508:, the first interdisciplinary academic organization devoted to the study of metals in the United States. He considered it "a natural outgrowth of the close association of metallurgists with chemists and physicists on the Manhattan Project." He developed methods for deriving the three-dimensional shapes of the crystalline structures of metals from the two-dimensional microscope images of the grains of the metals. He also studied the propagation of induced phase changes in metals. He was fascinated by the details of faults and
752:
2052:
489:
2064:
351:
595:. In his role of teaching the history of science, he argued that important advances were often the result of curiosity rather than the pursuit of defined goals. He was interested in the scientific aspects of fine arts, and published several works linking the arts with the sciences. He lectured about this at the
662:
On retirement from MIT in 1969, Smith became a professor emeritus of the
History of Science and Technology, professor emeritus of Metallurgy and Humanities and Institute Professor Emeritus, an unusual title "reserved for only a few whose work transcends the boundaries of traditional departments and
331:
in 1936, on 16 March 1931. Of the marriage, Alice's sister remarked that: "If he didn't go to Oxford or
Cambridge, isn't Church of England, and doesn't like sports, you might as well marry an American". He became a naturalized American citizen in 1939. His wife sparked an interest in history, a
374:
as the head of its
Metallurgy Group. When the laboratory was reorganized in April 1944, he became the Associate Division Leader in charge of metallurgy. His first task was recruiting metallurgists, who were in great demand by the war effort. He also had to arrange for the transport of their
256:
in metals, and developed theoretical models of them. In 1961, he moved to MIT as an
Institute Professor with appointments in both the Departments of Humanities and Metallurgy. He applied the techniques of metallurgy to the study of the production methods used to create artefacts such as
586:
In 1961, Smith moved to MIT as an
Institute Professor with appointments in both the Departments of Humanities and Metallurgy. His focus was to transplant the techniques of metallurgy into the study of the production methods used to create artefacts discovered by
531:, the wartime director of the Los Alamos Laboratory, the General Advisory Committee provided policy as well as technical advice to the commissioners. One of Smith's first papers for the commission recommended that it concentrate on the development of
40:
414:
tests were found to be inefficient, and the idea was set aside for the duration, although further work was carried out after the war. By July 1944, they were producing pure uranium metal in 200g amounts with a newly devised process.
430:, more than any other metal, and its melting point turned out to be hundreds of degrees lower than uranium. The metallurgists found that at around 125 °C, plutonium expanded in volume by 20 percent, which is unusual.
654:
for "pioneering the use of solid state physics in the study of ancient art and artefacts to reconstruct their cultural, historical and technological significance." He was also a member of the editorial board of the
639:
453:
for safety reasons. The metallurgists figured out how to purify the plutonium, and found that heating it to 250° allowed them to work it in the malleable Îŗ phase. It was also found that alloying it with 3 percent
1374:
2159:
2104:
703:
Metal interfaces: a seminar on metal interfaces held during the Thirty-third
National Metal Congress and Exposition, Detroit, October 13 to 19, 1951; sponsored by the American Society for Metals
512:
in metals, and developed theoretical models of them. Perhaps his most influential paper was on "Grain Shapes and Other
Metallurgical Applications of Topology" (1952), an explanation of metallic
688:
2164:
2119:
422:, a metal hitherto available only in microgram amounts, and whose properties were largely unknown. It was initially assumed that plutonium would have properties similar to that of
2114:
559:
2134:
1618:
535:
and high flux reactors. A 1948 visit to
England to discuss plutonium metallurgy with British scientists nearly escalated into an international incident, as Senator
2109:
2149:
2154:
550:
faced severe criticism for authorizing Smith's visit. In common with other members of the
General Advisory Committee, Smith opposed the development of the
2144:
563:
238:
1521:
2139:
2124:
524:
234:
252:, the first interdisciplinary academic organization devoted to the study of metals in the United States. He studied the details of faults and
1611:
1489:
627:
567:
426:, but this assumption turned out to be invalid. Plutonium proved to be "the most complicated metal known to man". There were found to be six
301:
210:
164:
96:
2129:
1745:
676:
540:
332:
subject that he had disliked at school. He acquired old texts, and in 1945 he produced a translation of a classic metallurgical text,
2099:
1579:
1534:
854:
829:
806:
787:
768:
656:
462:
in
February 1945, they were ready for production. In a race against the clock, the metallurgists produced plutonium spheres for the
233:, a metal hitherto available only in microgram amounts, and whose properties were largely unknown. After the war he served on the
1604:
892:
308:
in 1926. He was a research associate at MIT from 1926 to 1927, then left to take up a position as a research metallurgist at the
278:
1001:
1529:. A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press.
