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turbulent vortices became trapped between the denticles, creating a ‘cushion like’ barrier against the laminar flow. This same type of experiment was performed by another research group which implemented more variation in their biomimetic sample. The second group arrived at the same conclusion as the first. However, because their experiment contained more variation within the samples they were able to achieve a high degree of experimental accuracy. In conclusion, they stated that more practical shapes were more durable than ones with intricate ridge-lines. The practical shapes were low profile and contained trapezoidal or semi-circular trough-like cross sections, and were less effective but nonetheless reduced drag by 6 or 7%.
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pushes the vortex further up from the surface, interacting only with the riblet tips, not causing any high-velocity flow in the valleys. Since this high-velocity flow now only interacts with the riblet-tip, which is a very small surface area, the momentum transfer which causes drag is now much lower than before, thereby effectively reducing drag. Also, this reduces the cross-stream velocity fluctuations, which aids in momentum transfer too.
1383:, which lives in shallower water, the mirrors must reflect a mixture of wavelengths, and the fish accordingly has crystal stacks with a range of different spacings. A further complication for fish with bodies that are rounded in cross-section is that the mirrors would be ineffective if laid flat on the skin, as they would fail to reflect horizontally. The overall mirror effect is achieved with many small reflectors, all oriented vertically.
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567:. (a) shows the outer surface of four of the scales, and (b) shows the inner surface of two of the scales. Each of the rhomboidal-shaped ganoid scales of Amblypterus has a ridge on the inner surface which is produced at one end into a projecting peg which fits into a notch in the next scale, similar to the manner in which tiles are pegged together on the roof of a house.
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572:
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2491:, a fish is kosher if the scales can be removed without tearing its skin. Thus carp and salmon are kosher, whereas a shark, whose scales are microscopic, a sturgeon, whose scutes can not be easily removed without cutting them out of the body, are all not kosher. Other non-kosher fish include catfish, eels,
1925:
are composed of mineralized and non-mineralized collagen in different regions. The formation of these occurs through the entry of the surface cells of the mesenchyme into the matrix, the latter is composed of collagen fibers and is located around the vascular capillaries, thus giving rise to vascular
1788:
are similar to scales and serve the same function. Unlike the scales of fish, which are formed from the epidermis, scutes are formed in the lower vascular layer of the skin and the epidermal element is only the top surface. Forming in the living dermis, the scutes produce a horny outer layer, that is
1534:
to supply the denticle with mucus. Denticles contain riblet structures that protrude from the surface of the scale; under a microscope this riblet can look like a hook or ridges coming out of the scale. The overall shape of the protrusion from the denticle is dependent on the type of shark and can be
2564:
forms. One morph has its jaw twisted to the left, allowing it to eat scales more readily on its victim's right flank. The other morph has its jaw twisted to the right, which makes it easier to eat scales on its victim's left flank. The relative abundance of the two morphs in populations is regulated
744:
of ray-finned fishes). The outer part of these scales fan out with bony ridges while the inner part is criss-crossed with fibrous connective tissue. Leptoid scales are thinner and more translucent than other types of scales, and lack the hardened enamel-like or dentine layers. Unlike ganoid scales,
258:
upper surface and an aspidine base. Its growing base is made of cell-free bone, which sometimes developed anchorage structures to fix it in the side of the fish. Beyond that, there appear to be five types of bone growth, which may represent five natural groupings within the thelodonts—or a spectrum
1375:
spaced about ¼ of a wavelength apart to interfere constructively and achieve nearly 100 per cent reflection. In the deep waters that the hatchetfish lives in, only blue light with a wavelength of 500 nanometres percolates down and needs to be reflected, so mirrors 125 nanometres apart provide good
270:
traits is prone to errors. Nonetheless, a framework comprising three groups has been proposed based upon scale morphology and histology. Comparisons to modern shark species have shown that thelodont scales were functionally similar to those of modern cartilaginous fish, and likewise has allowed an
262:
However, using scale morphology alone to distinguish species has some pitfalls. Within each organism, scale shape varies hugely according to body area, with intermediate forms appearing between different areas—and to make matters worse, scale morphology may not even be constant within one area. To
1632:
The riblets impede the cross-stream translation of the streamwise vortices in the viscous sublayer. The mechanism is complex and not yet understood fully. Basically, the riblets inhibit the vortex formation near the surface because the vortex cannot fit in the valleys formed by the riblets. This
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reacted. Both the geometry of the denticles and their arrangement have a profound effect on the aerodynamic response of the aerofoils. Out of both the low and high-profile samples tested, the low-profile vortex generators outperformed the current smooth wing structures by 323%. This increase in
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Denticles also provide drag reduction on objects where the main form of drag is caused by turbulent flow at the surface. A large portion of the total drag on long objects with relatively flat sides usually comes from turbulence at the wall, so riblets will have an appreciable effect. Along with
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network surrounding their body. The corset works as an outer skeleton, providing attachment for their swimming muscles and thus saving energy. Depending on the position of these placoid scales on the body, they can be flexible and can be passively erected, allowing them to change their angle of
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samples of shark denticles with a crescent like microstructure were tested in a water tank using a traction table as a slide. The experiment showed that the surface with denticles experienced a 10% drag reduction overall versus the smooth sample. The reason for this drag reduction was that the
1912:
Differentiation or late metamorphosis: This differentiation is generated by two different forms according to the type of scale being formed. The formation of elasmoid scales (cycloids and ctenoids) occurs through the formation of a space between the matrix of the epidermal papilla. This space
1570:
The general anatomy of the scales varies, but all of them can be divided into three parts: the crown, the neck and the base. The scale pliability is related to the size of the base of the scale. The scales with higher flexibility have a smaller base, and thus are less rigidly attached to the
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has been done on shark denticles with a wide range of design variations such as low and high-profile vortex generators. Through this method, the most thorough characterization has been completed for symmetrical two-dimensional riblets with sawtooth, scalloped and blade cross sections. These
1752:
marine applications, the aerospace industry can benefit greatly from these biomimetic designs. Other applications include pipes, where they score the insides to a riblet-like roughness and have discovered a 5% drag reduction, and a few percent reduction is claimed with competitive swimwear.
1640:
thickens at a declining rate and then abruptly undergoes a breakdown into turbulent vortices before finally collapsing. This system is completely self-regulating and mediates the growth and decay cycle; the vortices accumulate during the growth period and are abruptly liquidated into
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Analyzing the three components of the scale it can be concluded that the base of the denticle does not come into contact with any portion of the fluid flow. The crown and the neck of the denticles however play a key role and are responsible for creating the turbulent vortices and
1535:
generally described with two appearances. The first is a scale in which ridges are placed laterally down the shark and parallel with the flow of the water. The second form is a smooth scale with what looks like a hooked riblet curling out of the surface aiming towards the
2166:
have thinner, more hidden spines than porcupine fish, which become visible only when the fish puffs up. Unlike the porcupine fish, these spines are not modified scales, but develop under the control of the same network of genes that produce feathers and hairs in other
259:
ranging between the end members meta- (or ortho-) dentine and mesodentine tissues. Each of the five scale morphs appears to resemble the scales of more derived groupings of fish, suggesting that thelodont groups may have been stem groups to succeeding clades of fish.
1740:(PDMS) for creating a mold. Usually the process involves taking a flat piece of shark skin, covering it with the PDMS to form a mold and pouring PDMS into that mold again to get a shark skin replica. This method has been used to create a biomimetic surface which has
1350:
Many teleost fish are covered with highly reflective scales which function as small mirrors and give the appearance of silvered glass. Reflection through silvering is widespread or dominant in fish of the open sea, especially those that live in the top 100 metres. A
2483:, it must have scales and fins. The definition of "scale" differs from the definitions presented in biology, in that the scales of a kosher fish must be visible to the eye, and can be easily removed from the skin either by hand or scaling knife. According to the
1629:. When the laminar flow increases around the fish the pressure drag does as well. Frictional drag is a result of the interaction between the fluid against the shark's skin and can vary depending on how the boundary layer changes against the surface of the fish.
1862:. This process depends on whether the fish is cartilaginous or bony. For cartilaginous fish the structuring originates through the formation of two layers. The first is superficial and wide and the second is thin and compact. These two layers are separated by
584:(diamond-shaped) and connected by peg-and-socket joints. They are usually thick and fit together more like a jigsaw rather than overlapping like other scales. In this way, ganoid scales are nearly impenetrable and are excellent protection against predation.
1562:
attack. These scales also have riblets which are aligned in the direction of flow, these riblets reduce the drag force acting on the shark skin by pushing the vortex further away from the skin surface, inhibiting any high-velocity cross-stream flow.
2541:. Scale eating behaviour usually evolves because of lack of food and extreme environmental conditions. The eating of scales and the skin surrounding the scales provides protein rich nutrients that may not be available elsewhere in the niche.
1624:
is created from the pressure difference between the anterior and posterior sides of the shark due to the amount of volume that is pushed past the shark to propel itself forward. This type of drag is also directly proportional to the
2503:
1759:
biomimetic models were designed and analyzed to see the effects of applying the denticle-like structures to the wings of various airplanes. During the simulation, it was noted that the sample altered how the low and high
4461:
Dean, Brian & Bhushan, Bharat. (2010). Shark-Skin
Surfaces for Fluid-Drag Reduction in Turbulent Flow: A Review. Philosophical transactions. Series A, Mathematical, physical, and engineering sciences. 368. 4775-806.
1503:
Shark skin is almost entirely covered by small placoid scales. The scales are supported by spines, which feel rough when stroked in a backward direction, but when flattened by the forward movement of water, create tiny
3936:
Motta, Philip; Habegger, Maria Laura; Lang, Amy; Hueter, Robert; Davis, Jessica (1 October 2012). "Scale morphology and flexibility in the shortfin mako Isurus oxyrinchus and the blacktip shark
Carcharhinus limbatus".
2215:
1355:
effect can be achieved by silvering to make an animal's body highly reflective. At medium depths at sea, light comes from above, so a mirror oriented vertically makes animals such as fish invisible from the side.
1401:
2451:
declares that, "of all that are in the waters... in the seas, and in the rivers" those that do not have both fins and scales "shall be an abomination unto you" and may not be eaten. This eliminates all aquatic
748:
Leptoid scales overlap in a head-to-tail configuration, like roof tiles, making them more flexible than cosmoid and ganoid scales. This arrangement allows a smoother flow of water over the body, and reduces
4996:
Sadovy, Y.; Randall, J. E.; Rasotto, Maria B. (May 2005). "Skin structure in six dragonet species (Gobiesociformes; Callionymidae): Interspecific differences in glandular cell types and mucus secretion".
1711:. Dermal denticles are an extremely promising area of research for this type of application due to the fact that sharks are among the only fish without build up or growth on their scales. Studies by the
1645:
of hairpin vortices lifting off the wall. Lifting vortices are what push the boundary layer out and away from the surface of the shark which results in reducing the overall drag experienced by the fish.
3091:
de Vrieze, E.; van Kessel, M. A. H. J.; Peters, H. M.; Spanings, F. A. T.; Flik, G.; Metz, J. R. (1 February 2014). "Prednisolone induces osteoporosis-like phenotype in regenerating zebrafish scales".
4586:
2193:
1842:, it takes 30 days after fertilization before the different layers needed to start forming the scales have differentiated and become organized. For this it is necessary that consolidation of the
3479:
Pouyaud, L.; Sudarto, Guy G. Teugels (2003). "The different colour varieties of the Asian arowana
Scleropages formosus (Osteoglossidae) are distinct species: morphologic and genetic evidences".
