553:, mainly in order to avoid decompression sickness. Mercury used a cabin altitude of 24,800 ft (7,600 m) (5.5 psi (0.38 bar)); Gemini used an altitude of 25,700 ft (7,800 m) (5.3 psi (0.37 bar)); and Apollo used 27,000 ft (8,200 m) (5.0 psi (0.34 bar)) in space. This allowed for a lighter space vehicle design. This is possible because at 100% oxygen, enough oxygen gets to the bloodstream to allow astronauts to operate normally. Before launch, the pressure was kept at slightly higher than sea level at a constant 5.3 psi (0.37 bar) above ambient for Gemini, and 2 psi (0.14 bar) above sea level at launch for Apollo), and transitioned to the space cabin altitude during ascent. However, the high pressure pure oxygen atmosphere before launch proved to be a factor in a fatal fire hazard in Apollo, contributing to the deaths of the entire crew of
911:
pilot at 3,000 ft (914 m). The chamber contained only one instrument, an altimeter, while the conventional cockpit instruments were all mounted outside the chamber, visible through five small portholes. The first attempt to operate the aircraft was again made by Lt. John A. McCready, who discovered that the turbine was forcing air into the chamber faster than the small release valve provided could release it. As a result, the chamber quickly over pressurized, and the flight was abandoned. A second attempt had to be abandoned when the pilot discovered at 3,000 ft (914 m) that he was too short to close the chamber hatch. The first successful flight was finally made by test pilot Lt. Harrold Harris, making it the world's first flight by a pressurized aircraft.
153:
488:
specifications for new-type aircraft designs. Aircraft certified to operate above 25,000 ft (7,620 m) "must be designed so that occupants will not be exposed to cabin pressure altitudes in excess of 15,000 ft (4,572 m) after any probable failure condition in the pressurization system". In the event of a decompression that results from "any failure condition not shown to be extremely improbable", the plane must be designed such that occupants will not be exposed to a cabin altitude exceeding 25,000 ft (7,620 m) for more than 2 minutes, nor to an altitude exceeding 40,000 ft (12,192 m) at any time. In practice, that new
634:
969:, and the Constellation to have certified service ceilings from 24,000 to 28,400 ft (7,315 to 8,656 m). Designing a pressurized fuselage to cope with that altitude range was within the engineering and metallurgical knowledge of that time. The introduction of jet airliners required a significant increase in cruise altitudes to the 30,000–41,000 ft (9,144–12,497 m) range, where jet engines are more fuel efficient. That increase in cruise altitudes required far more rigorous engineering of the fuselage, and in the beginning not all the engineering problems were fully understood.
930:
230:) stays above 12,500 ft (3,810 m) for more than 30 minutes, or if the cabin altitude reaches 14,000 ft (4,267 m) at any time. At altitudes above 15,000 ft (4,572 m), passengers are required to be provided oxygen masks as well. On commercial aircraft, the cabin altitude must be maintained at 8,000 ft (2,438 m) or less. Pressurization of the cargo hold is also required to prevent damage to pressure-sensitive goods that might leak, expand, burst or be crushed on re-pressurization. The principal physiological problems are listed below.
589:
1008:. In this case, the principal cause was the continued operation of the specific aircraft despite having accumulated 35,496 flight hours prior to the accident, those hours included over 89,680 flight cycles (takeoffs and landings), owing to its use on short flights; this amounted to more than twice the number of flight cycles that the airframe was designed to endure. Aloha 243 was able to land despite the substantial damage inflicted by the decompression, which had resulted in the loss of one member of the cabin crew; the incident had far-reaching effects on
412:
907:. The flight was possible by releasing stored oxygen into the cockpit, which was released directly into an enclosed cabin and not to an oxygen mask, which was developed later. With this system flights nearing 40,000 ft (12,192 m) were possible, but the lack of atmospheric pressure at that altitude caused the pilot's heart to enlarge visibly, and many pilots reported health problems from such high altitude flights. Some early airliners had oxygen masks for the passengers for routine flights.
783:
40:
408:; this stress is proportional to the difference in pressure inside and outside the cabin. In a typical commercial passenger flight, the cabin altitude is programmed to rise gradually from the altitude of the airport of origin to a regulatory maximum of 8,000 ft (2,438 m). This cabin altitude is maintained while the aircraft is cruising at its maximum altitude and then reduced gradually during descent until the cabin pressure matches the ambient air pressure at the destination.
