384:
negative effect and/or a mix of these mechanisms for the protein hosting the expansion. Translation of these repeat expansions occurs mostly through two mechanisms. First, there may be translation initiated at the usual AUG or a similar (CUG, GUG, UUG, or ACG) start codon. This results in expression of a pathogenic protein encoded by one particular coding frame. Second, a mechanism named "repeat-associated non-AUG (RAN) translation" uses translation initiation that starts directly within the repeat expansion. This potentially results in expression of three different proteins encoded by the three possible reading frames. Usually, one of the three proteins is more toxic than the other two. Typical of these RAN type expansions are those with the trinucleotide repeat CAG. These often are translated into polyglutamine-containing proteins that form inclusions and are toxic to neuronal cells. Examples of the disorders caused by this mechanism include
Huntington's disease and Huntington disease-like 2, spinal-bulbar muscular atrophy, dentatorubral-pallidoluysian atrophy, and spinocerebellar ataxia 1–3, 6–8, and 17.
349:
introns, intergenic regions) normally contain trinucleotide sequences, or repeated sequences of one particular nucleotide, or sequences of 2, 4, 5 or 6 nucleotides. Such repetitive sequences occur at a low level that can be regarded as "normal". Sometimes, a person may have more than the usual number of copies of a repeat sequence associated with a gene, but not enough to alter the function of that gene. These individuals are referred to as "premutation carriers". The frequency of carriers worldwide appears to be 1 in 340 individuals. Some carriers, during the formation of eggs or sperm, may give rise to higher levels of repetition of the repeat they carry. The higher level may then be at a "mutation" level and cause symptoms in their offspring.
364:. Such epigenetic alterations can inhibit transcription, causing reduced expression of the associated encoded protein. The epigenetic alterations and their effects are described more fully by Barbé and Finkbeiner These authors cite evidence that the age at which an individual begins to experience symptoms, as well as the severity of disease, is determined both by the size of the repeat and the epigenetic state within the repeat and around the repeat. There is often increased methylation at
1110:
124:
36:
1054:. A parent with 35 repeats would be considered normal and would not exhibit any symptoms of the disease. However, that parent's offspring would be at an increased risk of developing Huntington's compared to the general population, as it would take only the addition of one more CAG codon to cause the production of mHTT (mutant HTT), the protein responsible for disease.
77:
345:, was also identified on the X chromosome, but was found to be the result of an expanded CCG repeat. The discovery that trinucleotide repeats could expand during intergenerational transmission and could cause disease was the first evidence that not all disease-causing mutations are stably transmitted from parent to offspring.
939:
As of 2017, ten neurological and neuromuscular disorders were known to be caused by an increased number of CAG repeats. Although these diseases share the same repeated codon (CAG) and some symptoms, the repeats are found in different, unrelated genes. Except for the CAG repeat expansion in the 5' UTR
1057:
Huntington's very rarely occurs spontaneously; it is almost always the result of inheriting the defective gene from an affected parent. However, sporadic cases of
Huntington's in individuals who have no history of the disease in their families do occur. Among these sporadic cases, there is a higher
1062:
gene, especially those whose repeats approach the number (36) required for the disease to manifest. Each successive generation in a
Huntington's-affected family may add additional CAG repeats, and the higher the number of repeats, the more severe the disease and the earlier its onset. As a result,
964:
do not share any specific symptoms and are unlike the PolyQ diseases. In some of these diseases, such as
Fragile X syndrome, the pathology is caused by lack of the normal function of the protein encoded by the affected gene. In others, such as Myotonic Dystrophy Type 1, the pathology is caused by a
290:
repeats) increase in copy numbers until they cross a threshold above which they cause developmental, neurological or neuromuscular disorders. In addition to the expansions of these trinucleotide repeats, expansions of one tetranucleotide (CCTG), five pentanucleotide (ATTCT, TGGAA, TTTTA, TTTCA, and
1096:
between two DNA strands can take place at multiple points along the sequence. This may lead to the formation of 'loop out' structures during DNA replication or DNA repair synthesis. This may lead to repeated copying of the repeated sequence, expanding the number of repeats. Additional mechanisms
387:
The first main category, the loss of function type with epigenetic contributions, can have repeats located in either a promoter, in 5'untranscribed regions upstream of promoters, or in introns. The second category, toxic RNAs, has repeats located in introns or in a 3' untranslated region of code
379:
The second main category of trinucleotide repeat disorders and related microsatellite disorders involves a toxic RNA gain of function mechanism. In this second type of disorder, large repeat expansions in DNA are transcribed into pathogenic RNAs that form nuclear RNA foci. These foci attract and
383:
The third main category of trinucleotide repeat disorders and related microsatellite disorders is due to the translation of repeat sequenced into pathogenic proteins containing a stretch of repeated amino acids. This results in, variously, a toxic gain of function, a loss of function, a dominant
348:
Trinucleotide repeat disorders and the related microsatellite repeat disorders affect about 1 in 3,000 people worldwide. However, the frequency of occurrence of any one particular repeat sequence disorder varies greatly by ethnic group and geographic location. Many regions of the genome (exons,
333:. Patients carry from 230 to 4000 CGG repeats in the gene that causes fragile X syndrome, while unaffected individuals have up to 50 repeats and carriers of the disease have 60 to 230 repeats. The chromosomal instability resulting from this trinucleotide expansion presents clinically as
1071:
The majority of diseases caused by expansions of simple DNA repeats involve trinucleotide repeats, but tetra-, penta- and dodecanucleotide repeat expansions are also known that cause disease. For any specific hereditary disorder, only one repeat expands in a particular gene.