610:
670:
1722:
and surfaces based on the structure of aquatic organisms, including sharks. Such applications intend to enable more efficient movement through fluid mediums such as air, water, and oil.
2377:
3381:
1806:
a projecting, modified (rough and strongly ridged) scale, usually associated with the lateral line, or on the caudal peduncle forming caudal keels, or along the ventral profile.
2405:, a protective band of thickened and enlarged scales in the shoulder region. Over most of their body tuna have scales so small that to casual inspection they seems scaleless.
1913:
contains collagen fibers. Around this space elasmoblasts differentiate and are responsible for generating the necessary material for the formation of the scale. Subsequently,
3645:
Fürstner, Reiner; Barthlott, Wilhelm; Neinhuis, Christoph; Walzel, Peter (1 February 2005). "Wetting and Self-Cleaning
Properties of Artificial Superhydrophobic Surfaces".
2745:
2286:, but they do not have regular scales. They rely on camouflage to avoid the attention of predators, while their loose skin makes it difficult for predators to grab them.
884:
6609:
5426:
2394:
Filefish have rough non-overlapping scales with small spikes, which is why they are called filefish. Some filefish appear scaleless because their scales are so small.
660:
In sturgeons, the scales are greatly enlarged into armour plates along the sides and back, while in the bowfin the scales are greatly reduced in thickness to resemble
630:
2411:
2362:
590:
2537:. However, the energy expended to make a strike versus the amount of scales consumed per strike puts a limit on the size of lepidophagous fish, and they are usually
2174:
266:
The morphology and histology of thelodonts provides the main tool for quantifying their diversity and distinguishing between species, although ultimately using such
5349:"Evolution of a unique predatory feeding apparatus: functional anatomy, development and a genetic locus for jaw laterality in Lake Tanganyika scale-eating cichlids"
4772:
Sorenson, L.; Santini, F.; Carnevale, G.; Alfaro, M.E. (2013). "A multi-locus timetree of surgeonfishes (Acanthuridae, Percomorpha), with revised family taxonomy".
1764:
performance is due to a separation bubble in the denticle's wake and stream-wise vortices that replenish momentum lost in the boundary layer due to skin friction.
1583:
found near the skin's surface. Because denticles come in so many different shapes and sizes, it can be expected that not all shapes will produce the same type of
309:
in a modified form (see elasmoid scales, below). They were probably derived from a fusion of placoid-ganoid scales. The inner part of the scales is made of dense
3147:"Immunodetection of amelogenin-like proteins in the ganoine of experimentally regenerating scales of Calamoichthys calabaricus, a primitive actinopterygian fish"
1028:
along their outer or posterior edges. Because of these teeth, the scales have a rough texture. They are usually found on fishes with spiny fin rays, such as the
2244:) have smooth skin without scales and without dermal bone. Lampreys get some protection from a tough leathery skin. Hagfish exude copious quantities slime or
776:
Cycloid (circular) scales have a smooth texture and are uniform, with a smooth outer edge or margin. They are most common on fish with soft fin rays, such as
1878:
elongate. These penetrate the compact layer of the mesenchyme, which consolidates prior to the formation of the scale, in order to initiate the dermal plate.
694:
649:
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1314:
have ctenoid scales on the eyed side and cycloid scales on the blind side, while other species have ctenoid scales in males and cycloid scales in females.
2427:
1772:
682:
2272:
lack scales and have a layer of smelly and bitter slime which blocks out disease and probably discourages predators, implying their bright coloration is
1905:
form a delimiting layer, which is located in the upper part of the mesenchyme. Subsequently, these cells will differentiate in the area where the scale
6027:
427:
246:
Bone, a tissue that is both resistant to mechanical damage and relatively prone to fossilization, often preserves internal detail, which allows the
1140:
4227:"Modeling how shark and dolphin skin patterns control transitional wall-turbulence vorticity patterns using spatiotemporal phase reset mechanisms"
4164:
Muthuramalingam, Muthukumar; Villemin, Leo S.; Bruecker, Christoph (29 April 2019). "Streak formation in flow over
Biomimetic Fish Scale Arrays".
394:
which have modified cosmoid scales that lack cosmine and are thinner than true cosmoid scales. They are also present in some tetrapodomorphs like
362:
scales composed of a layer of dense, lamellar collagen bone called isopedine, above which is a layer of tubercles usually composed of bone, as in
4057:"Surface drag reduction and flow separation control in pelagic vertebrates, with implications for interpreting scale morphologies in fossil taxa"
1699:. In laymen's terms, fouling is known as the process by which something becomes encrusted with material from the surrounding environment such as
2080:
that detect water movements. In bony fishes, the scales along the lateral line have central pores that allow water to contact the sensory cells.
1405:
Placoid scales as viewed through an electron microscope. Also called dermal denticles, these are structurally homologous with vertebrate teeth.
1977:, the level of ApoE transcription is high, which has led to the conclusion that this protein is important for the late development of scales.
1715:
have shown that if a biomimetic material can be engineered, it could potentially lead to fuel cost savings for military vessels of up to 45%.
5410:
3437:
2833:
1575:
On the crown of the fast-swimming sharks there are a series of parallel riblets or ridges which run from an anterior to posterior direction.
714:
1897:. Morphogenesis begins at the time when fibroblasts are relocated to the upper part of the compact mesenchyme. Throughout this process, the
3388:
263:
confuse things further, scale morphologies are not unique to taxa, and may be indistinguishable on the same area of two different species.
4533:
Sire, J.Y.; Huysseune, A.N.N. (2003). "Formation of dermal skeletal and dental tissues in fish: a comparative and evolutionary approach".
3740:
Feld, Katrine; Kolborg, Anne Noer; Nyborg, Camilla Marie; Salewski, Mirko; Steffensen, John Fleng; Berg-Sørensen, Kirstine (24 May 2019).
2743:
Turner, S.; Tarling, D. H. (1982). "Thelodont and other agnathan distributions as tests of Lower
Paleozoic continental reconstructions".
192:
are also involved in scale development. The placoid scales of cartilaginous fishes are also called dermal denticles and are structurally
5854:
4959:, gen. et sp. nov., a small and eyeless banjo catfish (Siluriformes: Aspredinidae) from the river channels of the lower Amazon basin".
1473:
Rhomboidal scales with the properties of both placoid and ganoid scales are suspected to exist in modern jawed fish ancestors: jawless
4749:
4732:
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2782:
200:
or slime which can protect against pathogens such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses, and reduce surface resistance when the fish swims.
3163:
3146:
243:, are well understood. The scales were formed and shed throughout the organisms' lifetimes, and quickly separated after their death.
5884:
4891:
4039:"Experimental investigations on drag-reduction characteristics of bionic surface with water-trapping microstructures of fish scales"
3882:
Hage, W.; Bruse, M.; Bechert, D. W. (1 May 2000). "Experiments with three-dimensional riblets as an idealized model of shark skin".
3581:
1748:. One study found that these biomimetic surfaces reduced drag by up to 9%, while with flapping motion drag reduction reached 12.3%.
1363:
is extremely flattened laterally (side to side), leaving the body just millimetres thick, and the body is so silvery as to resemble
5247:"Trophic novelty is linked to exceptional rates of morphological diversification in two adaptive radiations of Cyprinodon pupfish"
2229:
Fish without scales usually evolve alternatives to the protection scales can provide, such as tough leathery skin or bony plates.
4879:
2314:
Seahorses lack scales but have thin skin stretched over a bony plate armour arranged in rings through the length of their bodies.
1687:
5538:
5475:
4475:
Domel, August G.; Saadat, Mehdi; Weaver, James C.; Haj-Hariri, Hossein; Bertoldi, Katia; Lauder, George V. (28 February 2018).
762:
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1386:
Fish scales with these properties are used in some cosmetics, since they can give a shimmering effect to makeup and lipstick.
407:
elasmoid scales are used in the lab to study bone mineralization process, and can be cultured (kept) outside of the organism.
101:
Scales vary enormously in size, shape, structure, and extent, ranging from strong and rigid armour plates in fishes such as
2566:
2518:) is a specialised feeding behaviour in fish that involves eating the scales of other fish. Lepidophagy has independently
341:
5052:
4123:
Lauder, George V.; Wainwright, Dylan K.; Domel, August G.; Weaver, James C.; Wen, Li; Bertoldi, Katia (18 October 2016).
2310:, have developed external bony plates, structurally resembling placoid scales, as protective armour against predators.
5623:
2852:
Turner, S. (1991). "Monophyly and interrelationships of the
Thelodonti". In M. M. Chang; Y. H. Liu; G. R. Zhang (eds.).
1536:
458:. They are derived from cosmoid scales and often have serrated edges. They are covered with a layer of hard enamel-like
415:
5523:
5035:
4334:
Liu, Yunhong; Li, Guangji (15 December 2012). "A new method for producing "Lotus Effect" on a biomimetic shark skin".
3034:"Zebrafish as an Emerging Model for Osteoporosis: A Primary Testing Platform for Screening New Osteo-Active Compounds"
2525:
Fish scales can be nutritious, containing a dermal portion and a layer of protein-rich mucus apart from the layers of
2484:
1858:
Mesenchyme consolidation: The consolidation or structuring of the mesenchyme originates during the development of the
725:
for arrow heads, breastplates, and as shielding to cover plows. In current times jewellery is made from these scales.
31:
3536:
Kawasaki, Kenta C., "A Genetic
Analysis of Cichlid Scale Morphology" (2016). Masters Theses May 2014 - current. 425.
3514:
1463:-like substance. Placoid scales cannot grow in size, but rather more scales are added as the fish increases in size.
3427:
2325:. Because of this heavy armour boxfish are limited to slow movements, but few other fish are able to eat the adults.
6275:
6002:
5972:
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5468:
1966:
948:
4733:"Epidermal expression of apolipoprotein E gene during fin and scale development and fin regeneration in zebrafish"
2057:
Surgeonfish (left) have a sharp, scalpel-like modified scale on either side just before the tail. Closeup (right).
1974:
1636:
Recent research has shown that there is a pre and post-breakdown regime in the near-wall boundary layer where the
1284:. The circumference of the scales grows first, followed by thickness when overlapping layers mineralize together.
6548:
6541:
6508:
6250:
5922:
5603:
3278:
Bruet, B. J. F.; Song, J.; Boyce, M. C.; Ortiz, C. (2008). "Materials design principles of ancient fish armour".
2578:
3597:
1684:, by attaching pieces of shark skin to wooden boards. The small size of the scales grates the food very finely.
1658:-like texture of shark and ray skin, coupled with its toughness, has led it to be valued as a source of rawhide
1229:
6558:
6317:
4587:"Skin development in bony fish with particular emphasis on collagen deposition in the dermis of the zebrafish (
1822:
have an abdominal row of scutes, which are scales with raised, sharp points that are used for protection. Some
1741:
1330:
1281:
5580:
5084:"Handed Foraging Behavior in Scale-Eating Cichlid Fish: Its Potential Role in Shaping Morphological Asymmetry"
4637:
Sire, J.Y. (2001). "Teeth outside the mouth in teleost fishes: how to benefit from a developmental accident".
3688:
Lauder, George V.; Wainwright, Dylan K.; Domel, August G.; Weaver, James C.; Wen, Li; Bertoldi, Katia (2016).