698:
1020:
This combination, while providing for increasing comfort, necessitated making
Concorde a significantly heavier aircraft, which in turn contributed to the relatively high cost of a flight. Unusually, Concorde was provisioned with smaller cabin windows than most other commercial passenger aircraft in order to slow the rate of decompression in the event of a window seal failing. The high cruising altitude also required the use of high pressure oxygen and
656:
cabin pressure valve, according to the backup emergency procedure checklist. The automatic controller normally maintains the proper cabin pressure altitude by constantly adjusting the outflow valve position so that the cabin altitude is as low as practical without exceeding the maximum pressure differential limit on the fuselage. The pressure differential varies between aircraft types, typical values are between 540
679:, have re-introduced electric compressors previously used on piston-engined airliners to provide pressurization. The use of electric compressors increases the electrical generation load on the engines and introduces a number of stages of energy transfer; therefore, it is unclear whether this increases the overall efficiency of the aircraft air handling system. They do, however, remove the danger of
365:
169:
327:, or bubbles in the bloodstream. The mechanism is the same as that of compressed-air divers on ascent from depth. Symptoms may include the early symptoms of "the bends"—tiredness, forgetfulness, headache, stroke, thrombosis, and subcutaneous itching—but rarely the full symptoms thereof. Decompression sickness may also be controlled by a full-pressure suit as for altitude sickness.
1045:, such a level significantly improves comfort levels. Airbus has stated that the A350 XWB provides for a typical cabin altitude at or below 6,000 ft (1,829 m), along with a cabin atmosphere of 20% humidity and an airflow management system that adapts cabin airflow to passenger load with draught-free air circulation. The adoption of
992:(1957) and all subsequent jet airliners. For example, detailed routine inspection processes were introduced, in addition to thorough visual inspections of the outer skin, mandatory structural sampling was routinely conducted by operators; the need to inspect areas not easily viewable by the naked eye led to the introduction of widespread
996:
examination in aviation; this also had the advantage of detecting cracks and flaws too small to be seen otherwise. Another visibly noticeable legacy of the Comet disasters is the oval windows on every jet airliner; the metal fatigue cracks that destroyed the Comets were initiated by the small radius
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In 1921, a Wright-Dayton USD-9A reconnaissance biplane was modified with the addition of a completely enclosed air-tight chamber that could be pressurized with air forced into it by small external turbines. The chamber had a hatch only 22 in (560 mm) in diameter that would be sealed by the
247:
oxygen tension in the lungs and subsequently in the brain, leading to sluggish thinking, dimmed vision, loss of consciousness, and ultimately death: In some individuals, particularly those with heart or lung disease, symptoms may begin as low as 5,000 ft (1,524 m), although most passengers
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airliners have made such modifications for increased passenger comfort. The 787's internal cabin pressure is the equivalent of 6,000 ft (1,829 m) altitude resulting in a higher pressure than for the 8,000 ft (2,438 m) altitude of older conventional aircraft; according to a joint
1019:
had to deal with particularly high pressure differentials because it flew at unusually high altitude (up to 60,000 ft (18,288 m)) and maintained a cabin altitude of 6,000 ft (1,829 m). Despite this, its cabin altitude was intentionally maintained at 6,000 ft (1,829 m).
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World War II was a catalyst for aircraft development. Initially, the piston aircraft of World War II, though they often flew at very high altitudes, were not pressurized and relied on oxygen masks. This became impractical with the development of larger bombers where crew were required to move about
655:
All exhaust air is dumped to atmosphere via an outflow valve, usually at the rear of the fuselage. This valve controls the cabin pressure and also acts as a safety relief valve, in addition to other safety relief valves. If the automatic pressure controllers fail, the pilot can manually control the
487:
Before 1996, approximately 6,000 large commercial transport airplanes were assigned a type certificate to fly up to 45,000 ft (13,716 m) without having to meet high-altitude special conditions. In 1996, the FAA adopted
Amendment 25-87, which imposed additional high-altitude cabin pressure
467:
is typically about 7,000 ft (2,134 m) when cruising at 37,000 ft (11,278 m). This is typical for older jet airliners. A design goal for many, but not all, newer aircraft is to provide a lower cabin altitude than older designs. This can be beneficial for passenger comfort. For
980:
resulting in the total loss of the aircraft, passengers and crew grounded what was then the entire world jet airliner fleet. Extensive investigation and groundbreaking engineering analysis of the wreckage led to a number of very significant engineering advances that solved the basic problems of
500:
acquired an FAA exemption to allow the cabin altitude of the A380 to reach 43,000 ft (13,106 m) in the event of a decompression incident and to exceed 40,000 ft (12,192 m) for one minute. This allows the A380 to operate at a higher altitude than other newly designed civilian
275:
Emergency oxygen supply masks in the passenger compartment of airliners do not need to be pressure-demand masks because most flights stay below 40,000 ft (12,192 m). Above that altitude the partial pressure of oxygen will fall below 0.2 bar even at 100% oxygen and some degree of cabin
439:(FAA) regulations in the U.S. mandate that under normal operating conditions, the cabin altitude may not exceed this limit at the maximum operating altitude of the aircraft. This mandatory maximum cabin altitude does not eliminate all physiological problems; passengers with conditions such as
652:(APU), if fitted, in the event of an emergency and for cabin air supply on the ground before the main engines are started. Most modern commercial aircraft today have fully redundant, duplicated electronic controllers for maintaining pressurization along with a manual back-up control system.