1336:
Papp, David; Hernandez, Luis A; Mai, Theresa A; Haanen, Terrance J; O’Donnell, Meghan A; Duran, Ariel T; Hernandez, Sophia M; Narvanto, Jenni E; Arguello, Berenice; Onwukwe, Marvin O; Mirkin, Sergei M; Kim, Jane C (2024-02-07). Rhind, N (ed.).
355:
The first main category these authors discuss is repeat expansions located within the promoter region of a gene or located close to, but upstream of, a promoter region of a gene. These repeats are able to promote localized DNA
1046:: their severity increases with each successive generation that inherits them. This is likely explained by the addition of CAG repeats in the affected gene as the gene is transmitted from parent to child. For example,
291:
AAGGG), three hexanucleotide (GGCCTG, CCCTCT, and GGGGCC), and one dodecanucleotide (CCCCGCCCCGCG) repeat cause 13 other diseases. Depending on its location, the unstable trinucleotide repeat may cause defects in a
944:
in SCA12, the expanded CAG repeats are translated into an uninterrupted sequence of glutamine residues, forming a polyQ tract, and the accumulation of polyQ proteins damages key cellular functions such as the
388:
beyond the stop codon. The third category, largely producing toxic proteins with polyalanines or polyglutamines, has trinucleotide repeats that occur in the exons of the affected genes.
2952:
380:
alter the location and function of RNA binding proteins. This, in turn, causes multiple RNA processing defects that lead to the diverse clinical manifestations of these diseases.
1339:"Massive contractions of myotonic dystrophy type 2-associated CCTG tetranucleotide repeats occur via double-strand break repair with distinct requirements for DNA helicases"
1692:
Laskaratos A, Breza M, Karadima G, Koutsis G (June 2021). "Wide range of reduced penetrance alleles in spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy: a model-based approach".
141:
49:
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Ramakrishnan S, Gupta V. Trinucleotide Repeat
Disorders. 2023 Aug 22. In: StatPearls . Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023 Jan–. PMID 32644680.
352:
Three categories of trinucleotide repeat disorders and related microsatellite (4, 5, or 6 repeats) disorders are described by Boivin and
Charlet-Berguerand.
2451:
704:
307:, or lead to production of a toxic protein. In general, the larger the expansion the faster the onset of disease, and the more severe the disease becomes.
953:, usually affecting people later in life. However different polyQ-containing proteins damage different subsets of neurons, leading to different symptoms.
94:
86:
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produced by the expression of the affected gene. In yet others, the pathology is caused by toxic assemblies of RNA in the nuclei of cells.
160:
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55:
167:
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1978:
225:
207:
63:
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2444:
2258:"Analysis of strand slippage in DNA polymerase expansions of CAG/CTG triplet repeats associated with neurodegenerative disease"
174:
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families that have had
Huntington's for many generations show an earlier age of disease onset and faster disease progression.
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Classification of the trinucleotide repeat, and resulting disease status, depends on the number of CAG repeats in
134:
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1778:"GGC Repeat Expansion and Exon 1 Methylation of XYLT1 Is a Common Pathogenic Variant in Baratela-Scott Syndrome"
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1918:"Clinical behaviour of spinocerebellar ataxia type 12 and intermediate length abnormal CAG repeats in PPP2R2B"
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479:
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424:. The repeated codons in the remaining disorders do not code for glutamine, and these can be classified as
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Trinucleotide repeat expansion disorders, Triplet repeat expansion disorders or Codon reiteration disorders
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Schoser, Benedikt (1993), Adam, Margaret P.; Feldman, Jerry; Mirzaa, Ghayda M.; Pagon, Roberta A. (eds.),
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2348:"DNA slip-outs cause RNA polymerase II arrest in vitro: potential implications for genetic instability"
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1287:"30 years of repeat expansion disorders: What have we learned and what are the remaining challenges?"
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frequency of individuals with a parent who already has a significant number of CAG repeats in their
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1861:"Myotonic Dystrophy Type 2: An Update on Clinical Aspects, Genetic and Pathomolecular Mechanism"
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LaCroix AJ, Stabley D, Sahraoui R, Adam MP, Mehaffey M, Kernan K, et al. (January 2019).
