Free Path of Thermal Neutrons in Heavy Water".
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was not violated. Fermi named it the neutrino, Italian for "little neutral one", and in 1934, proposed his
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produces neutrinos that are not energetic enough to interact with chlorine. However, the much less common
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Jodcast Interview with Professor Frank Close on the life, research and disappearance of Bruno Pontecorvo
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pregnant. Marianne had a miscarriage, and was hardly fit to travel, but nonetheless boarded the liner
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3413:"Atomic Secrets and Governmental Lies: Nuclear Science, Politics and Security in the Pontecorvo case"
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2959:(1962). "Observation of high-energy neutrino reactions and the existence of two kinds of neutrinos".
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638:, Pontecorvo discovered what FrĂŠdĂŠric Joliot-Curie called "nuclear phosphorescence"; the emission of
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The fourth of eight children of a wealthy Jewish-Italian family, Pontecorvo studied physics at the
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Pontecorvo, B. (1941). "Neutron Well Logging â A New Geological Method Based on Nuclear Physics".
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noted that the blueprints of the Canadian NRX reactor had made their way to the Soviet Union, and
440:, but only between one third and one half of the predicted number were found. In response to this
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against Jews caused his family members to leave Italy for Britain, France and the United States.
1228:. For a time, scientists contemplated the awful possibility that the Sun might have burned out.
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Working in collaboration with the French physicist AndrĂŠ Lazard at Joliot-Curie's laboratory at
305:, whose leader were in Paris as refugees, and as did his sisters Giuliana and Laura and brother
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on 7 February 1948. He finally departed Chalk River for the United Kingdom on 24 January 1949.
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3187:[In Moscow there is an unofficial memorial plaque for Bruno Pontecorvo] (in Russian).
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Simone Turchetti. The Pontecorvo Affair: A Cold War Defection and Nuclear Physics (pp. 15â16)
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386:. He had proposed using chlorine to detect neutrinos. In a 1959 paper, he argued that the
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On 1 September 1950, in the middle of a holiday in Italy, Pontecorvo abruptly flew from
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1243:. The W boson would not be discovered until 1983, but a problem immediately surfaced.
281:. In 1934 he participated in Fermi's famous experiment showing the properties of slow
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Pontecorvo, Brunoi (1 August 1947). "Nuclear Capture of Mesons and the Meson Decay".
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had hypothesised that particles experience the weak interaction through exchanging
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Biography / Scientific Works / Popular Articles / About B. Pontecorvo / Photoalbum
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Adele Maroni (necrologio, L'universitĂ italiana rivista dell'istruzione superiore)
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Necrologio Arrigo Maroni (L'universitĂ italiana rivista dell'istruzione superiore)
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that started the Second World War in Europe. They were married on 9 January 1940.
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would produce intense bursts of neutrinos. Few scientists were more excited when
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to the Soviet Union in 1950, where he continued his research on the decay of the
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were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of the muon neutrino.
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on 12 October 1938. Pontecorvo was now unable to return to Italy because of the
522:; his mother's cousin was a notable zoologist Elisa Gurrieri-Norsa (1868-1939).
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The problem had already been solved by Pontecorvo in 1968. In 1959, a powerful
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suggested to Pontecorvo that he apply for a newly created professorship at the
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buildings at Chalk River in 1945. NRX was for a time the world's most powerful
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This prediction was recognised by the 2015 Nobel Prize in physics, awarded to
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Il lungo freddo: Storia di Bruno Pontecorvo, lo scienziato che scelse l'Urss
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Bombshell : the Secret Story of America's Unknown Atomic Spy Conspiracy
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would produce intense bursts of neutrinos, which was confirmed in 1987 when
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People associated with the nuclear weapons programme of the United Kingdom
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3384:; Sudoplatov, Anatoli; Schecter, Jerrold L.; Schecter, Leona P. (1995).
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KGB: The Inside Story of its Foreign Operations from Lenin to Gorbachev
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unveiled an artistic plaque celebrating Pontecorvo's Moscow house at 9
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719:. Their idea was to apply nuclear physics to searching for minerals. A
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3185:"Đ ĐĐžŃкво пОŃвиНаŃŃ Đ˝ĐľĐžŃиŃиаНŃĐ˝Đ°Ń ĐźĐľĐźĐžŃиаНŃĐ˝Đ°Ń Đ´ĐžŃка ĐŃŃнО ĐОнŃокОŃвО"
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Pontecorvo, Bruno (30 April 1938). "Isomeric Forms of Radio Rhodium".
1354:. In accordance with his wishes, half of his ashes were buried in the
1000:. He began a lifelong affair with Rodam Amiredzhibi, the wife of poet
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Special Tasks: the Memoirs of an Unwanted Witness, a Soviet Spymaster
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2462:"Pavel Sudoplatov, 89, Dies; Top Soviet Spy Who Accused Oppenheimer"
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Wellerstein, Alex (20 February 2015). "Physicist. Defector. Spy?".
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in 1930 in order to explain undetected energy that escaped during
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After his defection to the Soviet Union in 1950, he worked at the
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Half-Life: The Divided Life of Bruno Pontecorvo, Physicist or Spy
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Bogolyubov, N. N. (1964). "Lenin prize winner B. M. Pontecorv".
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The Pontecorvo Affair: a Cold War Defection and Nuclear Physics
2194:"Bruno Pontecorvo: From Rome To Dubna (personal recollections)"
289:. He moved to Paris in 1936, where he conducted research under
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position where he did not have access to Top Secret material.