225:
to protect crew and passengers from the risk of a number of physiological problems caused by the low outside air pressure above that altitude. For private aircraft operating in the US, crew members are required to use oxygen masks if the cabin altitude (a representation of the air pressure,
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corners on the Comet 1's almost square windows. The Comet fuselage was redesigned and the Comet 4 (1958) went on to become a successful airliner, pioneering the first transatlantic jet service, but the program never really recovered from these disasters and was overtaken by the Boeing 707.
104:
and aircraft skin stresses caused from pressurization. Improved testing involved multiple full-scale pressurization cycle tests of the entire fuselage in a water tank, and the key engineering principles learned were applied to the design of subsequent jet airliners.
443:
are advised not to fly until fully healed, and people suffering from a cold or other infection may still experience pain in the ears and sinuses. The rate of change of cabin altitude strongly affects comfort as humans are sensitive to pressure changes in the
1028:
used in conventional airliners. The FAA, which enforces minimum emergency descent rates for aircraft, determined that, in relation to
Concorde's higher operating altitude, the best response to a pressure loss incident would be to perform a rapid descent.
672:). At 39,000 ft (11,887 m), the cabin pressure would be automatically maintained at about 6,900 ft (2,100 m), (450 ft (140 m) lower than Mexico City), which is about 790 hPa (11.5 psi) of atmosphere pressure.
629:
known as a PAC (Pressurization and Air
Conditioning) system. In some larger airliners, hot trim air can be added downstream of air-conditioned air coming from the packs if it is needed to warm a section of the cabin that is colder than others.
976:(1949) designed with a service ceiling of 36,000 ft (11,000 m). It was the first time that a large diameter, pressurized fuselage with windows had been built and flown at this altitude. Initially, the design was very successful but
525:
design, because the spacecraft cabin structure must withstand the stress of 14.7 pounds per square inch (1 atm, 1.01 bar) against the vacuum of space, and also because an inert nitrogen mass must be carried. Care must also be taken to avoid
617:). The control and selection of high or low bleed sources is fully automatic and is governed by the needs of various pneumatic systems at various stages of flight. Piston-engine aircraft require an additional compressor, see diagram right.
961:(1943) made the technology more common in civilian service. The piston-engined airliners generally relied on electrical compressors to provide pressurized cabin air. Engine supercharging and cabin pressurization enabled aircraft like the
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of oxygen in the air that is being breathed. At 40,000 ft (12,192 m), the ambient air pressure falls to about 0.2 bar, at which maintaining a minimum partial pressure of oxygen of 0.2 bar requires breathing 100% oxygen using an
259:. Without pressurization, sufficient oxygen can be delivered up to an altitude of about 40,000 ft (12,192 m). This is because a person who is used to living at sea level needs about 0.20 bar (20 kPa; 2.9 psi)
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may lead to loss of consciousness and a subsequent loss of control of the aircraft. Modern airliners include a pressurized pure oxygen tank in the cockpit, giving the pilots more time to bring the aircraft to a safe altitude. The
128:
that suffered catastrophic cabin failure mid-flight, was primarily caused by the aircraft's continued operation despite having accumulated more than twice the number of flight cycles that the airframe was designed to endure.
620:
The part of the bleed air that is directed to the ECS is then expanded to bring it to cabin pressure, which cools it. A final, suitable temperature is then achieved by adding back heat from the hot compressed air via a
1118:
608:
engine; from a low or intermediate stage or an additional high stage, the exact stage depending on engine type. By the time the cold outside air has reached the bleed air valves, it has been heated to around
112:
had a particularly high pressure differential due to flying at unusually high altitude: up to 60,000 ft (18,288 m) while maintaining a cabin altitude of 6,000 ft (1,829 m). This increased
351:). Usually these are not severe enough to cause actual trauma but can result in soreness in the ear that persists after the flight and can exacerbate or precipitate pre-existing medical conditions, such as
307:. These are the same symptoms that mountain climbers experience, but the limited duration of powered flight makes the development of pulmonary oedema unlikely. Altitude sickness may be controlled by a full
2222:
755:
means that any decompression will be very rapid and would not allow the pilot time to put on an oxygen mask. Therefore, fighter jet pilots and aircrew are required to wear oxygen masks at all times.