1934:
are composed of compacted collagen that allow it to maintain the union with the mesenchyme. This are known as
932:
3454:
2795:
6536:
6518:
6080:
5829:
4930:
4685:"Scale development in fish: a review, with description of sonic hedgehog (shh) expression in the zebrafish (
2906:
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1519:, making swimming both more efficient and quieter compared to that of bony fishes. It also serves a role in
964:
916:
900:
3016:
A microanatomical and histological study of the postcranial dermal skeleton in the
Devonian sarcopterygian
511:
crystallites. Ganoine is an ancient feature of ray-finned fishes, being found for example on the scales of
368:. The layer of dentine that was present in the first lobe-finned fish is usually reduced, as in the extant
6498:
6322:
6307:
6130:
5849:
5738:
2269:
2221:
1950:
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400:, amiids, and teleosts, whose cycloid and ctenoid scales represent the least mineralized elasmoid scales.
382:. Elasmoid scales have appeared several times over the course of fish evolution. They are present in some
121:
of a scale can be used to identify the species of fish it came from. Scales originated within the jawless
5294:
Hori, M. (1993). "Frequency-dependent natural selection in the handedness of scale-eating cichlid fish".
2266:
lack scales, though several families have body armour in the form of dermal plates or some sort of scute.
996:
980:
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6528:
6513:
6022:
5839:
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1580:
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and distinctive cellular differentiation makes them exclusive from other structures that arise from the
1181:
857:
479:
Ganoine is a characteristic component of ganoid scales. It is a glassy, often multi-layered mineralized
250:
and growth of the scales to be studied in detail. The scales comprise a non-growing "crown" composed of
74:
1612:
Diagram of the side profile of a shark denticle showing a vortex in the wake downstream of the denticle
1530:
All denticles are composed of an interior pulp cavity with a nervous and arterial supply rooted in the
1213:
6614:
3992:
3799:
Fletcher, Thomas; Altringham, John; Peakall, Jeffrey; Wignall, Paul; Dorrell, Robert (7 August 2014).
2507:
Dorsal view of right-bending (left) and left-bending (right) jaw morphs adapted for eating fish scales
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Monnot, M.J.; Babin, P.J.; Poleo, G.; Andre, M.; Laforest, L.; Ballagny, C.; Akimenko, M.A. (1999).
1197:
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Richter, M. (1995). "A microstructural study of the ganoine tissue of selected lower vertebrates".
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Shono, T.; Thiery, A.P.; Cooper, R.L.; Kurokawa, D.; Britz, R.; Okabe, M.; Fraser, G.J. (2019).
3001:
MICHAEL ALLABY "cosmoid scale ." A Dictionary of
Zoology . . Encyclopedia.com. 29 Oct. 2019 <
849:
3324:
Sherman, Vincent R.; Yaraghi, Nicholas A.; Kisailus, David; Meyers, Marc A. (1 December 2016).
2902:"A New Early Devonian thelodont from Celtiberia (Spain), with a revision of Spanish thelodonts"
1725:
Surfaces that mimic the skin of sharks have also been used in order to keep microorganisms and
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of raised ribs (left). The scales themselves are covered with a delicate net pattern (right).
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3742:"Dermal Denticles of Three Slowly Swimming Shark Species: Microscopy and Flow Visualization"
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enclosing the entire body. These bony plates are not modified scales but skin that has been
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Systematics, Zoogeography, and Conservation of the Freshwater Fishes of Peninsular Malaysia
3326:"Microstructural and geometric influences in the protective scales of Atractosteus spatula"
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3387:. Missouri Department of Conservation Fisheries Division. January 22, 2013. Archived from
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fishes. These scales contain almost no bone, being composed of a surface layer containing
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1666:. One of the many historical applications of shark shagreen was in making hand-grips for
1114:
The size of the teeth on ctenoid scales can vary with position, as these scales from the
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Some fish, such as hoki and swordfish, are born with scales but shed them as they grow.
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vary from the medial (middle of the fish), to dorsal (top), to caudal (tail end) scales.
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2695:
2464:, as well as any fish that lack scales (there do not seem to be fish that lack fins).
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occurs, allowing the scale to acquire the rigid characteristic that identifies them.
1881:
Morphogenesis induction: The morphogenesis is due to the formation of the epidermal
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of ray-finned fishes, ganoine or ganoine-like tissues are also found on the extinct
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begin to organize themselves in the dermal layer, which leads to the initiation of
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1044:. The enamel of the other scale types is reduced to superficial ridges and ctenii.
971:
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1995:
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Ctenoid (toothed) scales are like cycloid scales, except they have small teeth or
359:
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2969:
1941:
One of the genes that regulate the development of scale formation in fish is the
1367:. The mirrors consist of microscopic structures similar to those used to provide
333:. Cosmoid scales increase in size through the growth of the lamellar bone layer.
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3188:"Origin and evolution of the integumentary skeleton in non-tetrapod vertebrates"
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spines are not modified scales but are developed by an independent gene network.
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are scaleless, though some species are covered with tiny smooth cycloid scales.
1608:
1379:
Most fish in the upper ocean are camouflaged by silvering. In fish such as the
1338:
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scales, where the scale bears spines that are continuous with the scale itself.
876:
Cycloid (circular) scales are usually found on carp-like or salmon-like fishes.
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seem scaleless, but some species are covered with tiny smooth cycloid scales.
17:
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have a scalpel-like blade, which is a modified scale, on either side of the
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1886:
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Leptoid scales come in two forms: cycloid (smooth) and ctenoid (comb-like).
753:. The scales of some species exhibit bands of uneven seasonal growth called
702:
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255:
247:
236:
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5026:
Northeast Fisheries Science Center, NOAA Fisheries. Accessed 4 August 2019.
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2252:, scraping off the slime as they go and freeing themselves from a predator.
2224:
lack scales and protect themselves with a layer of smelly and bitter slime.
1550:
Unlike bony fish, sharks have a complicated dermal corset made of flexible
571:
5365:
4705:
4684:
4607:
3903:
3172:
2820:
Janvier, Philippe (1998). "Early vertebrates and their extant relatives".
1729:
from coating the hulls of submarines and ships. One variety is traded as "
1451:, all of which sits on top of a rectangular basal plate that rests on the
1326:
The herring's reflectors are nearly vertical for camouflage from the side.
6463:
6404:
6350:
6345:
6164:
6032:
5694:
5640:
5555:
4750:
10.1002/(SICI)1097-0177(199903)214:3<207::AID-AJA4>3.0.CO;2-5
4412:"The hydrodynamic function of shark skin and two biomimetic applications"
4290:
Magin, Chelsea M.; Cooper, Scott P.; Brennan, Anthony B. (1 April 2010).
3186:
Sire, Jean-Yves; Donoghue, Philip C. J.; Vickaryous, Matthews K. (2009).
2544:
2418:
2402:
2383:
2295:
2291:
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2121:
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1931:
1930:, thus forming bone. The patches of the matrix of the scale that are not
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scales, where the margin of the scale bears indentations and projections.
1041:
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310:
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227:
173:
158:
142:
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10.1002/(SICI)1097-0185(199709)249:1<86::AID-AR11>3.0.CO;2-X
2282:
have loose, thin skin often covered with fine forked dermal prickles or
1965:, has an interaction with shh, because ApoE provides cholesterol to the
1838:
Scales typically appear late in the development of fish. In the case of
1695:
In the marine industry, there is an extremely large market and need for
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39:
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6409:
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6377:
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2005:. Modified scales along the lateral line are visible in the lower half.
1736:
A lot of the new methods for replicating shark skin involve the use of
1659:
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1115:
1021:
734:
508:
484:
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459:
330:
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161:) are covered with placoid scales. Some species are covered instead by
106:
5214:
4824:"Evolution and Developmental Diversity of Skin Spines in Pufferfishes"
4470:
4468:
4250:
4118:
4116:
3735:
3733:
3658:
1248:
Ctenoid scales, similar to other epidermal structures, originate from
6355:
4961:
3986:
3984:
3299:
2780:
Märss, T. (2006). "Exoskeletal ultrasculpture of early vertebrates".
2492:
2480:
2476:
2019:
1890:
1859:
1675:
1531:
1505:
1452:
1273:
939:
891:
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777:
733:
Leptoid (bony-ridge) scales are found on higher-order bony fish, the
654:
637:
500:
455:
451:
298:
189:
177:
130:
4974:
1264:
of the fish. The development process begins with an accumulation of
4178:
6458:
6387:
5797:
4477:"Shark skin-inspired designs that improve aerodynamic performance"
4125:"Structure, biomimetics, and fluid dynamics of fish skin surfaces"
3690:"Structure, biomimetics, and fluid dynamics of fish skin surfaces"
2502:
2472:
2371:
have plates of ossified skin fused together to form a rigid shell.
2245:
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1785:
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426:
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340:
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207:
197:
162:
154:
138:
38:
5191:"Functional morphology of feeding in the scale-eating specialist
2696:"Fish scale development: Hair today, teeth and scales yesterday?"
745:
further scales are added in concentric layers as the fish grows.
6360:
6302:
5947:
5500:
5491:
2522:
in at least five freshwater families and seven marine families.
2434:
2398:
2146:
1539:
of the shark. Both riblet shapes assist in creating a turbulent
1172:
1155:
Ctenoid (toothed) scales are usually found on perch-like fishes.
781:
313:
bone called isopedine. On top of this lies a layer of spongy or
196:
with vertebrate teeth. Most fish are also covered in a layer of
185:
165:, and others have no outer covering on part or all of the skin.
134:
62:
49:
5464:
3032:
Bergen, Dylan J. M.; Kague, Erika; Hammond, Chrissy L. (2019).
3002:
2018:
Closeup of a modified cycloid scale from the lateral line of a
1850:
is induced, and finally the process of differentiation or late
865:
fish with circular cycloid scales that are smooth to the touch.
93:
6399:
5967:
4225:
Bandyopadhyay, Promode R.; Hellum, Aren M. (23 October 2014).
3991:
Dou, Zhaoliang; Wang, Jiadao; Chen, Darong (1 December 2012).
2854:
Early Vertebrates and Related Problems of Evolutionary Biology
2349:
2317:
In boxfish, the plates fuse together to form a rigid shell or
2256:
1306:
scales, where the spines on the scale are distinct structures.
1147:
have cycloid scales on the belly but ctenoid scales elsewhere.
496:
447:
146:
110:
1945:(shh) gene, which by means of the (shh) protein, involved in
1803:
a modified, thickened scale that often is keeled or spiny, or
1334:
The deep sea hatchetfish has scales which reflect blue light.
1087:
fish with toothed ctenoid scales that are rough to the touch.
3502:(Doctoral Dissertation ed.). Colorado State University.
2386:
have thin skin stretched over bony plates arranged in rings.
1310:
Most ray-finned fishes have ctenoid scales. Some species of
5436:"Scales, enamel, cosmine, ganoine, and early osteichthyans"
1439:("denticle" translates to "small tooth"), having a central
1287:
Ctenoid scales can be further subdivided into three types:
3382:"Missouri Alligator Gar Management and Restoration Plan"
2867:
Märss, T. (1986). "Squamation of the thelodont agnathan
2796:
10.1671/0272-4634(2006)26[235:EUOEV]2.0.CO;2
2068:
a number of modified scales to serve various functions.
676:
Earrings made from the ganoid scales of an alligator gar
317:
bone supplied with blood vessels, followed by a complex
85:, as well as possible hydrodynamic advantages. The term
5460:
3805:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
3551:
The Diversity of Fishes Biology, Evolution, and Ecology
1466:
Similar scales can also be found under the head of the
4585:
Le Guellec, D.; Morvan-Dubois, G.; Sire, J.Y. (2004).