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on the rocks. In Pontecorvo, they had the expert they needed.
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experiment in 1998 and later confirmed by other experiments.
355:, the first reactor outside of the United States, which went
3138:"ĐОнŃокОŃвО ĐŃŃнО ĐĐ°ĐşŃĐ¸ĐźĐžĐ˛Đ¸Ń (Bruno Pontecorvo)(1913â1993)"
1451:"Nazario Sauro Onofri. Ebrei e fascismo a Bologna (p. 127)"
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324:, Pontecorvo, his brother Gillo, cousin Emilio Sereni and
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2407:""Russia's Atomic Fist" - Pontecorvo, Russian Spy (1952)"
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detected antineutrinos in 1955, for which Reines won the
759:. He filed four patents relating to his instrumentation.
235:; 22 August 1913 â 24 September 1993) was an Italian and
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Mario Avagliano, Marco Palmieri. Di pura razza italiana
1134:(the bright object in the centre), as seen through the
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was born in 1919, and is best known as the director of
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Pontecorvo, B. (1960). "Electron and Muon Neutrinos".
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In February 1936, Pontecorvo left Italy and moved to
3736:
Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner of Labour
452:experiment in 1998. He also predicted in 1958 that
320:When the German Army closed in on Paris during the
195:
167:
157:
129:
111:
101:
93:
67:
42:
23:
3341:
1157:instead of neutrinos. In what is now known as the
3731:Recipients of the Order of the October Revolution
3691:Academic staff of the Sapienza University of Rome
905:In February 1950, Pontecorvo's Harwell colleague
3005:"Press Release: The 1988 Nobel Prize in Physics"
2487:
1683:"Guido Pontecorvo ("Ponte"): A Centenary Memoir"
674:British and French declaration of war on Germany
592:. During this period, influenced by his cousin,
3696:Full Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences
3047:Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics
2904:Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics
2511:
1141:Pontecorvo's 1945 paper credits the idea using
968:. He worked until his death in what is now the
3344:Atoms in the Family: My Life with Enrico Fermi
1041:that emits, with a 34 days half-life, after a
649:French National Centre for Scientific Research
8:
3701:Full Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
2783:"The Neutrino: From Poltergeist to Particle"
277:, under Fermi, becoming the youngest of his
3786:Nuclear weapons program of the Soviet Union
3716:Communist Party of the Soviet Union members
2689:(12). Wilson, Fred L. (trans.): 1150â1160.
2187:
2185:
2183:
2181:
2179:
2177:
3421:British Journal for the History of Science
731:Pontecorvo created a neutron source using
564:. A US patent was granted on 2 July 1940.
31:
20:
2571:
2547:
2381:
2354:
2330:
2318:
1910:
1744:
1706:
1536:
1037:nucleus could transform it into unstable
599:Marianne moved in with Pontecorvo at the
477:Pontecorvo was born on 22 August 1913 in
3811:Burials in the Protestant Cemetery, Rome
3537:1950s news of Pontecorvo's disappearance
3468:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
3348:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
3580:
1375:
986:Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union
739:, as the Via Panisperna boys had, with
2192:Fidecaro, Giuseppe (4 December 1996).
1997:
1961:
270:was instituted in his memory in 1995.
246:and the author of numerous studies in
122:PontecorvoâMakiâNakagawaâSakata matrix
3766:Italian defectors to the Soviet Union
3761:British defectors to the Soviet Union
3124:
3112:
3078:
3025:
2931:
2889:
2877:
2865:
2839:"A Half-Century with Solar Neutrinos"
2821:
2809:
2781:Reines, Frederick (8 December 1995).
2768:
2734:
2722:
2662:
2650:
2638:
2626:
2559:
2535:
2523:
2393:
2369:
2342:
2057:
2045:
2033:
2021:
2009:
1985:
1973:
1949:
1879:
1864:
1852:
1840:
1828:
1813:
1801:
1729:
1668:
1653:
1641:
1629:
1617:
1605:
1590:
1572:
1560:
1548:
1481:
1404:
482:
363:reactor in 1947. He also looked into
285:that led the way to the discovery of
218:
16:Italian nuclear physicist (1913â1993)
7:
3366:Britain and Atomic Energy, 1935â1945
2432:de Lisle, Leanda (30 January 2001).
1343:was detected by neutrino detectors.
1184:for this idea. The most common, the
970:Joint Institute for Nuclear Research
851:Atomic Energy Research Establishment
444:, he proposed a phenomenon known as
380:Joint Institute for Nuclear Research
373:Atomic Energy Research Establishment
190:Joint Institute for Nuclear Research
186:Atomic Energy Research Establishment
97:Italy, Britain, Soviet Union, Russia
3796:People who lost British citizenship
3547:Richards, Charles (2 August 1992).
3411:Turchetti, Simone (December 2003).
3284:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
3160:"The centenary of Bruno Pontecorvo"
3007:. Nobel Foundation. 19 October 1988
1350:on 24 September 1993, afflicted by
982:Communist Party of the Soviet Union
336:in Canada. This became part of the
3711:Sapienza University of Rome alumni
2947:; Gaillard, J. M.; Goulianos, K.;
2460:Stout, David (28 September 1996).
266:and on neutrinos. The prestigious
14:
3092:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 2015"
2844:. Nobel Lecture. Nobel Foundation
1913:, p. 394. The patents were:
1575:, p. 251. The US patent was
492:, who was born in 1907, became a
348:, he worked on the design of the
3726:Recipients of the Order of Lenin
3643:
3631:
3619:
3607:
3595:
3583:
3368:. London: Macmillan Publishing.