335:
As the aircraft climbs or descends, passengers may experience discomfort or acute pain as gases trapped within their bodies expand or contract. The most common problems occur with air trapped in the
985:
as the fuselage undergoes repeated stress cycles coupled with a misunderstanding of how aircraft skin stresses are redistributed around openings in the fuselage such as windows and rivet holes.
496:
of 40,000 ft (12,000 m) on the majority of newly designed commercial aircraft. Aircraft manufacturers can apply for a relaxation of this rule if the circumstances warrant it. In 2004,
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720:
for each seat. The oxygen systems have sufficient oxygen for all on board and give the pilots adequate time to descend to below 8,000 ft (2,438 m). Without emergency oxygen,
2045:
Harris, Brigader
General Harold R. USAF (Ret.), “Sixty Years of Aviation History, One Man's Remembrance,” journal of the American Aviation Historical Society, Winter, 1986, p 272-273
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that would have been exacerbated by the higher cabin pressures being adopted by modern airliners, it also eliminates the risk of corrosion from the use of greater humidity levels.
891:
In the late 1910s, attempts were being made to achieve higher and higher altitudes. In 1920, flights well over 37,000 ft (11,278 m) were first achieved by test pilot Lt.
712:
Any failure of cabin pressurization above 10,000 ft (3,048 m) requires an emergency descent to 8,000 ft (2,438 m) or the closest to that while maintaining the
740:
For airliners that need to fly over terrain that does not allow reaching the safe altitude within a maximum of 30 minutes, pressurized oxygen bottles are mandatory since the
561:
revised its procedure to use a nitrogen/oxygen mix at zero cabin altitude at launch, but kept the low-pressure pure oxygen atmosphere at 5 psi (0.34 bar) in space.
1122:
2526:
1000:
Even following the Comet disasters, there were several subsequent catastrophic fatigue failures attributed to cabin pressurisation. Perhaps the most prominent example was
709:. Failures range from sudden, catastrophic loss of airframe integrity (explosive decompression) to slow leaks or equipment malfunctions that allow cabin pressure to drop.
1201:
1710:
1894:"Boeing's 'More Electric' 787 Dreamliner Spurs Engine Evolution: On the 787, Boeing eliminated bleed air and relied heavily on electric starter generators"
392:. Thus a cabin altitude of zero would have the pressure found at mean sea level, which is taken to be 101,325 Pa (14.696 psi; 29.921 inHg).
1705:
1471:
922:, though only ten were produced before the war interrupted production. The 307's "pressure compartment was from the nose of the aircraft to a pressure
2519:
248:
can tolerate altitudes of 8,000 ft (2,438 m) without ill effect. At this altitude, there is about 25% less oxygen than there is at sea level.
1830:
1313:
981:
pressurized fuselage design at altitude. The critical problem proved to be a combination of an inadequate understanding of the effect of progressive
415:
Pilots can use a "cabin altimeter" (also known as a cabin differential pressure gauge) to measure the difference between inside and outside pressure.
2482:
1625:
1561:
729:
varies according to altitude. As the pressure falls the cabin air temperature may also plummet to the ambient outside temperature with a danger of
311:
with helmet and faceplate, which completely envelops the body in a pressurized environment; however, this is impractical for commercial passengers.
1439:
79:
1603:
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2581:
1032:
The designed operating cabin altitude for new aircraft is falling and this is expected to reduce any remaining physiological problems. Both the
887:(2005) First civilian business jet to certify 12.0 psi pressurization system allowing for a sea level cabin at 41,000 ft (12,497 m).
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1984:
1350:
287:, the body's most common response to hypoxia, does help to partially restore the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood, but it also causes
186:
2362:
1172:
2555:
988:
The critical engineering principles concerning metal fatigue learned from the Comet 1 program were applied directly to the design of the
2197:
R.J. Atkinson, W.J. Winkworth and G.M. Norris (1962). "Behaviour of Skin
Fatigue Cracks at the Corners of Windows in a Comet Fuselage".