293:, having not met the requirements in mathematics to study his first choice, which was physics, and was awarded a second-class
2094:
1450:
571:
474:
672:
647:
615:
129:
2042:
1081:
956:
923:
575:
555:
20:
623:
1691:
619:
2068:
2056:
963:
930:
643:
604:
312:. His research there was mainly involved with the electrical, thermal, and mechanical and magnetic properties of
1899:
1852:
664:
290:
206:
92:
72:
273:, England, on 4 October 1903, the third of four children of Joseph Seymour Smith, a commercial traveller for
1727:
1627:
1170:
631:
596:
546:
feared that he would give atomic secrets away to the British. Smith did no such thing; but AEC Commissioner
523:
From 12 December 1946 to 10 January 1952, Smith served on the influential General Advisory Committee of the
442:
427:
1757:
1316:
2029:
1959:
751:
680:
501:
309:
245:
214:
152:
1810:
1828:
1399:
517:
505:
434:
371:
249:
222:
160:
156:
2017:
2013:
1816:
1798:
1929:
2089:
2084:
1989:
1971:
1822:
1721:
1093:
600:
532:
463:
411:
333:
2007:
1840:
1739:
1661:
1864:
1786:
1751:
1703:
1648:
668:
651:
635:
536:
320:
194:
134:
1995:
1935:
1911:
1870:
1804:
1733:
1563:
1517:
1221:
740:
611:
528:
174:
458:
would stabilize it in the δ phase. When plutonium at last began to arrive in quantity from the
1846:
1585:
1575:
1540:
1530:
1495:
1485:
850:
840:
825:
802:
783:
764:
720:
367:
338:
198:
1424:
1257:
1953:
1947:
1893:
1858:
1792:
1673:
1642:
1570:
Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943â1945
1559:
1237:
1101:
897:
732:
509:
399:
363:
282:
253:
1780:
1697:
543:
477:
470:
407:
395:
391:
324:
202:
124:
111:
1005:
799:
History of Metallography: The Development of Ideas on the Structure of Metals Before 1890
701:
Smith, Cyril S. (1952). "Grain Shapes and Other Metallurgical Applications of Topology".
1097:
488:
1977:
1709:
1679:
1568:
1478:
887:
818:
684:
513:
433:
Plutonium was delivered to Los Alamos in the form of what was found to be a mixture of
387:
2078:
1685:
1654:
592:
551:
403:
313:
258:
1349:
2023:
1965:
1941:
1923:
1917:
1105:
1051:
1049:
1047:
459:
359:
218:
909:
671:, his two children, Anne Smith Denman, chair of the Department of Anthropology at
844:
1983:
1715:
1148:
1146:
588:
547:
493:
274:
226:
901:
723:(1974). "Mappae Clavicula: A Little Key to the World of Medieval Techniques".
286:
270:
190:
106:
53:
1834:
1589:
419:
390:
had developed a large-scale process for producing pure uranium metal at the
383:
230:
1544:
1499:
350:
39:
1596:
2001:
1905:
450:
679:, and a sister, Mary Smith. His papers are in the Niels Bohr Library in
744:
455:
423:
1425:"Dexter Award for Outstanding Achievement in the History of Chemistry"
1242:
1225:
836:
20th Century translation by Cyril Stanley Smith and Martha Teach Gnudi
638:' Platinum Medal in 1970. In 1981, Cyril Stanley Smith received the
386:
bricks, and heat-treating steel. They also had to work with uranium.
213:(MIT), Smith worked for many years as a research metallurgist at the
736:
683:. His collection of antiquarian metallurgical texts was left to the
667:
home on 25 August 1992. He was survived by his wife of sixty years,
640:
Dexter Award for Outstanding Achievement in the History of Chemistry
780:
A Search for Structure: Selected Essays on Science, Art and History
714:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Society for the History of Technology.