1220:detected solar neutrinos in the
1159:CowanâReines neutrino experiment
1049:allowing its direct detection:
1016:first proposed theoretically by
3681:20th-century Italian physicists
1308:Pontecorvo's gravestone at the
1180:reactions. Pontecorvo credited
885:Federal Bureau of Investigation
3741:Recipients of the Stalin Prize
3706:Members of the Lincean Academy
3565:The Papers of Bruno Pontecorvo
2677:"Fermi's Theory of Beta Decay"
647:funding for his work from the
510:on his father's side and from
229:ĐŃŃĚнО ĐĐ°ĐşŃиĚĐźĐžĐ˛Đ¸Ń ĐОнŃокОĚŃвО
106:University of Rome La Sapienza
1:
3721:Recipients of the Lenin Prize
1394:Miriam Mafai. Il lungo freddo
576:to work in the laboratory of
3040:"Mesonium and anti-mesonium"
2488:Andrew & Gordievsky 1990
2372:, pp. 148â154, 197â199.
2277:Canadian Journal of Research
2224:Canadian Journal of Research
1186:protonâproton chain reaction
996:in 1964 for his work on the
947:officer ever to defect, and
432:) were different particles.
297:. Influenced by his cousin,
233:Bruno Maksimovich Pontecorvo
3254:. New York: HarperCollins.
3248:; Gordievsky, Oleg (1990).
2682:American Journal of Physics
2512:Albright & Kunstel 1997
1699:10.1093/genetics/177.3.1439
1310:Cimitero Acattolico of Rome
980:in 1953, membership in the
275:Sapienza University of Rome
3827:
3801:Russian nuclear physicists
3776:Italian nuclear physicists
3502:(in Italian). Milan: Bur.
3464:Turchetti, Simone (2012).
3216:; Kunstel, Marcia (1997).
2413:. 1 August 1952. p. 1
1149:) to the French physicist
676:in response to the German
3806:Soviet nuclear physicists
3781:Jewish Italian scientists
3676:20th-century Italian Jews
3569:Churchill Archives Centre
3434:10.1017/S0007087403005120
3388:. Boston: Little, Brown.
3314:. New York: Basic Books.
3222:. New York: Times Books.
3053:: 429â431. Archived from
1270:) and the muon neutrino (
1212:does. In the late 1960s,
516:Fatebenefratelli Hospital
359:in 1945, followed by the
228:
205:
150:
30:
3746:Manhattan Project people
3533:(in English and Russian)
2983:10.1103/PhysRevLett.9.36
2490:, pp. 317â318, 379.
473:Early life and education
346:Chalk River Laboratories
242:, an early assistant of
182:Chalk River Laboratories
3038:Pontecorvo, B. (1957).
2962:Physical Review Letters
1516:10.1126/science.aaa3654
916:University of Liverpool
711:Prospecting in Oklahoma
666:MolotovâRibbentrop Pact
601:HĂ´tel des Grands Hommes
540:, which means "puppy".
303:Italian Communist Party
3498:Mafai, Miriam (2012).
3246:Andrew, Christopher M.
3140:. ĐĐžĐłĐ¸ĐťŃ ĐˇĐ˝Đ°ĐźĐľĐ˝Đ¸ŃĐžŃŃоК
2500:Sudoplatov et al. 1995
2168:10.1103/PhysRev.74.697
2131:10.1103/PhysRev.73.257
2094:10.1103/PhysRev.72.246
1312:
1226:solar neutrino problem
1171:Nobel Prize in Physics
1138:
1136:Hubble Space Telescope
1026:conservation of energy
943:, the highest-ranking
815:
726:inducing radioactivity
670:French Communist Party
442:solar neutrino problem
2434:"Pinkos and patriots"
1934:U.S. patent 2,349,753
1928:U.S. patent 2,398,324
1922:U.S. patent 2,508,772
1916:U.S. patent 2,353,619
1681:Cohen, B. L. (2007).
1578:U.S. patent 2,206,634
1307:
1130:
992:. He was awarded the
843:Northwest Territories
802:
582:FrĂŠdĂŠric Joliot-Curie
503:The Battle of Algiers
436:were detected by the
340:to develop the first
295:FrĂŠdĂŠric Joliot-Curie
220:[ponteËkÉrvo]
2586:Soviet Atomic Energy
1407:, pp. 3â7, 197.
1318:neutrino oscillation
1222:Homestake Experiment
1143:carbon tetrachloride
1045:reaction, a 2.8 keV
1030:theory of beta decay
488:. His older brother
446:neutrino oscillation
438:Homestake experiment
117:Neutrino oscillation
3756:Particle physicists
3529:12 May 2017 at the
3127:, pp. 290â292.
3081:, pp. 123â128.
3060:on 29 November 2020
3028:, pp. 268â270.
2975:1962PhRvL...9...36D
2892:, pp. 258â259.
2837:(8 December 2002).
2798:Nobel Prize lecture
2695:1968AmJPh..36.1150W
2653:, pp. 285â289.
2641:, pp. 243â246.
2629:, pp. 277â278.
2562:, pp. 301â302.
2550:, pp. 412â413.
2411:The Courier-Gazette
2396:, pp. 176â179.
2384:, pp. 403â404.
2345:, pp. 117â124.
2321:, pp. 396â398.