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Some of the problems in trinucleotide repeat syndromes result from causing alterations in the
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1591:"Genetic and Epigenetic Interplay Define Disease Onset and Severity in Repeat Diseases"
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1996:
1396:"On the wrong DNA track: Molecular mechanisms of repeat-mediated genome instability"
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expansion diseases (also known as repeat expansion disorders), are a set of over 30
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occurs when there are more than 35 CAG repeats on the gene coding for the protein
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1645:"Proteins Containing Expanded Polyglutamine Tracts and Neurodegenerative Disease"
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1236:"Trinucleotide CGG Repeat Diseases: An Expanding Field of Polyglycine Proteins?"
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synthesis. Because the tandem repeats have identical sequence to one another,
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2017:
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Adegbuyiro A, Sedighi F, Pilkington AW, Groover S, Legleiter J (March 2017).
1539:"DNA methylation has a local effect on transcription and histone acetylation"
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2016:
Fan HC, Ho LI, Chi CS, Chen SJ, Peng GS, Chan TM, et al. (May 2014).
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1737:"Microsatellite Expansion Diseases: Repeat Toxicity Found in Translation"
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change in protein expression or function mediated through changes in the
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Genetic disorders due to increases in the number of repeating nucleotides
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949:. A common symptom of polyQ diseases is the progressive degeneration of
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911:
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1490:"Microsatellites in different eukaryotic genomes: survey and analysis"
2909:
1456:. Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center (GARD). Archived from
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2209:"Repeat instability during DNA repair: Insights from model systems"
2156:
Mirkin SM (June 2007). "Expandable DNA repeats and human disease".
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2346:
Salinas-Rios V, Belotserkovskii BP, Hanawalt PC (September 2011).
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404:. In over half of these disorders, the repeated trinucleotide, or
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Trinucleotide repeats are a subset of a larger class of unstable
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2299:"New insights into repeat instability: role of RNA•DNA hybrids"
1965:. Ataxic Disorders. Vol. 103. Elsevier. pp. 535–547.
2059:"Neurodegenerative disease: RNA repeats put a freeze on cells"
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304:
117:
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29:
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Orr HT, Zoghbi HY (2007). "Trinucleotide repeat disorders".
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involving hybrid RNA:DNA intermediates have been proposed.
376:. This first category is designated as "loss of function".
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1916:
Srivastava AK, Takkar A, Garg A, Faruq M (January 2017).
1394:
Khristich, Alexandra N.; Mirkin, Sergei M. (March 2020).
2256:
Petruska J, Hartenstine MJ, Goodman MF (February 1998).
2018:"Polyglutamine (PolyQ) diseases: genetics to treatments"
2413:
National
Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke
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98:
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Critical
Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
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increased expression, and a novel polyglycine product
329:, which has since been mapped to the long arm of the
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1835:, Seattle (WA): University of Washington, Seattle,
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148:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2113:Walker FO (January 2007). "Huntington's disease".
841:RNA-based; unbalanced DMPK/ZNF9 expression levels
341:in males. The second DNA-triplet repeat disease,
1957:O'Hearn E, Holmes SE, Margolis RL (2012-01-01).
1859:Meola, Giovanni; Cardani, Rosanna (2015-07-22).
400:of the gene, while others are caused by altered
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1285:Depienne, Christel; Mandel, Jean-Louis (2021).
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1042:Trinucleotide repeat disorders generally show
368:near the repeat region, resulting in a closed
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1959:"Chapter 34 - Spinocerebellar ataxia type 12"
420:. These diseases are commonly referred to as
8:
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1537:Irvine RA, Lin IG, Hsieh CL (October 2002).
408:, is CAG. In a coding region, CAG codes for
2207:Usdin K, House NC, Freudenreich CH (2015).
705:Fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome
64:Learn how and when to remove these messages
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962:non-coding trinucleotide repeat disorders
647:Non-coding trinucleotide repeat disorders
430:non-coding trinucleotide repeat disorders
226:Learn how and when to remove this message
208:Learn how and when to remove this message
3006:Spinocerebellar ataxia 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 17
2297:McIvor EI, Polak U, Napierala M (2010).
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1488:Tóth G, Gáspári Z, Jurka J (July 2000).
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2057:Sanders DW, Brangwynne CP (June 2017).
1234:Boivin M, Charlet-Berguerand N (2022).
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2408:GeneReviews/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on DRPLA
1196:10.1146/annurev.neuro.29.051605.113042
7:
2991:Dentatorubral-pallidoluysian atrophy
870:RNA-based; Nuclear RNA accumulation
146:adding citations to reliable sources
99:move details into the article's body
2262:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
1735:Gao FB, Richter JD (January 2017).
337:, distinctive facial features, and
2521:Short tandem repeat/Microsatellite
1971:10.1016/b978-0-444-51892-7.00034-6
1961:. In Subramony SH, Dürr A (eds.).