487:
379:
349:
114:
1476:
Hawkins, David; Truslow, Edith C.; Smith, Ralph Carlisle (1961).
375:
metallurgical equipment to Los Alamos under wartime conditions.
362:, he was called into service at the War Metallurgy Committee in
1600:
1203:
1191:
1152:
1137:
1125:
1055:
1026:
328:
305:
294:
492:
The Institute for the Study of Metals was located in the old
418:
But by far the biggest challenge for Smith and his group was
316:. He published numerous papers, and was awarded 20 patents.
1480:
Manhattan District history, Project Y, the Los Alamos story
705:. Cleveland: American Society for Metals. pp. 65â108.
689:
Dibner Institute for the History of Science and Technology
2160:
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
712:
Sources for the History of the Science of Steel 1532â1786
520:
in 1955 to study the History of Science and Technology.
277:, and his wife, Frances, nÊe Norton. He was educated at
221:
he worked in the Chemical-Metallurgical Division of the
675:, and Stuart Marchant Smith, a marine geologist at the
1317:"The Cyril Smith Incident: A tale of Cold War jitters"
554:
on technical and moral grounds. He also served on the
2040:
402:
could not be handled in this way, as it would form a
370:, joining the Chemical-Metallurgical Division at the
560:
Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy
1885:
1772:
1634:
1511:
Originally published as Los Alamos Report LAMS-2532
1067:
1038:
237:'s influential General Advisory Committee, and the
170:
148:
120:
102:
88:
80:
61:
46:
30:
1567:
1477:
817:
725:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society
394:which was fine for producing tons of feed for the
19:For other persons with the name Cyril Smith, see
2105:People educated at Bishop Vesey's Grammar School
1216:
1214:
1212:
406:. Smith was initially asked to produce cubes of
378:Smith's metallurgists found ways of fabricating
189:(4 October 1903 â 25 August 1992) was a British
663:disciplines". He died of colonic cancer in his
610:Smith received numerous awards, including the
201:where he was responsible for the production of
2165:Members of the American Philosophical Society
2120:Massachusetts Institute of Technology faculty
1612:
1336:
1302:
1290:
1278:
8:
2115:Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni
896:(online ed.). Oxford University Press.
731:(4). American Philosophical Society: 1â128.
1260:. John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation
1619:
1605:
1597:
449:). Work with plutonium was carried out in
27:
2135:Scientists from Birmingham, West Midlands
1241:
1165:
1163:
1161:
626:' Gold Medal in 1961. He was awarded the
323:, a student of English social history at
1574:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
197:. He is most famous for his work on the
2047:
1562:; Henriksen, Paul W.; Meade, Roger A.;
1451:"Cyril Stanley Smith papers, 1922â1992"
1354:American Academy of Arts & Sciences
893:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
870:
820:The Pirotechnia of Vanoccio Biringuccio
801:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
782:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
763:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
2110:Alumni of the University of Birmingham
882:
880:
878:
876:
874:
564:President's Science Advisory Committee
239:President's Science Advisory Committee
2150:Cold War history of the United States
996:
994:
992:
990:
988:
986:
984:
982:
980:
951:
949:
947:
816:Vannocio Biringuccio (January 1990).
628:Society for the History of Technology
582:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
568:American Academy of Arts and Sciences
366:In April 1943 he went to work on the
302:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
225:, where he purified, cast and shaped
211:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
165:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
97:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
7:
1429:Division of the History of Chemistry
890:"Smith, Cyril Stanley (1903â1992)".
843:& Smith, Cyril Stanley (1979).
677:Scripps Institution of Oceanography
2155:Leonardo da Vinci Medal recipients
1484:. Los Angeles: Tomash Publishers.
1004:. 2 September 1992. Archived from
14:
1086:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
1068:Hawkins, Truslow & Smith 1961
1039:Hawkins, Truslow & Smith 1961
957:"Cyril Stanley Smith (1903â1992)"
924:"Cyril Stanley Smith (1903â1992)"
657:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
502:Institute for the Study of Metals
246:Institute for the Study of Metals
2145:20th-century American historians
2062:
2050:
1002:"Cyril Stanley Smith Dies at 88"
750:
500:After the war Smith founded the
38:
16:British metallurgist (1903â1992)
1453:. American Institute of Physics
1173:. Manhattan Project Voice. 1986
574:in 1955, and the United States
1106:10.1080/00963402.1994.11456528
572:American Philosophical Society
480:for these activities in 1946.