3412:
Lagler, K. F., J. E. Bardach, and R. R. Miller (1962)
2248:
if they are threatened. They can tie themselves in an
2128:, which are easily shed and aid in escaping predators.
1926:
cavities. At this point, elasmoblasts are replaced by
431:
Mineral texture of ganoine layers in the scales of an
4410:
Lauder, George V.; Oeffner, Johannes (1 March 2012).
3576:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 193–195.
2900:
Botella, H.; J. I. Valenzuela-Rios; P. Carls (2006).
1470:. The amount of scale coverage is much less in rays.
5401:
Helfman, G.S., B.B. Collette and D.E. Facey (1997).
4329:
4327:
3429:
Exotic Animal Medicine for the Veterinary Technician
1957:(ApoE), that allows the transport and metabolism of
811:
have large cycloid scales arranged on the fish in a
537:
in vertebrates or even considered a type of enamel.
6491:
6424:
6331:
6293:
6284:
6223:
6154:
6041:
5993:
5903:
5828:
5588:
5498:
4882:. In: McKenzie DJ, Farrell AP and Brauner CJ (Eds)
4457:
4455:
3993:"Bionic Research on Fish Scales for Drag Reduction"
2421:
appear scaleless because their scales are so small.
3931:
3929:
3538:http://scholarworks.umass.edu/masters_theses_2/425
3014:Zylberberg, L., Meunier, F.J., Laurin, M. (2010).
4386:"Sharklet Discovery | Sharklet Technologies, Inc"
4055:Palmer, Colin; Young, Mark T. (14 January 2015).
3598:"There Are Probably Fish Scales In Your Lipstick"
3140:
3138:
2746:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
1814:, are completely or partially covered in scutes.
3145:Zylberberg, L.; Sire, J. -Y.; Nanci, A. (1997).
1670:. The rough texture of the skin is also used in
1412:(pointed, tooth-shaped) scales are found in the
1342:The scales of a typical teleost fish, like this
271:extensive comparison between ecological niches.
5184:
5182:
5180:
3877:
3875:
1969:. It has been shown that during the process of
688:Fossil of a primitive rayfin with ganoid scales
4693:International Journal of Developmental Biology
4595:International Journal of Developmental Biology
4580:
4578:
4576:
4574:
4572:
3564:
3562:
3560:
3319:
3317:
3243:
3241:
3239:
2560:. The jaws of this fish occur in two distinct
2437:seem largely free of scales, but they are not.
5476:
5047:
5045:
5043:
4726:
4724:
3516:The Fishes of the Indo-Australian Archipelago
2943:Ferrón, Humberto G.; Botella, Héctor (2017).
2815:
2813:
109:, to microscopic or absent in fishes such as
61:is a small rigid plate that grows out of the
8:
5425:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4905:"Hagfish slime: The clothing of the future?"
4878:Coolidge E, Hedrick MS and Milsom WK (2011)
4678:
4676:
3426:Ballard, Bonnie; Cheek, Ryan (2 July 2016).
3273:
3271:
2847:
2845:
2551:. An exception occurs with the scale-eating
466:, and a layer of inorganic bone salt called
125:, ancestors to all jawed fishes today. Most
4632:
4630:
4628:
4626:
4528:
4526:
4524:
4522:
4520:
2087:and chimaeras, the stinging tail spines of
1604:Effects of turbulent flow on boundary layer
1067:has a toothed outer edge (at top of image).
6290:
5483:
5469:
5461:
5082:Lee, H. J.; Kusche, H.; Meyer, A. (2012).
5077:
5075:
2856:. Science Press, Beijing. pp. 87–119.
2653:Mongera, A.; Nüsslein-Volhard, C. (2013).
1953:, enable the formation of the scales. The
1870:substrate organized by perpendicularly by
1620:(COT) through multiple different avenues.
843:has a smooth outer edge (at top of image).
653:Geometrically laid out ganoid scales on a
188:involved in tooth and hair development in
6028:Tradeoffs for locomotion in air and water
5451:
5374:
5364:
5347:Stewart, T. A.; Albertson, R. C. (2010).
5262:
5213:
5117:
5107:
4855:
4748:
4704:
4606:
4500:
4427:
4307:
4266:
4177:
4148:
4096:
3832:
3775:
3757:
3713:
3357:
3250:Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society
3219:
3162:
3067:
3049:
2978:
2968:
2919:
2711:
2670:
2155:have scales modified into large external
1789:superficially similar to that of scales.
1498:, have placoid scales (dermal denticles).
1371:: stacks of between 5 and 10 crystals of
289:Cosmoid scales are found only on ancient
27:Rigid covering growing atop a fish's skin
4336:Journal of Colloid and Interface Science
1150:
1139:
871:
620:has rows of ganoid scales enlarged into
539:
4807:How the pufferfish got its wacky spines
4774:Molecular Phylogenetics & Evolution
3858:"The Importance of Being Cartilaginous"
2630:
2407:
2401:only along the lateral line and in the
2358:
2211:
2170:
1161:
1112:
880:
805:
666:
586:
483:that covers the scales, as well as the
129:are covered with the cycloid scales of
5418:
5166:
5156:
4931:"No One Is Prepared for Hagfish Slime"
4481:Journal of the Royal Society Interface
3330:Journal of the Royal Society Interface
2945:"Squamation and ecology of thelodonts"
2290:Many groups of bony fishes, including
2099:are fused and modified placoid scales.
1800:an external shield-like bony plate, or
1587:. During a recent research experiment
1040:and a deeper layer composed mostly of
386:, such as all extant and some extinct
6608:Hydrodynamic aspects of shark scales
5405:. Blackwell Science. pp. 33–36.
3860:. ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research
3532:
3530:
3528:
3526:
2347:
1455:. The outermost layer is composed of
7:
5245:Martin, C.; P.C. Wainwright (2011).
4651:10.1046/j.1525-142x.2001.003002104.x
3453:McGrouther, Mark (2 December 2019).
2655:"Scales of fish arise from mesoderm"
2495:, snake mackerels, and puffer fish.
1885:, which is generated by joining the
721:used the tough ganoid scales of the
325:with a superficial outer coating of
6584:
5855:Electroreception and electrogenesis
5202:The Journal of Experimental Biology
4955:Friel, J P; Lundberg, J G (1996). "
4683:Sire, J.Y.; Akimenko, M.A. (2003).
4166:The Journal of Experimental Biology
1826:have a row of scutes following the
1547:farther away from the sharks skin.
1447:, surrounded by a conical layer of
661:
529:. It has been suggested ganoine is
372:, or entirely absent, as in extant
168:Fish scales are part of the fish's
73:, which can also provide effective
6613:Fish scales and flow manipulation
5141:Froese, R. and D. Pauly. Editors.
4292:"Non-toxic antifouling strategies"
3416:. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
2874:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology
2783:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology
1922:
1874:. Subsequently, for both fish the
1428:. Placoid scales are structurally
25:
4903:Rothschild, Anna (1 April 2013).
4884:Fish Physiology: Primitive Fishes
1616:Sharks decrease drag and overall
640:are reduced in size and resemble
293:, including some of the earliest
69:is covered with these protective
6583:
6572:
6571:
6554:
6553:
5579:
5264:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2011.01294.x
5011:10.1111/j.0022-1112.2005.00692.x
3801:"Hydrodynamics of fossil fishes"
3204:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2009.01046.x
2921:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2005.00534.x
2426:
2410:
2376:
2361:
2339:
2332:
2214:
2192:
2173:
2047:
2038:
2010:
1994:
1494:Cartilaginous fishes, like this
1228:
1212:
1196:
1180:
1164:
1104:
1097:
1072:
1056:
995:
979:
963:
947:
931:
915:
899:
883:
848:
832:
797:
790:
693:
681:
669:
629:
609:
589:
570:
543:
180:, which distinguishes them from
5539:Environmental impact of fishing
4416:Journal of Experimental Biology
3519:. E.J. Brill. pp. 306–307.
3020:, Acta Palaeontologica Polonica
2137:darters have a row of enlarged
438:Ganoid scales are found in the
98:, meaning a shell pod or husk.
4150:10.1103/PhysRevFluids.1.060502
3715:10.1103/PhysRevFluids.1.060502
2887:10.1080/02724634.1986.10011593
2064:Different groups of fish have
1256:. Development starts near the
761:). These bands can be used to
700:Ganoid scales on a fossilised
254:, with a sometimes-ornamented
1:
4309:10.1016/S1369-7021(10)70058-4
4009:10.1016/S1672-6529(11)60140-6
3997:Journal of Bionic Engineering
3574:The Biology of the Deep Ocean
2713:10.1016/S0960-9822(01)00438-9
2567:frequency-dependent selection
2397:Prominent scaling appears on
557:Ganoid scales of the extinct
507:. It is composed of rod-like
423:appear glassy due to ganoine.
5624:intramembranous ossification
5318:10.1126/science.260.5105.216
5109:10.1371/journal.pone.0044670
4929:Yong, Ed (23 January 2019).
3455:"Cycloid and Ctenoid Scales"
3003:https://www.encyclopedia.com
2970:10.1371/journal.pone.0172781
2767:10.1016/0031-0182(82)90027-X
2539:much smaller than their prey
2533:. They are a rich source of
2479:, for a fish to be declared
1796:, and can take the form of:
1691:Barnacle growth on boat hull
239:, the most abundant form of
212:Left to right: denticles of
172:, and are produced from the
65:of a fish. The skin of most
4786:10.1016/j.ympev.2013.03.014
4639:Evolution & Development
2485:kosher certification agency
2338:
1792:Scute comes from Latin for
1744:properties, exhibiting the
1718:There are many examples of
1153:
1103:
874:
796:
621:
556:
521:. While often considered a
137:, or the ctenoid scales of
44:Cycloid scales cover these
32:Fish scale (disambiguation)
6645:
6003:Fin and flipper locomotion
5973:Sequential hermaphroditism
5860:Jamming avoidance response
5577:
5453:10.1016/j.crpv.2015.04.001
5069:. Retrieved 9 August 2019.
4886:, Elsevier, Page 182–213.
4848:10.1016/j.isci.2019.06.003
4356:10.1016/j.jcis.2012.08.033
4061:Royal Society Open Science
3759:10.3390/biomimetics4020038
3093:Osteoporosis International
3038:Frontiers in Endocrinology
2643:. Retrieved 28 April 2019.
2306:, and several families of
2183:have scales modified into
1393:
358:Elasmoid scales are thin,
141:, or the ganoid scales of
29:
6567:
4547:10.1017/S1464793102006073
3432:. John Wiley & Sons.
3105:10.1007/s00198-013-2441-3
2672:10.1016/j.cub.2013.02.056
2579:Age determination in fish
2471:or divine decrees of the
2091:, and the "saw" teeth of
2083:The dorsal fin spines of
2072:Almost all fishes have a
826:Cycloid (circular) scales
600:has a tough armouring of
3051:10.3389/fendo.2019.00006
1921:Unlike elasmoid scales,
1866:. Bony fish generate an
1394:Not to be confused with
1050:Ctenoid (toothed) scales
6519:Glossary of ichthyology
6081:Diel vertical migration
5434:Schultze, H.P. (2016).
5403:The Diversity of Fishes
5189:Janovetz, Jeff (2005).
5143:"Glossary: Lepidophagy"
5067:OU Kosher Certification
5053:"All About Kosher Fish"
4999:Journal of Fish Biology
4462:10.1098/rsta.2010.0201.