2290:1947CJRes..25A.157M
2237:1947CJRes..25A.143A
2160:1948PhRv...74..697H
2123:1948PhRv...73..257H
2086:1947PhRv...72..246P
2060:, pp. 109â113.
2000:, pp. 168â173.
1894:Oil and Gas Journal
1773:1938Natur.141..785P
1539:, pp. 392â393.
1508:2015Sci...347..833W
1356:Protestant Cemetery
1352:Parkinson's disease
1346:Pontecorvo died in
1024:so that the law of
531:University of Rome
334:Montreal Laboratory
279:Via Panisperna boys
248:high energy physics
178:Montreal Laboratory
3638:Nuclear technology
3189:Regnum news agency
3094:. Nobel Foundation
2788:. Nobel Foundation
2675:Fermi, E. (1968).
2598:10.1007/BF01121887
2467:The New York Times
2298:10.1139/cjr47a-017
2245:10.1139/cjr47a-016
2201:UniversitĂ di Pisa
1333:Arthur B. McDonald
1313:
1139:
1014:subatomic particle
859:actor of that name
816:
678:invasion of Poland
660:Escape from France
642:when neutrons and
527:University of Pisa
462:neutrino detectors
37:Pontecorvo in 1955
3509:978-88-586-3839-2
3475:978-0-226-81664-7
3382:Sudoplatov, Pavel
3321:978-0-465-06998-9
3291:978-0-19-969599-7
3229:978-0-8129-2861-7
2951:; Mistry, N. B.;
2868:, pp. 84â85.
2737:, pp. 34â35.
2725:, pp. 22â25.
2703:10.1119/1.1974382
2665:, pp. 15â18.
2012:, pp. 95â96.
1952:, pp. 82â85.
1882:, pp. 70â75.
1843:, pp. 62â63.
1831:, pp. 54â59.
1804:, pp. 46â50.
1767:(3574): 785â786.
1644:, pp. 38â41.
1620:, pp. 33â35.
1608:, pp. 36â38.
1593:, pp. 30â33.
1563:, pp. 22â24.
1551:, pp. 16â19.
1341:Supernova SN1987A
1192:is fused to form
1132:Supernova SN1987A
988:in 1958, and two
606:Place du PanthĂŠon
586:Collège de France
525:He enterered the
458:Supernova SN1987A
388:electron neutrino
338:Manhattan Project
240:nuclear physicist
209:
208:
196:Academic advisors
172:Collège de France
152:Scientific career
71:24 September 1993
3818:
3686:People from Pisa
3648:
3647:
3636:
3635:
3634:
3624:
3623:
3622:
3612:
3611:
3610:
3600:
3599:
3598:
3588:
3587:
3586:
3579:
3556:
3513:
3487:
3460:
3458:
3456:
3417:
3407:
3377:
3362:Gowing, Margaret
3357:
3347:
3333:
3303:
3273:
3241:
3214:Albright, Joseph
3201:
3200:
3198:
3196:
3181:
3175:
3174:
3172:
3170:
3156:
3150:
3149:
3147:
3145:
3134:
3128:
3122:
3116:
3110:
3104:
3103:
3101:
3099:
3088:
3082:
3076:
3070:
3069:
3067:
3065:
3059:
3044:
3035:
3029:
3023:
3017:
3016:
3014:
3012:
3001:
2995:
2994:
2941:
2935:
2929:
2920:
2919:
2899:
2893:
2887:
2881:
2875:
2869:
2863:
2854:
2853:
2851:
2849:
2843:
2831:
2825:
2819:
2813:
2807:
2801:
2800:
2795:
2793:
2787:
2778:
2772:
2766:
2760:
2759:
2755:
2749:
2748:
2744:
2738:
2732:
2726:
2720:
2714:
2713:
2711:
2709:
2672:
2666:
2660:
2654:
2648:
2642:
2636:
2630:
2624:
2618:
2617:
2581:
2575:
2569:
2563:
2557:
2551:
2545:
2539:
2533:
2527:
2521:
2515:
2509:
2503:
2497:
2491:
2485:
2479:
2478:
2476:
2474:
2457:
2451:
2450:
2448:
2446:
2429:
2423:
2422:
2420:
2418:
2403:
2397:
2391:
2385:
2379:
2373:
2367:
2358:
2352:
2346:
2340:
2334:
2328:
2322:
2316:
2310:
2309:
2271:
2265:
2264:
2218:
2212:
2211:
2209:
2207:
2198:
2189:
2172:
2171:
2141:
2135:
2134:
2104:
2098:
2097:
2067:
2061:
2055:
2049:
2043:
2037:
2031:
2025:
2019:
2013:
2007:
2001:
1995:
1989:
1983:
1977:
1971:
1965:
1959:
1953:
1947:
1938:
1936:
1930:
1924:
1918:
1908:
1902:
1901:
1889:
1883:
1877:
1868:
1862:
1856:
1850:
1844:
1838:
1832:
1826:
1817:
1811:
1805:
1799:
1793:
1792:
1781:10.1038/141785b0
1754:
1748:
1742:
1733:
1727:
1721:
1720:
1710:
1693:(3): 1439â1444.