410:, which he did, but the 1950s
354:Cyril Smith's Los Alamos badge
1:
2140:British historians of science
2125:University of Chicago faculty
673:Central Washington University
648:American Institute of Physics
279:Bishop Vesey's Grammar School
1315:Weeks, Erin (18 June 2013).
1171:"Cyril S. Smith's Interview"
910:UK public library membership
576:National Academy of Sciences
556:National Academy of Sciences
300:That year Smith entered the
21:Cyril Smith (disambiguation)
1431:. American Chemical Society
719:Smith, Cyril Stanley &
624:American Society for Metals
566:. Smith was elected to the
2181:
2130:Medal for Merit recipients
1520:; Duncan, Francis (1969).
1226:"Obituary: Cyril S. Smith"
846:Theophilus: On Divers Arts
646:. In 1991 he received the
620:History of Science Society
327:, from which she earned a
205:metals. A graduate of the
18:
1337:Hewlett & Duncan 1969
1303:Hewlett & Duncan 1969
1291:Hewlett & Duncan 1969
1279:Hewlett & Duncan 1969
1080:Moore, Mike (July 1994).
964:American Chemical Society
931:American Chemical Society
644:American Chemical Society
605:Arthur M. Sackler Gallery
304:(MIT), where he earned a
180:
141:
37:
2100:Manhattan Project people
1523:Atomic Shield, 1947â1952
1339:, pp. 380â385, 389.
797:Smith, Cyril S. (1988).
778:Smith, Cyril S. (1981).
759:Smith, Cyril S. (1980).
710:Smith, Cyril S. (1968).
665:Cambridge, Massachusetts
525:Atomic Energy Commission
291:University of Birmingham
235:Atomic Energy Commission
207:University of Birmingham
93:University of Birmingham
1728:Derek J. de Solla Price
1628:Leonardo da Vinci Medal
632:Leonardo da Vinci Medal
616:Francis J. Clamer Medal
597:Smithsonian Institution
443:plutonium tetrafluoride
428:allotropes of plutonium
130:Francis J. Clamer Medal
1564:Westfall, Catherine L.
902:10.1093/ref:odnb/51320
681:College Park, Maryland
497:
469:Smith was awarded the
355:
321:Alice Marchant Kimball
310:American Brass Company
215:American Brass Company
153:American Brass Company
2095:English metallurgists
1758:Donald S. L. Cardwell
1350:"Cyril Stanley Smith"
1258:"Cyril Stanley Smith"
824:(in Italian). Dover.
533:fast breeder reactors
518:Guggenheim Fellowship
506:University of Chicago
491:
484:University of Chicago
435:plutonium trifluoride
372:Los Alamos Laboratory
353:
250:University of Chicago
223:Los Alamos Laboratory
161:University of Chicago
157:Los Alamos Laboratory
1960:John M. Staudenmaier
1823:Edwin T. Layton, Jr.
1379:search.amphilsoc.org
1375:"APS Member History"
1204:Hoddeson et al. 1993
1192:Hoddeson et al. 1993
1153:Hoddeson et al. 1993
1138:Hoddeson et al. 1993
1126:Hoddeson et al. 1993
1056:Hoddeson et al. 1993
1027:Hoddeson et al. 1993
1008:on 21 September 2007
622:'s Pfizer Medal and
601:Freer Gallery of Art
541:Secretary of Defense
464:Trinity nuclear test
412:uranium hydride bomb
334:Vannocio Biringuccio
195:historian of science
75:, Massachusetts, USA
1865:Ruth Schwartz Cowan
1811:Sidney M. Edelstein
1668:Cyril Stanley Smith
1649:Abbott Payson Usher
1643:Robert James Forbes
1518:Hewlett, Richard G.
1222:Smoluchowski, Roman
1206:, pp. 328â331.
1194:, pp. 281â285.
1140:, pp. 126â127.
1098:1994BuAtS..50d...2M
1058:, pp. 210â211.
1041:, pp. 148â149.
849:. New York: Dover.
761:From Art to Science
669:Alice Kimball Smith
652:Andrew Gemant Award
636:Institute of Metals
607:in Washington, DC.