2826:Oxford University Press
1424:. They are also called
1063:The ctenoid scale of a
839:The cycloid scale of a
719:people of the Caribbean
636:The ganoid scales on a
580:Most ganoid scales are
523:synapomorphic character
353:, have elasmoid scales.
329:. The upper surface is
305:, including the living
94:
5885:Surface wave detection
5850:Hydrodynamic reception
5524:Diseases and parasites
5440:Comptes Rendus Palevol
4737:Developmental Dynamics
4493:10.1098/rsif.2017.0828
4129:Physical Review Fluids
3817:10.1098/rspb.2014.0703
3694:Physical Review Fluids
3549:Helfman, Gene (2009).
3342:10.1098/rsif.2016.0595
3262:10.1006/zjls.1995.0023
2694:Sharpe, P. T. (2001).
2621:– Japanese fish scaler
2508:
2433:To casual examination
1951:cellular communication
1949:and in the process of
1782:
1780:are covered in scutes.
1692:
1613:
1605:
1500:
1459:, a largely inorganic
1406:
1347:
1335:
1327:
1148:
1137:
1132:Ctenoid scales from a
657:
604:-shaped ganoid scales.
435:
424:
355:
349:, like this preserved
286:
232:
54:
6023:Undulatory locomotion
5840:Ampullae of Lorenzini
5366:10.1186/1741-7007-8-8
5064:Verifying Kosher Fish
5024:Do tunas have scales?
4880:"Ventilatory Systems"
4706:10.1387/ijdb.15272389
4608:10.1387/ijdb.15272388
3939:Journal of Morphology
3904:10.1007/s003480050400
3884:Experiments in Fluids
3459:The Australian Museum
3151:The Anatomical Record
3018:Eusthenopteron foordi
2557:Perissodus microlepis
2506:
1967:shh signaling pathway
1915:matrix mineralization
1893:through a process of
1775:
1697:anti-fouling surfaces
1690:
1650:Technical application
1611:
1603:
1492:
1404:
1369:structural coloration
1341:
1333:
1325:
1143:
1131:
858:Poropuntius huguenini
652:
430:
418:
344:
282:
211:
42:
6251:Genetically modified
5208:(Pt 24): 4757–4768.
4172:(Pt 16): jeb205963.
2828:. pp. 123–127.
2001:Cycloid scales of a
1971:cell differentiation
1738:polydimethylsiloxane
1720:biomimetic materials
1414:cartilaginous fishes
1119:Cetonurus crassiceps
564:Amblypterus striatus
552:Amblypterus striatus
491:in some non-teleost
376:and in the Devonian
170:integumentary system
151:Cartilaginous fishes
30:For other uses, see
6056:Aquatic respiration
5943:Life history theory
5310:1993Sci...260..216H
5100:2012PLoSO...744670L
4840:2019iSci...19.1248S
4348:2012JCIS..388..235L
4243:2014NatSR...4E6650B
4188:2019arXiv190412752M
4141:2016PhRvF...1f0502L
4081:10.1098/rsos.140163
4073:2015RSOS....240163P
3896:2000ExFl...28..403B
3706:2016PhRvF...1f0502L
3625:"Skin of the Teeth"
3513:E.J. Brill (1953).
3498:Ismail, M. (1989).
3292:2008NatMa...7..748B
2961:2017PLoSO..1272781F
2759:1982PPP....39..295T
2514:(Ancient Greek for
2208:Fish without scales
1810:Some fish, such as
1756:Parametric modeling
419:The scales of this
321:-like layer called
284:Queensland lungfish
235:The bony scales of
77:through the use of
5895:Weberian apparatus
5169:has generic name (
4535:Biological Reviews
4429:10.1242/jeb.063040
4231:Scientific Reports
4196:10.1242/jeb.205963
3951:10.1002/jmor.20047
3856:Martin, R. Aidan.
3811:(1788): 20140703.
3623:Martin, R. Aidan.
3553:. Wiley-Blackwell.
3192:Journal of Anatomy
2549:bilateral symmetry
2509:
1783:
1693:
1614:
1606:
1523:by exhibiting the
1501:
1407:
1361:marine hatchetfish
1348:
1336:
1328:
1149:
1138:
658:
436:
425:
384:lobe-finned fishes
356:
347:Lobe-finned fishes
291:lobe-finned fishes
287:
233:
55:
6599:
6598:
6509:Fish common names
6420:
6419:
6051:Aquatic predation
5875:Capacity for pain
5604:Age determination
5412:978-0-86542-256-8
5304:(5105): 216–219.
5215:10.1242/jeb.01938
5036:Leviticus 11:9–10
4957:Micromyzon akamai
4487:(139): 20170828.
4251:10.1038/srep06650
3945:(10): 1096–1110.
3659:10.1021/la0401011
3439:978-1-118-92421-1
3336:(125): 20160595.
2835:978-0-19-854047-2
2822:Early Vertebrates
2706:(18): R751–R752.
2594:Photonic crystals
2589:Animal reflectors
2584:Animal coloration
2535:calcium phosphate
2467:According to the
2357:
2356:
1864:mesenchymal cells
1834:Scale development
1618:cost of transport
1246:
1245:
1126:
1125:
1038:calcium carbonate
1013:
1012:
821:
820:
816:
578:
577:
515:actinopteryigian
493:ray-finned fishes
390:, as well as the
89:derives from the
16:(Redirected from
6636:
6587:
6586:
6575:
6574:
6557:
6556:
6291:
5583:
5514:Ethnoichthyology
5485:
5478:
5471:
5462:
5457:
5455:
5430:
5424:
5416:
5389:
5388:
5378:
5368:
5344:
5338:
5337:
5291:
5285:
5284:
5266:
5257:(8): 2197–2212.
5242:
5236:
5235:
5217:
5199:
5186:
5175:
5174:
5168:
5164:
5162:
5154:
5152:
5150:
5138:
5132:
5131:
5121:
5111:
5079:
5070:
5061:
5055:
5049:
5038:
5033:
5027:
5021:
5015:
5014:
5005:(5): 1411–1418.
4993:
4987:
4986:
4952:
4946:
4945:
4943:
4941:
4926:
4920:
4919:
4917:
4915:
4900:
4894:
4876:
4870:
4869:
4859:
4819:
4813:
4804:
4798:
4797:
4769:
4763:
4762:
4752:
4728:
4719:
4718:
4708:
4699:(2–3): 233–247.
4680:
4671:
4670:
4634:
4621:
4620:
4610:
4601:(2–3): 217–231.
4582:
4567:
4566:
4530:
4515:
4514:
4504:
4472:
4463:
4459:
4450:
4449:
4431:
4407:
4401:
4400:
4398:
4396:
4390:www.sharklet.com
4382:
4376:
4375:
4331:
4322:
4321:
4311:
4287:
4281:
4280:
4270:
4222:
4216:
4215:
4181:
4161:
4155:
4154:
4152:
4120:
4111:
4110:
4100:
4052:
4046:
4045:
4043:
4035:
4029:
4028:
3988:
3979:
3978:
3933:
3924:
3923:
3879:
3870:
3869:
3867:
3865:
3853:
3847:
3846:
3836:
3796:
3790:
3789:
3779:
3761:
3737:
3728:
3727:
3717:
3685:
3679:
3678:
3642:
3636:
3635:
3633:
3631:
3620:
3614:
3613:
3611:
3609:
3594:
3588:
3587:
3566:
3555:
3554:
3546:
3540:
3534:
3521:
3520:
3510:
3504:
3503:
3495:
3489:
3488:
3476:
3470:
3469:
3467:
3465:
3450:
3444:
3443:
3423:
3417:
3410:
3404:
3403:
3401:
3399:
3393:
3386:
3378:
3372:
3371:
3361:
3321:
3312:
3311:
3300:10.1038/nmat2231
3280:Nature Materials
3275:
3266:
3265:
3245:
3234:
3233:
3223:
3183:
3177:
3176:
3166:
3142:
3133:
3132:
3088:
3082:
3081:
3071:
3053:
3029:
3023:
3012:
3006:
2999:
2993:
2992:
2982:
2972:
2940:
2934:
2933:
2923:
2897:
2891:
2890:
2864:
2858:
2857:
2849:
2840:
2839:
2817:
2808:
2807:
2777:
2771:
2770:
2753:(3–4): 295–311.
2740:
2734:
2733:
2715:
2691:
2685:
2684:
2674:
2665:(9): R338–R339.
2650:
2644:
2635:
2430:
2414:
2380:
2365:
2343:
2336:
2329:
2328:
2218:
2196:
2177:
2153:Porcupine fishes
2126:deciduous scales
2078:mechanoreceptors
2051:
2042:
2014:
1998:
1955:apolipoprotein E
1830:on either side.
1761:angles of attack
1742:superhydrophobic
1672:Japanese cuisine
1566:Scale morphology
1468:denticle herring
1426:dermal denticles
1344:Atlantic herring
1278:Collagen fibrils
1232:
1216:
1200:
1184:
1168:
1151:
1108:
1101:
1094:
1093:
1076:
1060:
999:
983:
967:
951:
935:
919:
903:
887:
872:
852:
836:
807:
801:
794:
787:
786:
715:Native Americans
697:
685:
673:
633:
613:
593:
574:
547:
540:
462:in the place of
204:Thelodont scales
97:
21:
6644:
6643:
6639:
6638:
6637:
6635:
6634:
6633:
6619:
6618:
6605:
6600:
6595:
6563:
6487:
6416:
6327:
6280:
6219:
6150:
6043:
6037:
5989:
5933:Ichthyoplankton
5899:
5831:
5824:
5820:Digital Library
5815:Teleost leptins
5754:Shark cartilage
5678:pharyngeal slit
5673:pharyngeal arch
5609:Anguilliformity
5594:
5592:
5584:
5575:
5494:
5489:
5446:(1–2): 83–102.
5433:
5417:
5413:
5400:
5397:
5395:Further reading
5392:
5346:
5345:
5341:
5293:
5292:
5288:
5244:
5243:
5239:
5197:
5193:Catoprion mento
5188:
5187:
5178:
5165:
5155:
5148:
5146:
5140:
5139:
5135:
5081:
5080:
5073:
5062:
5058:
5050:
5041:
5034:
5030:
5022:
5018:
4995:
4994:
4990:
4975:10.2307/1447528
4954:
4953:
4949:
4939:
4937:
4928:
4927:
4923:
4913:
4911:
4902:
4901:
4897:
4877:
4873:
4821:
4820:
4816:
4812:, 25 July 2019.
4805:
4801:
4771:
4770:
4766:
4730:
4729:
4722:
4682:
4681:
4674:
4636:
4635:
4624:
4584:
4583:
4570:
4532:
4531:
4518:
4474:
4473:
4466:
4460:
4453:
4409:
4408:
4404:
4394:
4392:
4384:
4383:
4379:
4333:
4332:
4325:
4296:Materials Today
4289:
4288:
4284:
4224:
4223:
4219:
4163:
4162:
4158:
4122:
4121:
4114:
4054:
4053:
4049:
4041:
4037:
4036:
4032:
3990:
3989:
3982:
3935:
3934:
3927:
3881:
3880:
3873:
3863:
3861:
3855:
3854:
3850:
3798:
3797:
3793:
3739:
3738:
3731:
3687:
3686:
3682:
3644:
3643:
3639:
3629:
3627:
3622:
3621:
3617:
3607:
3605:
3604:. 23 April 2015
3596:
3595:
3591:
3584:
3568:
3567:
3558:
3548:
3547:
3543:
3535:
3524:
3512:
3511:
3507:
3497:
3496:
3492:
3478:
3477:
3473:
3463:
3461:
3452:
3451:
3447:
3440:
3425:
3424:
3420:
3411:
3407:
3397:
3395:
3391:
3384:
3380:
3379:
3375:
3323:
3322:
3315:
3277:
3276:
3269:
3247:
3246:
3237:
3185:
3184:
3180:
3144:
3143:
3136:
3090:
3089:
3085:
3031:
3030:
3026:
3013:
3009:
3000:
2996:
2955:(2): e0172781.