1782:American Journal of Human Genetics
500:Spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy
459:Dentatorubropallidoluysian atrophy
314:repeats that occur throughout all
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1865:Journal of Neuromuscular Diseases
422:polyglutamine (or polyQ) diseases
45:This article has multiple issues.
1555:10.1128/MCB.22.19.6689-6696.2002
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122:
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1400:Journal of Biological Chemistry
1080:Triplet expansion is caused by
157:"Trinucleotide repeat disorder"
133:needs additional citations for
53:or discuss these issues on the
3130:Trinucleotide repeat disorders
3120:Genetic disorders by mechanism
2525:Trinucleotide repeat disorders
2398:Trinucleotide+Repeat+Expansion
1963:Handbook of Clinical Neurology
1589:Barbé L, Finkbeiner S (2022).
436:Polyglutamine (PolyQ) diseases
276:trinucleotide repeat expansion
264:trinucleotide repeat disorders
1:
2512:Variable number tandem repeat
2127:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60111-1
1706:10.1136/jmedgenet-2020-106963
1184:Annual Review of Neuroscience
734:Fragile XE mental retardation
587:Spinocerebellar ataxia Type 6
520:Spinocerebellar ataxia Type 1
301:regulation of gene expression
244:Trinucleotide repeat disorder
2225:10.3109/10409238.2014.999192
1754:10.1016/j.neuron.2017.01.001
1343:G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics
1067:Non-trinucleotide expansions
928:effect on promoter function
323:trinucleotide repeat disease
1829:"Myotonic Dystrophy Type 2"
1694:Journal of Medical Genetics
1661:10.1021/acs.biochem.6b00936
947:ubiquitin-proteasome system
3146:
2983:Polyglutamine (PolyQ), CAG
1795:10.1016/j.ajhg.2018.11.005
1304:10.1016/j.ajhg.2021.03.011
282:in which repeats of three
3098:Spinocerebellar ataxia 10
3080:Myotonic dystrophy type 2
3058:Spinocerebellar ataxia 12
3044:Myotonic dystrophy type 1
2962:Non-Mendelian inheritance
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1608:10.3389/fnagi.2022.750629
1413:10.1074/jbc.rev119.007678
1355:10.1093/g3journal/jkad257
1253:10.3389/fgene.2022.843014
452:Pathogenic PolyQ repeats
3051:Spinocerebellar ataxia 8
2402:Medical Subject Headings
2035:10.3727/096368914X678454
362:methylation of cytosines
2425:Genetics Home Reference
812:impaired transcription
762:Baratela-Scott syndrome
335:intellectual disability
3010:Machado-Joseph disease
2920:Protein tandem repeats
2848:Tandemly arrayed genes
2352:Nucleic Acids Research
2275:10.1074/jbc.273.9.5204
1117:This section is empty.
906:Spinocerebellar ataxia
877:Spinocerebellar ataxia
627:Spinocerebellar ataxia
607:Spinocerebellar ataxia
564:Machado-Joseph disease
560:Spinocerebellar ataxia
540:Spinocerebellar ataxia
416:result in an expanded
2315:10.4161/rna.7.5.12745
1454:"Fragile XE syndrome"
783:abnormal methylation
756:abnormal methylation
698:abnormal methylation
325:to be identified was
3125:Huntington's disease
2996:Huntington's disease
2893:Pathogenicity island
2022:Cell Transplantation
1935:10.1093/brain/aww269
1871:(Suppl 2): S59–S71.
1595:Front Aging Neurosci
1048:Huntington's disease
1044:genetic anticipation
980:Huntington's disease
480:Huntington's disease
449:Normal PolyQ repeats
343:fragile X-E syndrome
142:improve this article
3037:Friedreich's ataxia
2178:10.1038/nature05977
2170:2007Natur.447..932M
2084:10.1038/nature22503
2075:2017Natur.546..215S
1506:10.1101/gr.10.7.967
1022:Reduced-penetrance
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790:Friedreich's ataxia
418:polyglutamine tract
374:gene downregulation
3030:Fragile X syndrome
2843:Gene amplification
2418:2016-12-15 at the
2364:10.1093/nar/gkr429
1877:10.3233/JND-150088
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958:non-polyQ diseases
935:Symptoms and signs
848:Myotonic dystrophy
819:Myotonic dystrophy
676:Fragile X syndrome
327:fragile X syndrome
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1756:
1732:
1726:
1725:
1689:
1683:
1682:
1672:
1655:(9): 1199–1217.