537:Bourke Hickenlooper
516:. He was awarded a
187:Cyril Stanley Smith
135:Andrew Gemant Award
32:Cyril Stanley Smith
2069:Nuclear technology
2057:History of Science
1936:David A. Hounshell
1871:Walter G. Vincenti
1829:Carroll W. Pursell
1805:Robert P. Multhauf
1734:Eugene S. Ferguson
841:Hawthorne, John G.
721:Hawthorne, John G.
618:in 1952, and the
612:Franklin Institute
529:Robert Oppenheimer
527:(AEC). Chaired by
498:
356:
269:Smith was born in
244:Smith founded the
175:William W. Mullins
2038:
2037:
2018:Arthur P. Molella
2014:Maria Paula Diogo
1972:Rosalind Williams
1847:Merritt Roe Smith
1817:R. Angus Buchanan
1799:Hugh G. J. Aitken
1560:Hoddeson, Lillian
1491:978-0-938228-08-0
1404:www.nasonline.org
1293:, pp. 16â17.
1243:10.1063/1.2808951
908:(Subscription or
634:in 1966, and the
466:by 23 July 1945.
368:Manhattan Project
339:De la pirotechnia
199:Manhattan Project
184:
183:
171:Doctoral students
143:Scientific career
2172:
2067:
2066:
2065:
2055:
2054:
2053:
2046:
2030:Donald MacKenzie
1954:Svante Lindqvist
1948:Susan J. Douglas
1930:Eric H. Robinson
1894:Silvio A. Bedini
1859:Nathan Rosenberg
1793:Thomas P. Hughes
1674:Melvin Kranzberg
1621:
1614:
1607:
1598:
1593:
1573:
1555:
1553:
1551:
1528:
1513:
1508:
1506:
1483:
1463:
1462:
1460:
1458:
1447:
1441:
1440:
1438:
1436:
1421:
1415:
1414:
1412:
1410:
1400:"Cyril S. Smith"
1396:
1390:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1371:
1365:
1364:
1362:
1360:
1346:
1340:
1334:
1328:
1327:
1325:
1323:
1312:
1306:
1300:
1294:
1288:
1282:
1276:
1270:
1269:
1267:
1265:
1254:
1248:
1247:
1245:
1218:
1207:
1201:
1195:
1189:
1183:
1182:
1180:
1178:
1167:
1156:
1150:
1141:
1135:
1129:
1123:
1117:
1116:
1114:
1112:
1077:
1071:
1065:
1059:
1053:
1042:
1036:
1030:
1024:
1018:
1017:
1015:
1013:
998:
975:
974:
972:
970:
961:
953:
942:
941:
939:
937:
928:
920:
914:
913:
905:
884:
860:
835:
823:
812:
793:
774:
755:
754:
748:
715:
706:
510:grain boundaries
400:enriched uranium
396:nuclear reactors
364:Washington, D.C.
358:In 1942, during
283:Sutton Coldfield
254:grain boundaries
68:
42:
28:
2180:
2179:
2175:
2174:
2173:
2171:
2170:
2169:
2075:
2074:
2073:
2063:
2061:
2051:
2049:
2041:
2039:
2034:
1990:Ronald R. Kline
1881:
1781:Louis C. Hunter
1768:
1722:Friedrich Klemm
1698:A. G. Drachmann
1630:
1625:
1582:
1558:
1549:
1547:
1537:
1526:
1516:
1504:
1502:
1492:
1475:
1472:
1467:
1466:
1456:
1454:
1449:
1448:
1444:
1434:
1432:
1423:
1422:
1418:
1408:
1406:
1398:
1397:
1393:
1383:
1381:
1373:
1372:
1368:
1358:
1356:
1348:
1347:
1343:
1335:
1331:
1321:
1319:
1314:
1313:
1309:
1301:
1297:
1289:
1285:
1277:
1273:
1263:
1261:
1256:
1255:
1251:
1220:
1219:
1210:
1202:
1198:
1190:
1186:
1176:
1174:
1169:
1168:
1159:
1151:
1144:
1136:
1132:
1124:
1120:
1110:
1108:
1079:
1078:
1074:
1066:
1062:
1054:
1045:
1037:
1033:
1025:
1021:
1011:
1009:
1000:
999:
978:
968:
966:
959:
955:
954:
945:
935:
933:
926:
922:
921:
917:
907:
888:Cahn, Robert W.