1678:
1672:
1666:
1657:
1651:
1645:
1639:
1633:
1627:
1621:
1615:
1609:
1603:
1594:
1588:
1582:
1580:
1570:
1564:
1558:
1552:
1546:
1540:
1534:
1528:
1527:
1491:
1485:
1479:
1473:
1472:
1470:
1468:
1463:on 29 March 2024
1462:
1456:. Archived from
1455:
1447:
1441:
1436:
1430:
1425:
1419:
1414:
1408:
1402:
1396:
1391:
1385:
1380:
1365:Tverskaya Street
1322:Super-Kamiokande
1295:Leon M. Lederman
1291:Jack Steinberger
1288:
1287:
1286:
1278:
1277:
1269:
1268:
1267:
1259:
1258:
1237:Julian Schwinger
1163:Frederick Reines
1123:
1122:
1121:
1114:
1113:
1105:
1104:
1103:
1096:
1095:
1087:
1086:
1085:
1078:
1077:
1069:
1068:
1067:
1060:
1059:
998:weak interaction
984:in 1955 and the
949:Pavel Sudoplatov
901:Washington, D.C.
891:in Britain, and
831:communist leader
812:research reactor
794:Quebec Agreement
668:. He joined the
655:Second World War
487:
460:was detected by
450:Super-Kamiokande
431:
430:
429:
421:
420:
408:
407:
406:
398:
397:
322:Second World War
315:1938 racial laws
301:, he joined the
268:Pontecorvo Prize
250:, especially on
230:
222:
217:
212:Bruno Pontecorvo
144:Marco Pontecorvo
139:Guido Pontecorvo
134:Gillo Pontecorvo
74:
52:
50:
35:
25:Bruno Pontecorvo
21:
3826:
3825:
3821:
3820:
3819:
3817:
3816:
3815:
3751:Nuclear secrecy
3656:
3655:
3654:
3642:
3632:
3630:
3620:
3618:
3608:
3606:
3596:
3594:
3584:
3582:
3574:
3553:The Independent
3546:
3531:Wayback Machine
3520:
3510:
3497:
3494:
3492:Further reading
3476:
3463:
3454:
3452:
3415:
3410:
3396:
3380:
3360:
3336:
3322:
3306:
3292:
3276:
3262:
3244:
3230:
3212:
3209:
3204:
3194:
3192:
3183:
3182:
3178:
3168:
3166:
3158:
3157:
3153:
3143:
3141:
3136:
3135:
3131:
3123:
3119:
3111:
3107:
3097:
3095:
3090:
3089:
3085:
3077:
3073:
3063:
3061:
3057:
3042:
3037:
3036:
3032:
3024:
3020:
3010:
3008:
3003:
3002:
2998:
2957:Steinberger, J.
2949:Lederman, L. M.
2943:
2942:
2938:
2930:
2923:
2901:
2900:
2896:
2888:
2884:
2876:
2872:
2864:
2857:
2847:
2845:
2841:
2833:
2832:
2828:
2820:
2816:
2808:
2804:
2791:
2789:
2785:
2780:
2779:
2775:
2767:
2763:
2757:
2756:
2752:
2746:
2745:
2741:
2733:
2729:
2721:
2717:
2707:
2705:
2674:
2673:
2669:
2661:
2657:
2649:
2645:
2637:
2633:
2625:
2621:
2583:
2582:
2578:
2570:
2566:
2558:
2554:
2546:
2542:
2534:
2530:
2522:
2518:
2510:
2506:
2498:
2494:
2486:
2482:
2472:
2470:
2459:
2458:
2454:
2444:
2442:
2431:
2430:
2426:
2416:
2414:
2405:
2404:
2400:
2392:
2388:
2380:
2376:
2368:
2361:
2353:
2349:
2341:
2337:
2329:
2325:
2317:
2313:
2273:
2272:
2268:
2220:
2219:
2215:
2205:
2203:
2196:
2191:
2190:
2175:
2147:Physical Review
2143:
2142:
2138:
2110:Physical Review
2106:
2105:
2101:
2073:Physical Review
2069:
2068:
2064:
2056:
2052:
2044:
2040:
2032:
2028:
2020:
2016:
2008:
2004:
1996:
1992:
1984:
1980:
1972:
1968:
1960:
1956:
1948:
1941:
1932:
1926:
1920:
1914:
1909:
1905:
1891:
1890:
1886:
1878:
1871:
1863:
1859:
1851:
1847:
1839:
1835:
1827:
1820:
1812:
1808:
1800:
1796:
1756:
1755:
1751:
1743:
1736:
1728:
1724:
1680:
1679:
1675:
1667:
1660:
1652:
1648:
1640:
1636:
1628:
1624:
1616:
1612:
1604:
1597:
1589:
1585:
1576:
1571:
1567:
1559:
1555:
1547:
1543:
1535:
1531:
1493:
1492:
1488:
1484:, pp. 7â8.