1640:
1631:
1630:
1620:
1610:
1586:
1577:
1576:
1566:
1534:
1528:
1527:
1517:
1485:
1479:
1476:
1470:
1469:
1467:
1465:
1450:
1444:
1443:
1433:
1415:
1391:
1385:
1384:
1374:
1333:
1327:
1326:
1316:
1306:
1282:
1276:
1275:
1265:
1255:
1231:
1208:
1207:
1179:
1132:
1129:
1119:You can help by
1112:
1105:
1033:Full-penetrance
1025:May be affected
983:
651:
440:
360:changes such as
241:
231:
224:
213:
206:
202:
199:
193:
191:
150:
126:
118:
111:
108:
102:
93:Please read the
79:
78:
71:
60:
38:
37:
30:
21:
3145:
3144:
3140:
3139:
3138:
3136:
3135:
3134:
3110:
3109:
3108:
3103:
3090:Pentanucleotide
3085:
3072:Tetranucleotide
3063:
3015:
3001:Kennedy disease
2968:
2959:
2929:
2924:
2876:
2825:
2693:
2665:
2642:
2616:Retrotransposon
2597:
2588:Inverted repeat
2576:
2561:DNA transposon
2557:Retrotransposon
2552:Gene conversion
2543:
2536:
2533:
2484:
2475:
2458:
2420:Wayback Machine
2394:
2389:
2345:
2344:
2340:
2296:
2295:
2291:
2255:
2254:
2250:
2206:
2205:
2201:
2155:
2154:
2150:
2112:
2111:
2100:
2056:
2055:
2051:
2015:
2014:
2010:
2001:
1999:
1981:
1956:
1955:
1951:
1915:
1914:
1910:
1858:
1857:
1853:
1845:
1843:
1826:
1825:
1821:
1775:
1774:
1770:
1734:
1733:
1729:
1691:
1690:
1686:
1642:
1641:
1634:
1588:
1587:
1580:
1549:(19): 6689–96.
1536:
1535:
1531:
1487:
1486:
1482:
1477:
1473:
1463:
1461:
1460:on 9 March 2013
1452:
1451:
1447:
1393:
1392:
1388:
1335:
1334:
1330:
1284:
1283:
1279:
1233:
1232:
1211:
1181:
1180:
1163:
1159:
1151:RAN translation
1142:
1133:
1127:
1124:
1103:
1086:DNA replication
1078:
1069:
992:Disease status
989:Classification
975:
937:
649:
438:
402:gene regulation
394:
372:state, causing
239:
232:
221:
220:
219:
214:
203:
197:
194:
151:
149:
139:
127:
112:
106:
103:
92:
89:may be too long
84:This article's
80:
76:
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3143:
3141:
3133:
3132:
3127:
3122:
3112:
3111:
3105:
3104:
3102:
3101:
3093:
3091:
3087:
3086:
3084:
3083:
3075:
3073:
3069:
3068:
3065:
3064:
3062:
3061:
3054:
3047:
3040:
3033:
3025:
3023:
3017:
3016:
3014:
3013:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2987:
2985:
2976:
2970:
2969:
2960:
2958:
2957:
2950:
2943:
2935:
2926:
2925:
2923:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2901:
2900:
2895:
2888:Genomic island
2884:
2882:
2878:
2877:
2875:
2874:
2869:
2868:
2867:
2857:
2856:
2855:
2845:
2839:
2837:
2831:
2830:
2827:
2826:
2824:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2707:
2705:
2703:DNA transposon
2699:
2698:
2695:
2694:
2692:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2675:
2673:
2667:
2666:
2664:
2663:
2658:
2652:
2650:
2644:
2643:
2641:
2640:
2635:
2629:
2627:
2618:
2609:
2603:
2602:
2599:
2598:
2596:
2595:
2590:
2584:
2582:
2578:
2577:
2575:
2574:
2573:
2572:
2567:
2559:
2554:
2548:
2546:
2538:
2537:
2535:
2534:
2531:Macrosatellite
2528:
2518:
2509:
2503:
2501:
2499:Tandem repeats
2492:
2486:
2485:
2480:
2477:
2476:
2459:
2457:
2456:
2449:
2442:
2434:
2428:
2427:
2422:
2410:
2405:
2393:
2392:External links
2390:
2388:
2387:
2338:
2309:(5): 551–558.
2289:
2248:
2219:(2): 142–167.
2199:
2148:
2098:
2049:
2008:
1979:
1949:
1908:
1851:
1819:
1768:
1747:(2): 249–251.
1727:
1700:(6): 385–391.
1684:
1632:
1578:
1529:
1480:
1471:
1445:
1386:
1328:
1297:(5): 764–785.
1291:Am J Hum Genet
1277:
1209:
1190:(1): 575–621.