886:
885:
872:
867:
857:
839:
832:
815:
809:
796:
790:
777:
771:
758:
749:
737:10.2307/1006317
718:
709:
700:
697:
584:
544:James Forrestal
486:
478:Harry S. Truman
471:Medal for Merit
448:
440:
408:uranium hydride
392:Ames Laboratory
348:
325:Yale University
267:
163:
159:
155:
133:
128:
125:Medal for Merit
109:
95:
89:Alma mater
76:
70:
66:
57:
51:
33:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2178:
2176:
2168:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2142:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2077:
2076:
2072:
2071:
2059:
2036:
2035:
2033:
2032:
2026:
2020:
2010:
2008:Francesca Bray
2004:
1998:
1992:
1986:
1980:
1978:Pamela O. Long
1974:
1968:
1962:
1956:
1950:
1944:
1938:
1932:
1926:
1920:
1914:
1908:
1902:
1900:Robert C. Post
1896:
1889:
1887:
1883:
1882:
1880:
1879:
1873:
1867:
1861:
1855:
1853:Bruce Sinclair
1849:
1843:
1841:W. David Lewis
1837:
1831:
1825:
1819:
1813:
1807:
1801:
1795:
1789:
1783:
1776:
1774:
1770:
1769:
1767:
1766:
1760:
1754:
1748:
1742:
1740:Torsten Althin
1736:
1730:
1724:
1718:
1712:
1710:Carl W. Condit
1706:
1700:
1694:
1692:Bertrand Gille
1688:
1682:
1680:Joseph Needham
1676:
1670:
1664:
1662:Maurice Daumas
1658:
1651:
1645:
1638:
1636:
1632:
1631:
1626:
1624:
1623:
1616:
1609:
1601:
1595:
1594:
1580:
1556:
1535:
1514:
1490:
1471:
1468:
1465:
1464:
1442:
1416:
1391:
1366:
1341:
1329:
1307:
1295:
1283:
1281:, p. 665.
1271:
1249:
1236:(6): 110â111.
1208:
1196:
1184:
1157:
1155:, p. 206.
1142:
1130:
1128:, p. 220.
1118:
1072:
1070:, p. 162.
1060:
1043:
1031:
1029:, p. 209.
1019:
976:
943:
915:
869:
868:
866:
863:
862:
861:
855:
837:
830:
813:
807:
794:
788:
775:
769:
756:
716:
707:
696:
695:Selected works
693:
685:Burndy Library
593:samurai swords
589:archaeologists
583:
580:
514:microstructure
485:
482:
446:
438:
388:Frank Spedding
347:
344:
266:
263:
259:samurai swords
182:
181:
178:
177:
172:
168:
167:
150:
146:
145:
139:
138:
122:
118:
117:
110:production of
104:
103:Known for
100:
99:
90:
86:
85:
82:
78:
77:
71:
69:(aged 88)
65:25 August 1992
63:
59:
58:
52:
50:4 October 1903
48:
44:
43:
35:
34:
31:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2177:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2082:
2080:
2070:
2060:
2058:
2048:
2044:
2031:
2027:
2025:
2021:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2009:
2005:
2003:
1999:
1997:
1993:
1991:
1987:
1985:
1981:
1979:
1975:
1973:
1969:
1967:
1963:
1961:
1957:
1955:
1951:
1949:
1945:
1943:
1939:
1937:
1933:
1931:
1927:
1925:
1921:
1919:
1915:
1913:
1909:
1907:
1903:
1901:
1897:
1895:
1891:
1890:
1888:
1884:
1878:
1874:
1872:
1868:
1866:
1862:
1860:
1856:
1854:
1850:
1848:
1844:
1842:
1838:
1836:
1832:
1830:
1826:
1824:
1820:
1818:
1814:
1812:
1808:
1806:
1802:
1800:
1796:
1794:
1790:
1788:
1787:Brooke Hindle
1784:
1782:
1778:
1777:
1775:
1771:
1765:
1761:
1759:
1755:
1753:
1752:John Bell Rae
1749:
1747:
1743:
1741:
1737:
1735:
1731:
1729:
1725:
1723:
1719:
1717:
1713:
1711:
1707:
1705:
1704:Ladislao Reti
1701:
1699:
1695:
1693:
1689:
1687:
1686:Lewis Mumford
1683:
1681:
1677:
1675:
1671:
1669:
1665:
1663:
1659:
1656:
1655:Lynn T. White
1652:
1650:
1646:
1644:
1640:
1639:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1622:
1617:
1615:
1610:
1608:
1603:
1602:
1599:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1581:0-521-44132-3
1577:
1572:
1571:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1536:0-520-07187-5
1532:
1525:
1524:
1519:
1515:
1512:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1487:
1482:
1481:
1474:
1473:
1469:
1452:
1446:
1443:
1430:
1426:
1420:
1417:
1405:
1401:
1395:
1392:
1380:
1376:
1370:
1367:
1355:
1351:
1345:
1342:
1338:
1333:
1330:
1318:
1311:
1308:
1305:, p. 43.