1480:
1476:
1466:
1464:
1460:
1453:
1449:
1448:
1444:
1437:
1433:
1426:
1422:
1415:
1411:
1403:
1399:
1392:
1388:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1299:Melvin Schwartz
1285:
1282:
1281:
1280:
1276:
1274:
1273:
1272:
1271:
1266:
1263:
1262:
1261:
1257:
1255:
1254:
1253:
1252:
1245:Gerald Feinberg
1218:John N. Bahcall
1148:
1120:
1118:
1117:
1116:
1112:
1110:
1109:
1108:
1107:
1102:
1100:
1099:
1098:
1094:
1092:
1091:
1090:
1089:
1084:
1082:
1081:
1080:
1076:
1074:
1073:
1072:
1071:
1066:
1064:
1063:
1062:
1058:
1056:
1055:
1054:
1053:
1010:
1002:Mikhail Svetlov
990:Orders of Lenin
941:Oleg Gordievsky
912:Herbert Skinner
872:
864:British subject
786:nuclear reactor
781:Edward Appleton
776:
713:
685:Hans von Halban
662:
657:
570:
545:nuclear fission
475:
470:
434:Solar neutrinos
428:
425:
424:
423:
419:
417:
416:
415:
414:
405:
402:
401:
400:
396:
394:
393:
392:
391:
367:, the decay of
350:nuclear reactor
287:nuclear fission
215:
188:
184:
180:
176:
174:
162:Nuclear physics
142:
137:
125:
119:
102:Alma mater
89:
76:
72:
63:
54:
48:
46:
38:
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3824:
3822:
3814:
3813:
3808:
3803:
3798:
3793:
3788:
3783:
3778:
3773:
3771:Italian exiles
3768:
3763:
3758:
3753:
3748:
3743:
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3733:
3728:
3723:
3718:
3713:
3708:
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3628:
3616:
3604:
3592:
3572:
3571:
3562:
3557:
3544:
3534:
3519:
3518:External links
3516:
3515:
3514:
3508:
3493:
3490:
3489:
3488:
3474:
3461:
3428:(4): 389â415.
3408:
3394:
3378:
3358:
3334:
3320:
3304:
3290:
3274:
3260:
3242:
3228:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3202:
3191:. 14 June 2006
3176:
3151:
3129:
3117:
3115:, p. 271.
3105:
3083:
3071:
3030:
3018:
2996:
2936:
2934:, p. 259.
2921:
2894:
2882:
2870:
2855:
2826:
2814:
2812:, p. 108.
2802:
2773:
2771:, p. 107.
2761:
2750:
2739:
2727:
2715:
2667:
2655:
2643:
2631:
2619:
2592:(5): 457â458.
2576:
2574:, p. 180.
2572:Turchetti 2012
2564:
2552:
2548:Turchetti 2003
2540:
2538:, p. 310.
2528:
2526:, p. 286.
2516:
2514:, p. 276.
2504:
2492:
2480:
2452:
2424:
2398:
2386:
2382:Turchetti 2003
2374:
2359:
2357:, p. 402.
2355:Turchetti 2003
2347:
2335:
2333:, p. 393.
2331:Turchetti 2003
2323:
2319:Turchetti 2003
2311:
2284:(3): 157â167.
2266:
2231:(3): 143â156.
2213:
2173:
2154:(6): 697â698.
2136:
2117:(3): 257â258.
2099:
2080:(3): 246â247.
2062:
2050:
2048:, p. 103.
2038:
2036:, p. 123.
2026:
2014:
2002:
1990:
1978:
1966:
1964:, p. 191.
1954:
1939:
1911:Turchetti 2003
1903:
1884:
1869:
1857:
1855:, p. 254.
1845:
1833:
1818:
1806:
1794:
1749:
1745:Turchetti 2012
1734:
1722:
1673:
1658:
1646:
1634:
1632:, p. 196.
1622:
1610:
1595:
1583:
1565:
1553:
1541:
1537:Turchetti 2003
1529:
1486:
1474:
1442:
1431:
1420:
1409:
1397:
1386:
1374:
1372:
1369:
1329:Takaaki Kajita
1283:
1275:
1264:
1256:
1200:that produces
1178:nuclear fusion
1146:
1125:
1124:
1119:
1111:
1101:
1093:
1083:
1075:
1065:
1057:
1047:Auger electron
1018:Wolfgang Pauli
1009:
1006:
871:
868:
819:John Cockcroft
775:
772:
768:George Placzek
712:
709:
697:Salvador Luria
661:
658:
656:
653:
636:Ivry-sur-Seine
612:Manne Siegbahn
569:
566:
558:Franco Rasetti
554:Edoardo Amaldi
479:Marina di Pisa
474:
471:
469:
466:
426:
418:
403:
395:
326:Salvador Luria
309:. The Italian
254:. A convinced
207:
206:
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202:
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193:
192:
169:
165:
164:
159:
155:
154:
148:
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127:
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115:
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112:Known for
109:
108:
103:
99:
98:
95:
91:
90:
77:
75:(aged 80)
69:
65:
64:
57:Marina di Pisa
55:
53:22 August 1913
44:
40:
39:
36:
28:
27:
24:
15:
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10:
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3:
2:
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3261:0-06-016605-3
3257:
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2917:
2913:
2910:: 1236â1240.
2909:
2905:
2898:
2895:
2891:
2886:
2883:
2880:, p. 44.
2879:
2874:
2871:
2867:
2862:
2860:
2856:
2840:
2836:
2830:
2827:
2824:, p. 61.
2823:
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2806:
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2250:
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2202:
2195:
2188:
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2174:
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2140:
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2100:
2095:
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2066:
2063:
2059:
2054:
2051:
2047:
2042:
2039:
2035:
2030:
2027:
2024:, p. 99.
2023:
2018:
2015:
2011:
2006:
2003:
1999:
1994:
1991:
1988:, p. 85.
1987:
1982:
1979:
1976:, p. 89.
1975:
1970:
1967:
1963:
1958:
1955:
1951:
1946:
1944:
1940:
1935:
1929:
1923:
1917:
1912:
1907:
1904:
1899:
1895:
1888:
1885:
1881:
1876:
1874:
1870:
1867:, p. 71.
1866:
1861:
1858:
1854:
1849:
1846:
1842:
1837:
1834:
1830:
1825:
1823:
1819:
1816:, p. 52.
1815:
1810:
1807:
1803:
1798:
1795:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1761:
1753:
1750:
1747:, p. 34.