1160:
1158:
1155:
1154:
1153:
1148:
1141:
1138:
1135:
1134:
1128:September 2021
1115:
1113:
1102:
1099:
1077:
1074:
1068:
1065:
1038:
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1031:
1027:
1026:
1023:
1020:
1016:
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1012:
1009:
1005:
1004:
1001:
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994:
993:
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987:
974:
971:
936:
933:
930:
929:
926:
923:
920:
914:
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901:
900:
897:
894:
891:
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880:
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871:
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865:
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856:
851:
843:
842:
839:
836:
833:
827:
822:
814:
813:
810:
807:
804:
798:
793:
785:
784:
781:
778:
775:
769:
764:
758:
757:
754:
751:
748:
742:
737:
729:
728:
725:
722:
719:
713:
708:
700:
699:
696:
693:
690:
684:
679:
671:
670:
667:
664:
661:
658:
655:
648:
645:
642:
641:
638:
635:
630:
622:
621:
618:
615:
610:
602:
601:
598:
595:
590:
579:
578:
575:
572:
567:
555:
554:
551:
548:
543:
535:
534:
531:
528:
523:
515:
514:
511:
508:
503:
495:
494:
491:
488:
483:
475:
474:
471:
468:
462:
454:
453:
450:
447:
444:
437:
434:
393:
390:
339:macroorchidism
312:microsatellite
268:microsatellite
266:, a subset of
254:
253:
250:
246:
245:
237:
234:
233:
216:
215:
130:
128:
121:
114:
113:
83:
81:
74:
69:
43:
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3142:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3117:
3115:
3099:
3095:
3094:
3092:
3088:
3081:
3077:
3076:
3074:
3070:
3059:
3055:
3052:
3048:
3045:
3041:
3038:
3034:
3031:
3027:
3026:
3024:
3022:
3018:
3011:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2988:
2986:
2984:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2974:Trinucleotide
2971:
2967:
2963:
2956:
2951:
2949:
2944:
2942:
2937:
2936:
2933:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2890:
2889:
2886:
2885:
2883:
2879:
2873:
2870:
2866:
2863:
2862:
2861:
2858:
2854:
2853:Ribosomal DNA
2851:
2850:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2840:
2838:
2836:
2832:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2708:
2706:
2704:
2700:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2676:
2674:
2672:
2668:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2653:
2651:
2649:
2645:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2630:
2628:
2626:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2604:
2594:
2593:Direct repeat
2591:
2589:
2586:
2585:
2583:
2579:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2562:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2549:
2547:
2545:
2539:
2532:
2529:
2526:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2516:Minisatellite
2513:
2510:
2508:
2507:Satellite DNA
2505:
2504:
2502:
2500:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2455:
2450:
2448:
2443:
2441:
2436:
2435:
2432:
2426:
2423:
2421:
2417:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2403:
2399:
2396:
2395:
2391:
2383:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2342:
2339:
2334:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2293:
2290:
2285:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2252:
2249:
2244:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2203:
2200:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2152:
2149:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2109:
2107:
2105:
2103:
2099:
2094:
2090:
2085:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2053:
2050:
2045:
2041:
2036:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2012:
2009:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1980:9780444518927
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1953:
1950:
1945:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1912:
1909:
1904:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1855:
1852:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1823:
1820:
1815:
1811:
1806:
1801:
1796:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1772:
1769:
1764:
1760:
1755:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1731:
1728:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1688:
1685:
1680:
1676:
1671:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1639:
1637:
1633:
1628:
1624:
1619:
1614:
1609:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1585:
1583:
1579:
1574:
1570:
1565:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1543:Mol Cell Biol
1540:
1533:
1530:
1525:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1500:(7): 967–81.
1499:
1495:
1491:
1484:
1481:
1475:
1472:
1459:
1455:
1449:
1446:
1441:
1437:
1432:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1414:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1390:
1387:
1382:
1378:
1373:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1332:
1329:
1324:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1305:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1281:
1278:
1273:
1269:
1264:
1259:
1254:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1230:
1228:
1226:
1224:
1222:
1220:
1218:
1216:
1214:
1210:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1178:
1176:
1174:
1172:
1170:
1168:
1166:
1162:
1156:
1152:
1149:
1147:
1144:
1143:
1139:
1131:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1111:
1107:
1106:
1100:
1098:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1075:
1073:
1066:
1064:
1061:
1055:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1035:
1032:
1029:
1028:
1024:
1021:
1018:
1017:
1013:
1011:Intermediate
1010:
1007:
1006:
1002:
999:
996:
995:
991:
988:
986:Repeat count
985:
984:
981:
972:
970:
968:
967:messenger RNA
963:
959:
954:
952:
948:
943:
934:
927:
924:
921:
918:
915:
913:
910:
907:
903:
902:
898:
895:
892:
889:
886:
884:
881:
878:
874:
873:
869:
866:
863:
860:
857:
855:
852:
849:
845:
844:
840:
837:
834:
831:
828:
826:
823:
820:
816:
815:
811:
808:
805:
802:
799:
797:
794:
791:
787:
786:
782:
779:
776:
773:
770:
768:
765:
763:
760:
759:
755:
752:
749:
746:
743:
741:
738:
735:
731:
730:
726:
723:
720:
717:
714:
712:
709:
706:
702:
701:
697:
694:
691:
688:
685:
683:
680:
677:
673:
672:
668:
665:
662:
659:
656:
653:
652:
646:
639:
636:
634:
631:
628:
624:
623:
619:
616:
614:
611:
608:
604:
603:
599:
596:
594:
591:
588:
584:
581:
580:
576:
573:
571:
568:
565:
561:
557:
556:
552:
549:
547:
544:
541:
537:
536:
532:
529:
527:
524:
521:
517:
516:
512:
509:
507:
504:
501:
497:
496:
492:
489:
487:
484:
481:
477:
476:
472:
469:
466:
463:
460:
456:
455:
451:
448:
445:
442:
441:
435:
433:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
398:coding region
391:
389:
385:
381:
377:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
353:
350:
346:
344:
340:
336:
332:
328:
324:
319:
317:
313:
308:
306:
302:
299:; change the
298:
295:encoded by a
294:
289:
288:trinucleotide
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
251:
247:
242:
230:
227:
212:
209:
201:
198:December 2020
190:
187:
183:
180:
176:
173:
169:
166:
162:
159: –
158:
154:
153:Find sources:
147:
143:
137:
136:
131:This article
129:
125:
120:
119:
110:
107:November 2023
100:
96:
90:
88:
82:
73:
72:
67:
65:
58:
57:
52:
51:
46:
41:
32:
31:
19:
2973:
2966:anticipation
2865:Gene cluster
2633:Alu sequence
2542:Interspersed
2524:
2355:
2351:
2341:
2306:
2302:
2292:
2265:
2261:
2251:
2216:
2212:
2202:
2161:
2157:
2151:
2118:
2114:
2066:
2062:
2052:
2025:
2021:
2011:
2000:. Retrieved
1962:
1952:
1928:(1): 27–36.
1925:
1921:
1911:
1868:
1864:
1854:
1844:, retrieved
1833:GeneReviews®
1832:
1822:
1788:(1): 35–44.
1785:
1781:
1771:
1744:
1740:
1730:
1697:
1693:
1687:
1652:
1649:Biochemistry
1648:
1598:
1594:
1546:
1542:
1532:
1497:
1493:
1483:
1474:
1464:14 September
1462:. Retrieved
1458:the original
1448:
1403:
1399:
1389:
1346:
1342:
1331:
1294:
1290:
1280:
1243:
1239:
1187:
1183:
1125:
1121:adding to it
1116:
1094:base pairing
1081:
1079:
1070:
1059:
1056:
1041:
961:
957:
955:
941:
938:
916:
887:
858:
829:
800:
771:
744:
715:
686:
429:
425:
421:
413:
395:
386:
382:
378:
354:
351:
347:
331:X chromosome
320:
309:
278:, a kind of
263:
257:
222:
204:
195:
185:
178:
171:
164:
152:
140:Please help
135:verification
132:
104:
87:lead section
85:
61:
54:
48:
47:Please help
44:
2860:Gene family
2771:Tc1/mariner
2726:EnSpm/CACTA
2303:RNA Biology
1240:Front Genet
1014:Unaffected
1003:Unaffected
951:nerve cells
414:CAG repeats
366:CpG islands
284:nucleotides
249:Other names
3114:Categories
2872:Pseudogene
2689:retroposon
2607:Transposon
2469:transposon
2002:2022-12-07
1846:2024-07-02
1601:: 750629.
1494:Genome Res
1246:: 843014.
1157:References
1090:DNA repair