1304:
1299:
1296:
1292:
1287:
1284:
1280:
1275:
1272:
1259:
1253:
1250:
1244:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1230:Physics Today
1227:
1224:(June 1993).
1223:
1217:
1215:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1200:
1197:
1193:
1188:
1185:
1172:
1166:
1164:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1149:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1134:
1131:
1127:
1122:
1119:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1076:
1073:
1069:
1064:
1061:
1057:
1052:
1050:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1035:
1032:
1028:
1023:
1020:
1007:
1003:
997:
995:
993:
991:
989:
987:
985:
983:
981:
977:
965:
958:
952:
950:
948:
944:
932:
925:
919:
916:
911:
903:
899:
895:
894:
889:
883:
881:
879:
877:
875:
871:
864:
858:
856:0-486-23784-2
852:
848:
847:
842:
838:
833:
831:0-486-26134-4
827:
822:
821:
814:
810:
808:0-262-69120-5
804:
800:
795:
791:
789:0-262-19191-1
785:
781:
776:
772:
770:0-262-19181-4
766:
762:
757:
753:
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
722:
717:
713:
708:
704:
699:
698:
694:
692:
690:
686:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
660:
658:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
608:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
581:
579:
577:
573:
570:in 1950, the
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
552:hydrogen bomb
549:
545:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
521:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
495:
490:
483:
481:
479:
476:
472:
467:
465:
461:
457:
452:
444:
436:
431:
429:
425:
421:
416:
413:
409:
405:
404:critical mass
401:
397:
393:
389:
385:
381:
376:
373:
369:
365:
361:
352:
345:
343:
341:
340:
335:
330:
326:
322:
317:
315:
314:copper alloys
311:
307:
303:
298:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
264:
262:
260:
255:
251:
247:
242:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
179:
176:
173:
169:
166:
162:
158:
154:
151:
147:
144:
140:
136:
131:
126:
123:
119:
116:
113:
108:
105:
101:
98:
94:
91:
87:
83:
79:
74:
64:
60:
55:
49:
45:
41:
36:
29:
26:
22:
2024:Suzanne Moon
1996:Arnold Pacey
1966:Wiebe Bijker
1942:Joel A. Tarr
1924:David E. Nye
1918:David Landes
1876:
1763:
1667:
1569:
1548:. Retrieved
1522:
1510:
1503:. Retrieved
1479:
1455:. Retrieved
1445:
1433:. Retrieved
1428:
1419:
1407:. Retrieved
1403:
1394:
1382:. Retrieved
1378:
1369:
1357:. Retrieved
1353:
1344:
1332:
1320:. Retrieved
1310:
1298:
1286:
1274:
1262:. Retrieved
1252:
1233:
1229:
1199:
1187:
1175:. Retrieved
1133:
1121:
1109:. Retrieved
1089:
1085:
1082:"Lying well"
1075:
1063:
1034:
1022:
1010:. Retrieved
1006:the original
967:. Retrieved
934:. Retrieved
918:
891:
845:
819:
798:
779:
760:
728:
724:
711:
702:
661:
609:
585:
522:
499:
468:
460:Hanford Site
432:
417:
382:, producing
377:
360:World War II
357:
346:World War II
337:
318:
299:
268:
243:
219:World War II
191:metallurgist
186:
185:
149:Institutions
142:
67:(1992-08-25)
25:
2090:1992 deaths
2085:1903 births
1984:Johan Schot
1912:Bart Hacker
1877:not awarded
1764:not awarded
1746:John U. Nef
1716:Bern Dibner
1505:20 February
548:Sumner Pike
494:Stagg Field
319:He married
275:Camp Coffee
227:uranium-235
203:fissionable
112:fissionable
81:Nationality
2079:Categories
1470:References
1409:17 January
1384:17 January
1359:17 January
912:required.)