2942:
2941:
2937:
2899:
2898:
2894:
2866:
2865:
2861:
2851:
2850:
2843:
2836:
2819:
2818:
2811:
2779:
2778:
2774:
2742:
2741:
2737:
2700:Current Biology
2693:
2692:
2688:
2659:Current Biology
2652:
2651:
2647:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2604:Scale (zoology)
2575:
2501:
2445:
2438:
2431:
2422:
2415:
2387:
2381:
2372:
2366:
2353:
2225:
2219:
2210:
2203:
2197:
2188:
2178:
2139:caducous scales
2107:caudal peduncle
2062:
2061:
2060:
2059:
2058:
2054:
2053:
2052:
2044:
2043:
2034:
2033:
2027:
2026:
2025:
2024:
2023:
2022:
2015:
2007:
2006:
1999:
1990:
1989:
1983:
1981:Modified scales
1872:collagen fibers
1836:
1781:
1770:
1652:
1643:Strouhal arrays
1598:
1568:
1499:
1487:
1477:and then jawed
1399:
1392:
1346:, are silvered.
1320:
1240:
1239:
1233:
1224:
1223:
1217:
1208:
1207:
1201:
1192:
1191:
1185:
1176:
1175:
1169:
1158:
1156:
1122:
1092:
1091:
1090:
1089:
1088:
1077:
1069:
1068:
1061:
1052:
1051:
1018:
1007:
1006:
1000:
991:
990:
984:
975:
974:
968:
959:
958:
952:
943:
942:
936:
927:
926:
920:
911:
910:
904:
895:
894:
888:
877:
870:
869:
868:
867:
866:
853:
845:
844:
837:
828:
827:
817:
774:
731:
710:
698:
689:
686:
677:
674:
645:
634:
625:
614:
605:
594:
554:
549:
548:
413:
354:
339:
337:Elasmoid scales
285:
277:
206:
53:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6642:
6640:
6632:
6631:
6621:
6620:
6617:
6616:
6611:
6604:
6603:External links
6601:
6597:
6596:
6594:
6593:
6581:
6568:
6565:
6564:
6562:
6561:
6551:
6546:
6545:
6544:
6539:
6531:
6526:
6521:
6516:
6511:
6506:
6501:
6495:
6493:
6489:
6488:
6486:
6485:
6484:
6483:
6478:
6468:
6467:
6466:
6461:
6456:
6446:
6445:
6444:
6439:
6428:
6426:
6422:
6421:
6418:
6417:
6415:
6414:
6413:
6412:
6407:
6402:
6392:
6391:
6390:
6385:
6380:
6375:
6365:
6364:
6363:
6358:
6353:
6348:
6337:
6335:
6333:Wild fisheries
6329:
6328:
6326:
6325:
6320:
6315:
6310:
6305:
6299:
6297:
6288:
6282:
6281:
6279:
6278:
6273:
6268:
6263:
6258:
6256:Hallucinogenic
6253:
6248:
6243:
6238:
6233:
6227:
6225:
6221:
6220:
6218:
6217:
6212:
6207:
6202:
6197:
6192:
6187:
6182:
6177:
6172:
6167:
6161:
6159:
6152:
6151:
6149:
6148:
6143:
6138:
6133:
6131:Schooling fish
6128:
6123:
6118:
6113:
6108:
6103:
6098:
6093:
6091:Filter feeders
6088:
6083:
6078:
6073:
6068:
6066:Bottom feeders
6063:
6058:
6053:
6047:
6045:
6039:
6038:
6036:
6035:
6030:
6025:
6020:
6015:
6010:
6005:
5999:
5997:
5991:
5990:
5988:
5987:
5986:
5985:
5975:
5970:
5965:
5960:
5955:
5950:
5945:
5940:
5935:
5930:
5925:
5920:
5915:
5909:
5907:
5901:
5900:
5898:
5897:
5892:
5887:
5882:
5877:
5872:
5867:
5862:
5857:
5852:
5847:
5842:
5836:
5834:
5826:
5825:
5823:
5822:
5817:
5812:
5811:
5810:
5805:
5795:
5794:
5793:
5788:
5778:
5773:
5768:
5767:
5766:
5756:
5751:
5746:
5741:
5736:
5735:
5734:
5724:
5719:
5714:
5712:Leydig's organ
5709:
5708:
5707:
5705:pharyngeal jaw
5702:
5692:
5687:
5686:
5685:
5680:
5675:
5670:
5665:
5660:
5658:branchial arch
5650:
5649:
5648:
5638:
5633:
5628:
5627:
5626:
5621:
5611:
5606:
5600:
5598:
5586:
5585:
5578:
5576:
5574:
5573:
5568:
5563:
5558:
5553:
5548:
5547:
5546:
5541:
5536:
5526:
5521:
5516:
5511:
5505:
5503:
5496:
5495:
5490:
5488:
5487:
5480:
5473:
5465:
5459:
5458:
5431:
5411:
5396:
5393:
5391:
5390:
5339:
5286:
5237:
5176:
5133:
5071:
5056:
5051:Aryeh Citron,
5039:
5028:
5016:
4988:
4969:(3): 641–648.
4947:
4921:
4895:
4871:
4814:
4799:
4780:(1): 150–160.
4764:
4743:(3): 207–215.
4720:
4672:
4645:(2): 104–108.
4622:
4568:
4541:(2): 219–249.
4516:
4464:
4451:
4422:(5): 785–795.
4402:
4377:
4342:(1): 235–242.
4323:
4282:
4217:
4156:
4112:
4047:
4030:
4003:(4): 457–464.
3980:
3925:
3890:(5): 403–412.
3871:
3848:
3791:
3729:
3680:
3653:(3): 956–961.
3637:
3615:
3602:HuffPost India
3589:
3582:
3570:Herring, Peter
3556:
3541:
3522:
3505:
3490:
3471:
3445:
3438:
3418:
3405:
3394:on May 6, 2016
3373:
3313:
3286:(9): 748–756.
3267:
3256:(2): 173–212.
3235:
3198:(4): 409–440.
3178:
3134:
3099:(2): 567–578.
3083:
3024:
3007:
2994:
2935:
2914:(1): 141–154.
2892:
2859:
2841:
2834:
2809:
2790:(2): 235–252.
2772:
2735:
2686:
2645:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2623:
2622:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2574:
2571:
2547:normally show
2500:
2497:
2493:freshwater cod
2489:Orthodox Union
2444:
2441:
2440:
2439:
2432:
2425:
2423:
2416:
2409:
2389:
2388:
2382:
2375:
2373:
2367:
2360:
2355:
2354:
2348:
2345:
2344:
2337:
2327:
2326:
2315:
2288:
2287:
2277:
2267:
2260:
2253:
2227:
2226:
2220:
2213:
2209:
2206:
2205:
2204:
2198:
2191:
2189:
2181:Porcupine fish
2179:
2172:
2169:
2168:
2160:
2150:
2129:
2110:
2100:
2085:dogfish sharks
2081:
2076:, a system of
2056:
2055:
2046:
2045:
2037:
2036:
2035:
2031:
2030:
2029:
2028:
2017:
2016:
2009:
2008:
2000:
1993:
1992:
1991:
1987:
1986:
1985:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1943:sonic hedgehog
1936:Sharpey fibers
1919:
1918:
1910:
1879:
1835:
1832:
1816:River herrings
1808:
1807:
1804:
1801:
1776:
1769:
1766:
1651:
1648:
1597:
1596:Drag reduction
1594:
1585:turbulent flow
1573:stratum laxum.
1567:
1564:
1557:arranged as a
1541:boundary layer
1537:posterior side
1493:
1486:
1483:
1443:supplied with
1391:
1390:Placoid scales
1388:
1365:aluminium foil
1319:
1316:
1308:
1307:
1301:
1295:
1282:mineralization
1244:
1243:
1242:
1241:
1235:
1234:
1227:
1225:
1219:
1218:
1211:
1209:
1203:
1202:
1195:
1193:
1187:
1186:
1179:
1177:
1171:
1170:
1163:
1159:
1154:
1124:
1123:
1113:
1110:
1109:
1102:
1078:
1071:
1070:
1062:
1055:
1054:
1053:
1049:
1048:
1047:
1046:
1034:hydroxyapatite
1017:
1016:Ctenoid scales
1014:
1011:
1010:
1009:
1008:
1002:
1001:
994:
992:
986:
985:
978:
976:
970:
969:
962:
960:
954:
953:
946:
944:
938:
937:
930:
928:
922:
921:
914:
912:
906:
905:
898:
896:
890:
889:
882:
878:
875:
854:
847:
846:
838:
831:
830:
829:
825:
824:
823:
822:
819:
818:
806:
803:
802:
795:
773:
772:Cycloid scales
770:
730:
729:Leptoid scales
727:
712:
711:
699:
692:
690:
687:
680:
678:
675:
668:
662:cycloid scales
647:
646:
642:cycloid scales
635:
628:
626:
624:armour plates.
615:
608:
606:
595:
588:
576:
575:
568:
555:
550:
412:
409:
397:Eusthenopteron
379:Eusthenopteron
365:Eusthenopteron
345:
338:
335:
303:Crossopterygii
283:
276:
275:Cosmoid scales
273:
205:
202:
182:reptile scales
43:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6641:
6630:
6627:
6626:
6624:
6615:
6612:
6610:
6607:
6606:
6602:
6592:
6591:
6582:
6580:
6579:
6570:
6569:
6566:
6560:
6559:more lists...