1088:or during
669:Mechanism
666:Pathogenic
562:Type 3 or
358:epigenetic
321:The first
274:caused by
168:newspapers
50:improve it
18:CAG repeat
2791:P element
2741:Harbinger
2482:Repeatome
1885:2214-3599
1722:219991108
1422:0021-9258
1363:2160-1836
1101:Diagnosis
1076:Mechanism
1036:Affected
919:(5' UTR)
908:Type 12)
896:110 - 250
620:38 - 120
493:36 - 250
426:non-polyQ
410:glutamine
370:chromatin
97:and help
56:talk page
2915:Telomere
2881:See also
2821:Zisupton
2801:Polinton
2796:PiggyBac
2751:Helitron
2570:Helitron
2565:Polinton
2461:Genetics
2416:Archived
2382:21666257
2333:20729633
2243:25608779
2186:17581576
2143:46151626
2135:17240289
2093:28562583
2044:24816443
1997:25745894
1989:21827912
1944:27864267
1903:27858759
1841:20301639
1814:30554721
1763:28103472
1714:32571900
1679:28170216
1627:35592702
1573:12215526
1524:10899146
1440:32060097
1381:37950892
1372:10849350
1323:33811808
1272:35295941
1204:17417937
1140:See also
1082:slippage
973:Genetics
925:55 - 78
861:(3' UTR)
832:(3' UTR)
803:(Intron)
774:(5' UTR)
747:(5' UTR)
718:(5' UTR)
689:(5' UTR)
640:47 - 63
629:Type 17)
600:21 - 30
577:55 - 86
553:33 - 77
533:49 - 88
513:35 - 72
473:49 - 88
467:or DRPLA
412:(Q), so
280:mutation
260:genetics
3096:ATTCT (
2811:Transib
2786:Novosib
2766:Kolobok
2736:Ginger2
2731:Ginger1
2716:Crypton
2373:3177194
2324:3073251
2284:9478975
2234:4454471
2194:4397592
2166:Bibcode
2071:Bibcode
1894:5240594
1805:6323552
1670:5727916
1618:9110800
1431:7105313
1314:8205997
1263:8918734
1146:C9orf72
1084:during
1030:>40
1000:Normal
997:<28
942:PPP2R2B
922:7 - 28
912:PPP2R2B
904:SCA12 (
893:16 - 37
879:Type 8)
864:11 - 26
850:Type 2)
821:Type 1)
732:FRAXE (
703:FXTAS (
674:FRAXA (
637:25 - 42
625:SCA17 (
609:Type 7)
593:CACNA1A
574:12 - 40
550:14 - 32
542:Type 2)
457:DRPLA (
316:genomes
293:protein
182:scholar
3078:CCTG (
2910:CRISPR
2776:Merlin
2761:ISL2EU
2711:Academ
2544:repeat
2404:(MeSH)
2380:
2370:
2331:
2321:
2282:
2241:
2231:
2192:
2184:
2158:Nature
2141:
2133:
2115:Lancet
2091:
2063:Nature
2042:
1995:
1987:
1977:
1942:
1901:
1891:
1883:
1839:
1812:
1802:
1761:
1741:Neuron
1720:
1712:
1677:
1667:
1625:
1615:
1571:
1564:134040
1561:
1522:
1515:310925
1512:
1438:
1428:
1420:
1379:
1369:
1361:
1321:
1311:
1270:
1260:
1202:
1019:36–40
1008:28–35
899:? RNA
875:SCA8 (
835:5 - 34
806:7 - 34
788:FRDA (
777:6 - 35
750:6 - 35
724:55-200
721:6 - 53
692:6 - 53
663:Normal
617:7 - 17
605:SCA7 (
597:4 - 18
558:SCA3 (
538:SCA2 (
530:6 - 35
518:SCA1 (
510:4 - 34
498:SBMA (
490:6 - 35
470:6 - 35
184:
177:
170:
163:
155:
3056:CAG (
3049:CTG (
3042:CTG (
3035:GAA (
3028:CGG (
2816:Zator
2756:IS3EU
2661:LINE2
2656:LINE1
2648:LINEs
2625:SINEs
2581:Other
2190:S2CID
2139:S2CID
1993:S2CID
1922:Brain
1718:S2CID
1349:(2).
890:(RNA)
846:DM2 (
817:DM1 (
767:XYLT1
660:Codon
613:ATXN7
570:ATXN3
546:ATXN2
526:ATXN1
406:codon
392:Types
189:JSTOR
175:books
2806:Sola
2781:MuDR
2721:Dada
2684:MER4
2679:HERV
2671:LTRs
2378:PMID
2329:PMID
2280:PMID
2239:PMID
2182:PMID
2131:PMID
2089:PMID
2040:PMID
1985:PMID
1975:ISBN
1940:PMID
1899:PMID
1881:ISSN
1837:PMID
1810:PMID
1759:PMID
1710:PMID
1675:PMID
1623:PMID
1569:PMID
1520:PMID
1466:2012
1436:PMID
1418:ISSN
1377:PMID
1359:ISSN
1319:PMID
1268:PMID
1200:PMID
956:The
883:SCA8
859:CCTG
854:CNBP
825:DMPK
809:100+
780:200+
753:200+
740:AFF2
711:FMR1
695:230+
682:FMR1
657:Gene
654:Type
583:SCA6
478:HD (
465:ATN1
446:Gene
443:Type
297:gene
161:news
2746:hAT
2638:MIR
2368:PMC
2360:doi
2319:PMC
2311:doi
2270:doi
2266:273
2229:PMC
2221:doi
2174:doi
2162:447
2123:doi
2119:369
2079:doi
2067:546
2030:doi
1967:doi
1930:doi
1926:140
1889:PMC
1873:doi
1800:PMC
1790:doi
1786:104
1749:doi
1702:doi
1665:PMC
1657:doi
1613:PMC
1603:doi
1559:PMC
1551:doi
1510:PMC
1502:doi
1426:PMC
1408:doi
1404:295
1367:PMC
1351:doi
1309:PMC
1299:doi
1295:108
1258:PMC
1248:doi
1192:doi
1123:.
1060:HTT
1052:HTT
960:or
940:of
917:CAG
888:CTG
867:75+
838:50+
830:CTG
801:GAA
796:FXN
772:GGC
745:CCG
716:CGG
687:CGG
633:TBP
486:HTT
428:or
305:RNA
258:In
144:by
3116::
2964::
2471:,
2467:,
2463::
2376:.
2366:.
2356:39
2354:.
2350:.
2327:.
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2305:.
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2278:.
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1991:.
1983:.
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1198:.
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