496:until 1951
451:gloveboxes
287:metallurgy
285:. He read
271:Birmingham
265:Early life
107:metallurgy
54:Birmingham
1835:Otto Mayr
1773:1983â1999
1635:1962â1982
642:from the
578:in 1957.
475:President
420:plutonium
384:beryllium
297:in 1924.
231:plutonium
217:. During
73:Cambridge
56:, England
2002:Joy Parr
1906:Leo Marx
1590:26764320
1566:(1993).
1457:15 March
1435:30 April
1264:15 March
1177:15 March
1111:15 March
1092:(4): 2.
1012:15 March
969:15 March
603:and the
591:such as
562:and the
342:(1540).
2043:Portals
1550:7 March
1545:3717478
1500:8846295
1094:Bibcode
745:1006317
687:at the
504:at the
456:gallium
424:uranium
289:at the
248:at the
84:British
2028:2022:
2022:2021:
2012:2020:
2006:2019:
2000:2018:
1994:2017:
1988:2016:
1982:2015:
1976:2014:
1970:2013:
1964:2012:
1958:2011:
1952:2010:
1946:2009:
1940:2008:
1934:2007:
1928:2006:
1922:2005:
1916:2004:
1910:2003:
1904:2002:
1898:2001:
1892:2000:
1869:1998:
1863:1997:
1857:1996:
1851:1995:
1845:1994:
1839:1993:
1833:1992:
1827:1991:
1821:1990:
1815:1989:
1809:1988:
1803:1987:
1797:1986:
1791:1985:
1785:1984:
1779:1983:
1756:1981:
1750:1980:
1744:1979:
1738:1978:
1732:1977:
1726:1976:
1720:1975:
1714:1974:
1708:1973:
1702:1972:
1696:1971:
1690:1970:
1684:1969:
1678:1968:
1672:1967:
1666:1966:
1660:1965:
1653:1964:
1647:1963:
1641:1962:
1588:
1578:
1543:
1533:
1498:
1488:
906:
853:
828:
805:
786:
767:
743:
441:) and
398:, but
137:(1991)
132:(1952)
127:(1946)
121:Awards
115:metals
1886:2000-
1875:1999
1762:1982
1657:, Jr.
1527:(PDF)
1322:4 May
960:(PDF)
936:4 May
927:(PDF)
865:Notes
741:JSTOR
380:boron
2016:and
1586:OCLC
1576:ISBN
1552:2015
1541:OCLC
1531:ISBN
1507:2014
1496:OCLC
1486:ISBN
1459:2015
1437:2015
1411:2023
1386:2023
1361:2023
1324:2015
1266:2015
1179:2015
1113:2015
1014:2015
971:2015
938:2015
851:ISBN
826:ISBN
803:ISBN
784:ISBN
765:ISBN
539:and
445:(PuF
437:(PuF
229:and
209:and
193:and
62:Died
47:Born
1238:doi
1102:doi
898:doi
733:doi
630:'s
614:'s
599:'s
473:by
336:'s
329:PhD
306:ScD
295:BSc
281:in
2081::
1584:.
1539:.
1509:.
1494:.
1427:.
1402:.
1377:.
1352:.
1234:46
1232:.
1228:.
1211:^
1160:^
1145:^
1100:.
1090:50
1088:.
1084:.
1046:^
979:^
962:.
946:^
929:.
873:^
739:.
729:64
727:.
691:.
659:.
650:'
558:'
261:.
241:.
2045::
1620:e
1613:t
1606:v
1592:.
1554:.
1461:.
1439:.
1413:.
1388:.
1363:.
1326:.
1268:.
1246:.
1240::
1181:.
1115:.
1104::
1096::
1016:.
973:.
940:.
904:.
900::
859:.
834:.
811:.
792:.
773:.
747:.
735::
447:4
439:3
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