6552:
6550:
6547:
6543:
6540:
6538:
6535:
6534:
6532:
6530:
6527:
6525:
6522:
6520:
6517:
6515:
6514:Fish families
6512:
6510:
6507:
6505:
6502:
6500:
6499:Aquarium life
6497:
6496:
6494:
6490:
6482:
6481:fleshy-finned
6479:
6477:
6474:
6473:
6472:
6469:
6465:
6462:
6460:
6457:
6455:
6452:
6451:
6450:
6449:Cartilaginous
6447:
6443:
6440:
6438:
6435:
6434:
6433:
6430:
6429:
6427:
6423:
6411:
6408:
6406:
6403:
6401:
6398:
6397:
6396:
6393:
6389:
6386:
6384:
6381:
6379:
6376:
6374:
6371:
6370:
6369:
6366:
6362:
6359:
6357:
6354:
6352:
6349:
6347:
6344:
6343:
6342:
6339:
6338:
6336:
6334:
6330:
6324:
6321:
6319:
6316:
6314:
6311:
6309:
6306:
6304:
6301:
6300:
6298:
6296:
6292:
6289:
6287:
6283:
6277:
6274:
6272:
6269:
6267:
6264:
6262:
6259:
6257:
6254:
6252:
6249:
6247:
6244:
6242:
6239:
6237:
6234:
6232:
6229:
6228:
6226:
6222:
6216:
6213:
6211:
6208:
6206:
6203:
6201:
6198:
6196:
6193:
6191:
6188:
6186:
6183:
6181:
6178:
6176:
6173:
6171:
6168:
6166:
6163:
6162:
6160:
6158:
6153:
6147:
6144:
6142:
6139:
6137:
6134:
6132:
6129:
6127:
6124:
6122:
6119:
6117:
6114:
6112:
6109:
6107:
6104:
6102:
6099:
6097:
6094:
6092:
6089:
6087:
6086:Electric fish
6084:
6082:
6079:
6077:
6074:
6072:
6069:
6067:
6064:
6062:
6059:
6057:
6054:
6052:
6049:
6048:
6046:
6040:
6034:
6031:
6029:
6026:
6024:
6021:
6019:
6016:
6014:
6011:
6009:
6006:
6004:
6001:
6000:
5998:
5996:
5992:
5984:
5981:
5980:
5979:
5976:
5974:
5971:
5969:
5966:
5964:
5961:
5959:
5956:
5954:
5951:
5949:
5946:
5944:
5941:
5939:
5936:
5934:
5931:
5929:
5926:
5924:
5921:
5919:
5916:
5914:
5911:
5910:
5908:
5906:
5902:
5896:
5893:
5891:
5888:
5886:
5883:
5881:
5878:
5876:
5873:
5871:
5868:
5866:
5863:
5861:
5858:
5856:
5853:
5851:
5848:
5846:
5843:
5841:
5838:
5837:
5835:
5833:
5827:
5821:
5818:
5816:
5813:
5809:
5806:
5804:
5801:
5800:
5799:
5796:
5792:
5789:
5787:
5784:
5783:
5782:
5779:
5777:
5774:
5772:
5769:
5765:
5762:
5761:
5760:
5757:
5755:
5752:
5750:
5747:
5745:
5742:
5740:
5737:
5733:
5730:
5729:
5728:
5725:
5723:
5720:
5718:
5717:Mauthner cell
5715:
5713:
5710:
5706:
5703:
5701:
5698:
5697:
5696:
5693:
5691:
5688:
5684:
5681:
5679:
5676:
5674:
5671:
5669:
5666:
5664:
5661:
5659:
5656:
5655:
5654:
5651:
5647:
5644:
5643:
5642:
5639:
5637:
5636:Chromatophore
5634:
5632:
5629:
5625:
5622:
5620:
5617:
5616:
5615:
5612:
5610:
5607:
5605:
5602:
5601:
5599:
5597:
5591:
5587:
5582:
5572:
5569:
5567:
5564:
5562:
5559:
5557:
5554:
5552:
5549:
5545:
5542:
5540:
5537:
5535:
5532:
5531:
5530:
5527:
5525:
5522:
5520:
5517:
5515:
5512:
5510:
5507:
5506:
5504:
5502:
5497:
5493:
5486:
5481:
5479:
5474:
5472:
5467:
5466:
5463:
5454:
5449:
5445:
5441:
5437:
5432:
5428:
5422:
5414:
5408:
5404:
5399:
5398:
5394:
5386:
5382:
5377:
5372:
5367:
5362:
5358:
5354:
5350:
5343:
5340:
5335:
5331:
5327:
5323:
5319:
5315:
5311:
5307:
5303:
5299:
5298:
5290:
5287:
5282:
5278:
5274:
5270:
5265:
5260:
5256:
5252:
5248:
5241:
5238:
5233:
5229:
5225:
5221:
5216:
5211:
5207:
5203:
5196:
5194:
5185:
5183:
5181:
5177:
5172:
5167:|author=
5160:
5144:
5137:
5134:
5129:
5125:
5120:
5115:
5110:
5105:
5101:
5097:
5094:(9): e44670.
5093:
5089:
5085:
5078:
5076:
5072:
5068:
5065:
5060:
5057:
5054:
5048:
5046:
5044:
5040:
5037:
5032:
5029:
5025:
5020:
5017:
5012:
5008:
5004:
5000:
4992:
4989:
4984:
4980:
4976:
4972:
4968:
4964:
4963:
4958:
4951:
4948:
4936:
4932:
4925:
4922:
4910:
4906:
4899:
4896:
4893:
4892:9780080549521
4889:
4885:
4881:
4875:
4872:
4867:
4863:
4858:
4853:
4849:
4845:
4841:
4837:
4834:: 1248–1259.
4833:
4829:
4825:
4818:
4815:
4811:
4808:
4803:
4800:
4795:
4791:
4787:
4783:
4779:
4775:
4768:
4765:
4760:
4756:
4751:
4746:
4742:
4738:
4734:
4727:
4725:
4721:
4716:
4712:
4707:
4702:
4698:
4694:
4690:
4688:
4679:
4677:
4673:
4668:
4664:
4660:
4656:
4652:
4648:
4644:
4640:
4633:
4631:
4629:
4627:
4623:
4618:
4614:
4609:
4604:
4600:
4596:
4592:
4590:
4581:
4579:
4577:
4575:
4573:
4569:
4564:
4560:
4556:
4552:
4548:
4544:
4540:
4536:
4529:
4527:
4525:
4523:
4521:
4517:
4512:
4508:
4503:
4498:
4494:
4490:
4486:
4482:
4478:
4471:
4469:
4465:
4458:
4456:
4452:
4447:
4443:
4439:
4435:
4430:
4425:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4406:
4403:
4391:
4387:
4381:
4378:
4373:
4369:
4365:
4361:
4357:
4353:
4349:
4345:
4341:
4337:
4330:
4328:
4324:
4319:
4315:
4310:
4305:
4301:
4297:
4293:
4286:
4283:
4278:
4274:
4269:
4264:
4260:
4256:
4252:
4248:
4244:
4240:
4236:
4232:
4228:
4221:
4218:
4213:
4209:
4205:
4201:
4197:
4193:
4189:
4185:
4180:
4175:
4171:
4167:
4160:
4157:
4151:
4146:
4142:
4138:
4135:(6): 060502.
4134:
4130:
4126:
4119:
4117:
4113:
4108:
4104:
4099:
4094:
4090:
4086:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4067:(1): 140163.
4066:
4062:
4058:
4051:
4048:
4040:
4034:
4031:
4026:
4022:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4006:
4002:
3998:
3994:
3987:
3985:
3981:
3976:
3972:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3956:
3952:
3948:
3944:
3940:
3932:
3930:
3926:
3921:
3917:
3913:
3909:
3905:
3901:
3897:
3893:
3889:
3885:
3878:
3876:
3872:
3859:
3852:
3849:
3844:
3840:
3835:
3830:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3814:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3795:
3792:
3787:
3783:
3778:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3751:
3747:
3743:
3736:
3734:
3730:
3725:
3721:
3716:
3711:
3707:
3703:
3700:(6): 060502.
3699:
3695:
3691:
3684:
3681:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3641:
3638:
3626:
3619:
3616:
3603:
3599:
3593:
3590:
3585:
3583:9780198549567
3579:
3575:
3571:
3565:
3563:
3561:
3557:
3552:
3545:
3542:
3539:
3533:
3531:
3529:
3527:
3523:
3518:
3517:
3509:
3506:
3501:
3494:
3491:
3487:(4): 287–305.
3486:
3482:
3475:
3472:
3460:
3456:
3449:
3446:
3441:
3435:
3431:
3430:
3422:
3419:
3415:
3409:
3406:
3390:
3383:
3377:
3374:
3369:
3365:
3360:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3339:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3320:
3318:
3314:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3274:
3272:
3268:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3244:
3242:
3240:
3236:
3231:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3182:
3179:
3174:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3141:
3139:
3135:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3087:
3084:
3079:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3052:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3028:
3025:
3021:
3019:
3011:
3008:
3004:
2998:
2995:
2990:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2939:
2936:
2931:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2908:
2907:Palaeontology
2903:
2896:
2893:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2875:
2870:
2863:
2860:
2855:
2848:
2846:
2842:
2837:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2816:
2814:
2810:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2784:
2776:
2773:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2747:
2739:
2736:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2690:
2687:
2682:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2649:
2646:
2642:
2639:
2634:
2631:
2625:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2599:Reptile scale
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2576:
2572:
2570:
2568:
2563:
2562:morphological
2559:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2523:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2505:
2498:
2496:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2465:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2454:invertebrates
2450:
2447:A passage in
2442:
2436:
2429:
2424:
2420:
2413:
2408:
2406:
2404:
2400:
2395:
2392:
2385:
2379:
2374:
2370:
2364:
2359:
2351:
2346:
2342:
2335:
2331:
2330:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2313:
2312:
2311:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2285:
2281:
2278:
2275:
2271:
2268:
2265:
2261:
2258:
2254:
2251:
2250:overhand knot
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2232:
2231:
2230:
2223:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2201:
2195:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2176:
2171:
2165:
2162:By contrast,
2161:
2158:
2154:
2151:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2135:
2130:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2108:
2104:
2101:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2070:
2069:
2067:
2050:
2041:
2021:
2013:
2004:
1997:
1980:
1978:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1959:triglycerides
1956:
1952:
1948:
1947:organogenesis
1944:
1939:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1924:
1923:ganoid scales
1916:
1911:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1856:
1855:
1853:
1852:metamorphosis
1849:
1848:morphogenesis
1846:occurs, then
1845:
1841:
1833:
1831:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1805:
1802:
1799:
1798:
1797:
1795:
1790:
1787:
1779:
1774:
1767:
1765:
1762:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1734:
1732:
1728:
1723:
1721:
1716:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1689:
1685:
1683:
1682:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1630:
1628:
1623:
1622:Pressure drag
1619:
1610:
1602:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1576:
1574:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1556:
1553:
1548:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1533:
1528:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1511:
1507:
1497:
1491:
1484:
1482:
1480:
1476:
1471:
1469:
1464:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1445:blood vessels
1442:
1438:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1403:
1397:
1389:
1387:
1384:
1382:
1377:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1357:
1354:
1345:
1340:
1332:
1324:
1317:
1315:
1313:
1305:
1302:
1299:
1296:
1293:
1290:
1289:
1288:
1285:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1238:
1231:
1226:
1222:
1215:
1210:
1206:
1199:
1194:
1190:
1183:
1178:
1174:
1167:
1162:
1160:
1152:
1146:
1142:
1135:
1130:
1120:
1117:
1111:
1107:
1100:
1096:
1095:
1086:
1082:
1075:
1066:
1059:
1045:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1015:
1005:
998:
993:
989:
982:
977:
973:
966:
961:
957:
950:
945:
941:
934:
929:
925:
918:
913:
909:
902:
897:
893:
886:
881:
879:
873:
864:
860:
859:
851:
842:
835:
814:
810:
809:Asian arowana
804:
800:
793:
789:
788:
785:
783:
779:
771:
769:
766:
764:
760:
756:
752:
746:
743:
740:
736:
728:
726:
724:
723:alligator gar
720:
716:
709:
706:, circa. 130
705:
704:
696:
691:
684:
679:
672:
667:
665:
663:
656:
651:
643:
639:
632:
627:
623:
619:
612:
607:
603:
599:
598:alligator gar
592:
587:
585:
583:
573:
569:
566:
565:
560:
559:Carboniferous
553:
546:
542:
541:
538:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
519:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
482:
477:
475:
471:
470:
465:
461:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
434:
433:alligator gar
429:
422:
417:
411:Ganoid scales
410:
408:
406:
401:
399:
398:
393:
389:
385:
381:
380:
375:
371:
367:
366:
361:
352:
348:
343:
336:
334:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
281:
274:
272:
269:
264:
260:
257:
253:
249:
244:
242:
238:
231:
229:
224:
222:
217:
216:
210:
203:
201:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
176:layer of the
175:
171:
166:
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
99:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
51:
47:
41:
37:
33:
19:
18:Ctenoid scale
6629:Fish anatomy
6588:
6576:
6476:spiny-finned
6425:Major groups
6146:Intelligence
6126:Scale eaters
6071:Cleaner fish
5953:Mouthbrooder
5905:Reproduction
5880:Schreckstoff
5865:Lateral line
5781:Swim bladder
5771:Spiral valve
5758:
5700:hyomandibula
5683:pseudobranch
5566:Hypoxia in -
5443:
5439:
5402:
5356:
5352:
5342:
5301:
5295:
5289:
5254:
5250:
5240:
5205:
5201:
5192:
5147:. Retrieved
5136:
5091:
5087:
5066:
5059:
5031:
5019:
5002:
4998:
4991:
4966:
4960:
4956:
4950:
4938:. Retrieved
4935:The Atlantic
4934:
4924:
4912:. Retrieved
4908:
4898:
4883:
4874:
4831:
4827:
4817:
4809:
4802:
4777:
4773:
4767:
4740:
4736:
4696:
4692:
4686:
4642:
4638:
4598:
4594:
4588:
4538:
4534:
4484:
4480:
4419:
4415:
4405:
4395:26 September
4393:. Retrieved
4389:
4380:
4339:
4335:
4302:(4): 36–44.