1746:
1741:
1739:
1735:
1732:, p. 42.
1731:
1726:
1723:
1718:
1714:
1709:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1677:
1674:
1670:
1665:
1663:
1659:
1656:, p. 29.
1655:
1650:
1647:
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1638:
1635:
1631:
1626:
1623:
1619:
1614:
1611:
1607:
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1596:
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1587:
1584:
1579:
1574:
1569:
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1557:
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1550:
1545:
1542:
1538:
1533:
1530:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1502:(6224): 833.
1501:
1497:
1490:
1487:
1483:
1478:
1475:
1459:
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1443:
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1234:
1229:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1182:Maurice Pryce
1179:
1174:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1155:antineutrinos
1152:
1144:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1052:
1051:
1050:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1007:
1005:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
962:
958:
954:
950:
946:
942:
939:According to
937:
934:
932:
928:
924:
919:
917:
913:
908:
903:
902:
898:
894:
890:
886:
881:
877:
869:
867:
865:
860:
856:
852:
846:
844:
840:
836:
832:
829:
825:
824:Alan Nunn May
820:
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
795:
791:
787:
782:
773:
771:
769:
765:
760:
758:
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746:
742:
738:
734:
729:
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671:
667:
659:
654:
652:
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645:
641:
637:
632:
629:
625:
621:
617:
614:and met with
613:
608:
607:
602:
597:
595:
594:Emilio Sereni
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
567:
565:
563:
559:
555:
550:
549:slow neutrons
546:
541:
539:
535:
534:
528:
523:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
504:
499:
495:
491:
485:
480:
472:
467:
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459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
435:
412:
411:muon neutrino
389:
385:
381:
376:
374:
370:
366:
362:
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354:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
318:
316:
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308:
304:
300:
299:Emilio Sereni
296:
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288:
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132:
128:
124:
123:
118:
114:
110:
107:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
83:Moscow Oblast
80:
70:
66:
62:
58:
45:
41:
34:
29:
22:
19:
3552:
3499:
3465:
3453:. Retrieved
3425:
3419:
3385:
3365:
3343:
3338:Fermi, Laura
3311:
3308:Close, Frank
3281:
3278:Close, Frank
3250:
3218:
3193:. Retrieved
3179:
3167:. Retrieved
3154:
3142:. Retrieved
3132:
3120:
3108:
3096:. Retrieved
3086:
3074:
3062:. Retrieved
3055:the original
3050:
3046:
3033:
3021:
3009:. Retrieved
2999:
2969:(1): 36â44.
2966:
2960:
2953:Schwartz, M.
2939:
2907:
2903:
2897:
2885:
2873:
2846:. Retrieved
2829:
2817:
2805:
2797:
2790:. Retrieved
2776:
2764:
2753:
2742:
2730:
2718:
2706:. Retrieved
2686:
2680:
2670:
2658:
2646:
2634:
2622:
2589:
2585:
2579:
2567:
2555:
2543:
2531:
2519:
2507:
2502:, p. 3.
2495:
2483:
2471:. Retrieved
2465:
2455:
2443:. Retrieved
2439:The Guardian
2437:
2427:
2417:23 September
2415:. Retrieved
2410:
2401:
2389:
2377:
2350:
2338:
2326:
2314:
2281:
2275:
2269:
2228:
2222:
2216:
2204:. Retrieved
2151:
2145:
2139:
2114:
2108:
2102:
2077:
2071:
2065:
2053:
2041:
2029:
2017:
2005:
1993:
1981:
1969:
1957:
1906:
1897:
1893:
1887:
1860:
1848:
1836:
1809:
1797:
1764:
1758:
1752:
1725:
1690:
1686:
1676:
1671:, p. 6.
1649:
1637:
1625:
1613:
1586:
1568:
1556:
1544:
1532:
1499:
1495:
1489:
1477:
1465:. Retrieved
1458:the original
1445:
1434:
1423:
1412:
1400:
1389:
1378:
1345:
1326:
1314:
1250:
1230:
1175:
1151:Jules GuĂŠron
1140:
1011:
978:Stalin Prize
966:nomenklatura
938:
935:
920:
904:
873:
855:neutron flux
847:
817:
777:
764:atomic bombs
761:
757:well logging
741:paraffin wax
730:
717:Standard Oil
714:
701:
693:
689:Lew Kowarski
682:
663:
633:
620:Lise Meitner
604:
600:
598:
571:
568:Early career
562:Emilio Segrè
542:
537:
532:
524:
501:
486: Maroni
476:
377:
375:at Harwell.