4299:
4295:
4285:
4234:
4230:
4220:
4169:
4165:
4159:
4132:
4128:
4064:
4060:
4050:
4033:
4000:
3996:
3942:
3938:
3887:
3883:
3862:. Retrieved
3851:
3808:
3804:
3794:
3749:
3745:
3697:
3693:
3683:
3650:
3646:
3640:
3628:. Retrieved
3618:
3606:. Retrieved
3601:
3592:
3573:
3550:
3544:
3515:
3508:
3499:
3493:
3484:
3480:
3474:
3462:. Retrieved
3458:
3448:
3428:
3421:
3413:
3408:
3396:. Retrieved
3389:the original
3376:
3333:
3329:
3283:
3279:
3253:
3249:
3195:
3191:
3181:
3157:(1): 86–95.
3154:
3150:
3096:
3092:
3086:
3041:
3037:
3027:
3022:55: 459–470.
3017:
3010:
2997:
2952:
2948:
2938:
2911:
2905:
2895:
2878:
2872:
2868:
2862:
2853:
2821:
2787:
2781:
2775:
2750:
2744:
2738:
2703:
2699:
2689:
2662:
2658:
2648:
2640:
2633:
2614:Snake scales
2609:Scale armour
2555:
2543:
2524:
2516:scale-eating
2515:
2510:
2468:
2466:
2458:abominations
2446:
2396:
2393:
2390:
2308:sticklebacks
2289:
2270:Mandarinfish
2234:Jawless fish
2228:
2222:Mandarinfish
2167:vertebrates.
2141:between the
2138:
2132:
2125:
2074:lateral line
2063:
2003:common roach
1988:Lateral line
1940:
1920:
1895:invagination
1837:
1828:lateral line
1812:pineconefish
1809:
1793:
1791:
1784:
1778:Pineconefish
1754:
1750:
1746:lotus effect
1735:
1724:
1717:
1709:green sludge
1694:
1679:
1653:
1635:
1631:
1627:laminar flow
1615:
1577:
1572:
1569:
1549:
1545:laminar flow
1543:forcing the
1529:
1525:lotus effect
1521:anti-fouling
1510:hydrodynamic
1508:that reduce
1502:
1475:ostracoderms
1472:
1465:
1457:vitrodentine
1425:
1409:
1408:
1385:
1378:
1376:camouflage.
1358:
1353:transparency
1349:
1309:
1304:True ctenoid
1303:
1297:
1291:
1286:
1268:between the
1262:lateral line
1260:, along the
1247:
1118:
1025:
1019:
856:
775:
767:
763:age the fish
758:
754:
747:
732:
713:
701:
659:
579:
562:
551:
535:tooth enamel
516:
478:
474:vitrodentine
472:in place of
467:
444:paddlefishes
437:
402:
395:
377:
363:
357:
327:vitrodentine
288:
265:
261:
245:
234:
226:
219:
213:
167:
123:ostracoderms
115:anglerfishes
103:shrimpfishes
100:
86:
67:jawed fishes
58:
56:
46:teleost fish
36:
6590:WikiProject
6549:Prehistoric
6533:Threatened
6224:Other types
6121:Sardine run
6096:Forage fish
6076:Corallivory
5928:Development
5913:Bubble nest
5786:physoclisti
5776:Suckermouth
5749:Root effect
5571:Ichthyology
5353:BMC Biology
4687:Danio rerio
4589:Danio rerio
3746:Biomimetics
3464:29 December
3414:Ichthyology
2881:(1): 1–11.
2869:Phlebolepis
2512:Lepidophagy
2499:Lepidophagy
2319:exoskeleton
2143:pelvic fins
2103:Surgeonfish
2032:Surgeonfish
1975:interaction
1963:cholesterol
1928:osteoblasts
1909:will arise.
1899:basal cells
1876:fibroblasts
1654:The rough,
1552:collagenous
1515:and reduce
1496:tiger shark
1441:pulp cavity
1266:fibroblasts
518:Cheirolepis
505:coelacanths
421:spotted gar
392:coelacanths
241:fossil fish
215:Paralogania
184:. The same
127:bony fishes
83:colouration
6205:Groundfish
6200:Freshwater
6195:Euryhaline
6180:Coral reef
6116:Salmon run
6106:Paedophagy
6008:Amphibious
5995:Locomotion
5803:pharyngeal
5791:physostome
5744:Photophore
5690:Glossohyal
5663:gill raker
5646:dorsal fin
5596:physiology
5145:. FishBase
4940:26 January
4179:1904.12752
2641:Etymonline
2626:References
2280:Anglerfish
2274:aposematic
2200:Pufferfish
2164:pufferfish
1907:primordium
1903:epithelium
1844:mesenchyme
1820:threadfins
1589:biomimetic
1517:turbulence
1485:Shark skin
1479:placoderms
1434:vertebrate
1430:homologous
1318:Reflection
1312:flatfishes
1258:caudal fin
1254:integument
1145:Crazy fish
1085:perch-like
1030:perch-like
757:(singular
737:(the more
622:scute-like
602:rhomboidal
582:rhomboidal
531:homologous
527:acanthodii
513:stem group
495:, such as
487:bones and
388:lungfishes
370:coelacanth
360:imbricated
351:coelacanth
307:coelacanth
301:), and in
297:(subclass
295:lungfishes
268:convergent
237:thelodonts
194:homologous
119:morphology
91:Old French
79:reflection
75:camouflage
59:fish scale
6454:chimaeras
6341:Predatory
6318:Salmonids
6276:Whitefish
6266:Poisonous
6241:Diversity
6175:Coldwater
6111:Predatory
6101:Migratory
6061:Bait ball
6044:behaviour
5963:Pregnancy
5958:Polyandry
5732:papillare
5727:Operculum
5722:Meristics
5668:gill slit
5631:Cleithrum
5561:Fish kill
5551:Fear of -
5544:- as food
5534:Fisheries
5519:Evolution
5509:Diversity
5421:cite book
5251:Evolution
4438:1477-9145
4364:0021-9797
4318:1369-7021
4259:2045-2322
4212:139103148
4089:2054-5703
4025:137143652
4017:1672-6529
3959:1097-4687
3920:122574419
3912:1432-1114
3864:29 August
3825:0962-8452
3768:2313-7673
3752:(2): 38.
3667:0743-7463
3630:28 August
3398:April 12,
3350:1742-5689
3212:0021-8782
3113:1433-2965
3060:1664-2392
2930:128939911
2619:Urokotori
2545:Fish jaws
2449:Leviticus
2443:Leviticus
2384:Seahorses
2296:seahorses
2284:tubercles
2242:hagfishes
2122:halfbeaks
2118:anchovies
2097:sawsharks
2093:sawfishes
2089:stingrays
1887:epidermis
1868:acellular
1840:zebrafish
1713:U.S. Navy
1701:barnacles
1662:, called
1656:sandpaper
1396:Sharkskin
1270:epidermis
1081:dottyback
863:carp-like
703:Lepidotes
440:sturgeons
405:zebrafish
256:enameloid
248:histology
143:sturgeons
107:boxfishes
6623:Category
6578:Category
6529:Smallest
6442:lampreys
6405:flatfish
6395:Demersal
6351:mackerel
6346:billfish
6286:Commerce
6215:Tropical
6190:Demersal
6185:Deep-sea
6141:Venomous
6033:RoboTuna
5983:triggers
5978:Spawning
5938:Juvenile
5923:Egg case
5556:FishBase
5385:20102595
5359:(1): 8.
5334:33113282
5326:17807183
5281:23695342
5273:21790569
5232:15566769
5224:16326957
5159:cite web
5149:12 April
5128:22970282
5088:PLOS ONE
4909:BBC News
4866:31353167
4828:iScience
4810:Phys.org
4794:23542000
4759:10090147
4715:15272389
4667:13353402
4659:11341672
4617:15272388
4563:19556201
4555:12803422
4511:29436512
4446:22323201
4372:22995249
4277:25338940
4237:: 6650.
4204:31375542
4107:26064576
3975:23881820
3967:22730019
3843:24943377
3786:31137624
3724:18118663
3675:15667174
3647:Langmuir
3572:(2002).
3368:27974575
3308:18660814
3230:19422423
3129:21829206
3121:23903952
3078:30761080
2989:28241029
2949:PLOS ONE
2804:85993241
2730:18868124
2722:11566120
2681:23660349
2573:See also
2475:and the
2419:filefish
2403:corselet
2323:ossified
2304:poachers
2292:pipefish
2238:lampreys
2145:and the
2114:herrings
1932:ossified
1854:occurs.
1731:sharklet
1681:oroshiki
1674:to make
1664:shagreen
1638:sublayer
1506:vortices
1250:placodes
1189:flathead
1042:collagen
1022:spinules
956:grayling
735:teleosts
618:sturgeon
489:fin rays
374:lungfish
315:vascular
311:lamellar
228:Lanarkia
174:mesoderm
6524:Largest
6437:hagfish
6432:Jawless
6410:pollock
6383:sardine
6378:herring
6373:anchovy
6323:Tilapia
6313:Octopus
6308:Catfish
6295:Farming
6210:Pelagic
6170:Coastal
6157:habitat
6013:Walking
5918:Clasper
5870:Otolith
5832:systems
5830:Sensory
5764:ganoine
5739:Papilla
5590:Anatomy
5529:Fishing
5376:2828976
5306:Bibcode
5297:Science
5119:3435272
5096:Bibcode
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4914:2 April
4857:6831732
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2980:5328365
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2755:Bibcode
2553:cichlid
2527:keratin
2520:evolved
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2369:Boxfish
2300:boxfish
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2134:Percina
2066:evolved
1901:of the
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1678:called
1676:graters
1660:leather
1559:helical
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1373:guanine
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1221:emperor
1116:rattail
1024:called
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501:bichirs
485:cranial
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464:cosmine
460:dentine
456:bichirs
331:keratin
323:cosmine
319:dentine
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190:mammals
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6459:sharks
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940:minnow
892:salmon
813:mosaic
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5151:2007
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