342:atomic bombs
332:team at the
319:
272:
244:Enrico Fermi
232:
211:
210:
200:Enrico Fermi
175:Well Surveys
168:Institutions
151:
120:
73:(1993-09-24)
18:
3671:1993 deaths
3666:1913 births
2792:20 February
1998:Gowing 1964
1962:Gowing 1964
1361:Moskultprog
1233:accelerator
1167:Clyde Cowan
994:Lenin Prize
957:Frank Close
907:Klaus Fuchs
839:Port Radium
835:cosmic rays
828:Yugoslavian
790:heavy water
774:Tube Alloys
628:racial laws
533:La Sapienza
365:cosmic rays
330:Tube Alloys
94:Citizenship
3660:Categories
3207:References
3125:Close 2015
3113:Close 2015
3079:Close 2015
3026:Close 2015
2932:Close 2015
2890:Close 2015
2878:Close 2010
2866:Close 2010
2835:Davis, Ray
2822:Close 2010
2810:Close 2015
2769:Close 2015
2735:Close 2010
2723:Close 2010
2708:20 January
2663:Close 2010
2651:Close 2015
2639:Close 2015
2627:Close 2015
2560:Close 2015
2536:Close 2015
2524:Close 2015
2394:Close 2015
2370:Close 2015
2343:Close 2015
2058:Close 2015
2046:Close 2015
2034:Close 2015
2022:Close 2015
2010:Close 2015
1986:Close 2015
1974:Close 2015
1950:Close 2015
1880:Close 2015
1865:Close 2015
1853:Fermi 1954
1841:Close 2015
1829:Close 2015
1814:Close 2015
1802:Close 2015
1730:Close 2015
1669:Close 2015
1654:Close 2015
1642:Close 2015
1630:Close 2015
1618:Close 2015
1606:Close 2015
1591:Close 2015
1573:Fermi 1954
1561:Close 2015
1549:Close 2015
1482:Close 2015
1405:Close 2015
1337:supernovae
1022:beta decay
1008:Later life
972:(JINR) in
961:Lona Cohen
897:Kim Philby
616:Niels Bohr
494:geneticist
454:supernovae
409:) and the
382:(JINR) in
49:1913-08-22
3602:Communism
3590:Biography
3539:from the
3484:711050900
3450:145681155
3330:897001600
3300:756279007
2991:120314867
2945:Danby, G.
2916:0044-4510
2606:1573-8205
2306:0366-7383
2253:0366-7383
1214:Ray Davis
1198:CNO cycle
1188:in which
1173:in 1995.
1043:K-capture
927:Stockholm
870:Defection
753:sandstone
749:limestone
737:beryllium
721:gamma ray
626:regime's
468:Biography
313:regime's
256:communist
252:neutrinos
141:(brother)
136:(brother)
130:Relatives
3567:held at
3527:Archived
3404:30325282
3364:(1964).
3340:(1954).
3310:(2015).
3282:Neutrino
3280:(2010).
3270:22579547
3238:38126209
3195:15 April
3169:15 April
3144:15 April
3098:15 April
3064:15 April
3011:15 April
2848:15 April
2614:98560164
2473:22 March
2445:22 March
2261:20251356
2206:15 April
1900:: 32â33.
1717:18039877
1687:Genetics
1524:51608789
1467:13 March
1241:W bosons
1206:nitrogen
1190:hydrogen
1039:argon-37
1035:chlorine
953:Ted Hall
538:Cucciolo
357:critical
283:neutrons
260:defected
216:Italian:
146:(nephew)
3650:Physics
3576:Portals
3543:archive
3455:9 April
3442:4028213
3374:3195209
2971:Bibcode
2691:Bibcode
2286:Bibcode
2233:Bibcode
2156:Bibcode
2119:Bibcode
2082:Bibcode
1789:4115586
1769:Bibcode
1708:2147990
1504:Bibcode
1496:Science
931:Finland
880:fissile
876:Harwell
841:in the
644:protons
624:Fascist
603:on the
590:isomers
584:at the
311:Fascist
225:Russian
3614:France
3506:
3482:
3472:
3448:
3440:
3402:
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3354:537507
3352:
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2612:
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1760:Nature
1715:
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1522:
1284:μ
1279:ν
1260:ν
1210:oxygen
1202:carbon
1194:helium
1061:ν
788:using
733:radium
703:Quanza
640:X-rays
512:Mantua
427:μ
422:ν
399:ν
237:Soviet
158:Fields
87:Russia
3626:Italy
3446:S2CID
3438:JSTOR
3416:(PDF)
3058:(PDF)
3043:(PDF)
2987:S2CID
2842:(PDF)
2786:(PDF)
2610:S2CID
2197:(PDF)
1785:S2CID
1520:S2CID
1461:(PDF)
1454:(PDF)
1371:Notes
1348:Dubna
974:Dubna
745:shale
578:Irène
574:Paris
520:Milan
498:Gillo
490:Guido
384:Dubna
369:muons
344:. At
307:Gillo
291:Irène
258:, he
79:Dubna
61:Italy
3504:ISBN
3480:OCLC
3470:ISBN
3457:2016
3400:OCLC
3390:ISBN
3370:OCLC
3350:OCLC
3326:OCLC
3316:ISBN
3296:OCLC
3286:ISBN
3266:OCLC
3256:ISBN
3234:OCLC
3224:ISBN
3197:2016
3171:2016
3164:CERN
3146:2016
3100:2016
3066:2016
3013:2016
2912:ISSN
2850:2016
2794:2015
2710:2013
2602:ISSN
2475:2011
2447:2011
2419:2017
2302:ISSN
2257:PMID
2249:ISSN
2208:2016
1931:and
1713:PMID
1469:2020
1331:and
1297:and
1216:and
1208:and
1165:and
1145:(CCl
923:Rome
808:ZEEP
806:and
751:and
735:and
687:and
618:and
580:and
560:and
508:Rome
353:ZEEP
293:and
264:muon
68:Died
43:Born
3541:BBC
3430:doi
2979:doi
2699:doi
2594:doi
2294:doi
2282:25a
2241:doi
2229:25a
2164:doi
2127:doi
2090:doi
1777:doi
1765:141
1703:PMC
1695:doi
1691:177
1512:doi
1500:347
945:KGB
925:to
899:in
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893:MI6
889:MI5
874:At
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518:in
484:nĂŠe
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