1857:
633:
368:
An empty bottle, sealed at 11,000 m (37,000 ft), is crushed on descent to sea level, compared with one in its original state.
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2683:
2676:
Splendid Vision, Unswerving
Purpose; Developing Air Power for the United States Air Force During the First Century of Powered Flight
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2136:
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2105:
Splended Vision, Unswerving
Purpose; Developing Air Power for the United States Air Force During the First Century of Powered Flight
1688:
683:, simplify engine design, avert the need to run high pressure pipework around the aircraft, and provide greater design flexibility.
389:
208:
2690:
476:
business jet can provide a sea-level cabin altitude when cruising at 41,000 ft (12,497 m). One study of eight flights in
1893:
1453:
100:
temporarily grounded the Comet worldwide. These failures were investigated and found to be caused by a combination of progressive
977:
97:
1144:
1836:
1629:
1599:
1518:
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1319:
472:
business jet can provide a cabin altitude of 4,500 ft (1,372 m) when cruising at 41,000 ft (12,497 m). The
436:
31:
1287:
117:
weight and saw the use of smaller cabin windows intended to slow the decompression rate if a depressurization event occurred.
2729:
190:
66:
in order to create a safe and comfortable environment for humans flying at high altitudes. For aircraft, this air is usually
2016:
1274:
On an airplane, barotrauma to the ear – also called aero-otitis or barotitis – can happen as the plane descends for landing.
1502:
568:, the United States used "a 74-percent oxygen and 26-percent nitrogen breathing mixture" at 5 psi (0.34 bar) for
509:
Russian engineers used an air-like nitrogen/oxygen mixture, kept at a cabin altitude near zero at all times, in their 1961
2744:
1945:
2072:
The P210 wasn't the first production pressurized single engine aircraft, but it was definitely the first successful one.
1097:
726:
597:
588:
489:
344:
89:
entered service. The practice would become widespread a decade later, particularly with the introduction of the
British
929:
800:
577:
263:
to function normally and that pressure can be maintained up to about 40,000 ft (12,192 m) by increasing the
1808:
896:
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2714:
741:
706:
692:
638:
260:
179:
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1257:
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1001:
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121:
2356:"Aircraft Accident Report, Aloha Airlines Flight 243, Boeing 737-100, N73711, Near Maui, Hawaii, April 28, 1998"
1217:
Aircraft
Accident Report – Aloha Airlines, Flight 243, Boeing 737-200, N73711, near Maui, Hawaii, April 28, 1988
404:, cabin altitude during flight is kept above sea level in order to reduce stress on the pressurized part of the
2739:
1927:
645:
411:
323:) but including all other gases, may cause dissolved gases in the bloodstream to precipitate out, resulting in
1719:
1807:
Gernhardt, Michael L.; Dervay, Joseph P.; Waligora, James M.; Fitzpatrick, Daniel T.; Conkin, Johnny (2013).
1478:
2638:
Seymour L. Chapin (July 1971). "Patent Interferences and the History of Technology: A High-flying Example".
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1840:
1323:
2355:
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1262:
958:
915:
850:
844:
797:, (1920, a modified French design, not actually pressurized but with an enclosed, oxygen enriched cockpit)
527:
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because the accumulated nitrogen in their bodies can form bubbles when exposed to reduced cabin pressure.
457:
428:
314:
86:
644:
At least two engines provide compressed bleed air for all the plane's pneumatic systems, to provide full
1033:
676:
669:
661:
573:
538:
are pressurized with pure oxygen at relatively low pressure in order to provide reasonable flexibility.
493:
133:
39:
2588:
950:
long range strategic bomber was first into bomb service. The control system for this was designed by
923:
649:
514:
385:
221:
Pressurization becomes increasingly necessary at altitudes above 10,000 ft (3,048 m) above
2207:
1768:
831:(1937 – an American pressurized aircraft. Rather than a pressure capsule enclosing the cockpit, the
782:
510:
480:
aircraft found a median cabin pressure altitude of 6,128 ft (1,868 m), and 65 flights in
1994:
697:
2663:
2655:
2626:
2609:
Seymour L. Chapin (August 1966). "Garrett and Pressurized Flight: A Business Built on Thin Air".
2179:
2162:
Seymour L. Chapin (August 1966). "Garrett and Pressurized Flight: A Business Built on Thin Air".
1337:
1062:
1046:
973:
951:
939:
862:
813:(1931 – a German experimental aircraft purpose-built to test the concept of cabin pressurization)
763:
518:
244:
141:
90:
2445:
2439:
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1180:
85:
The first experimental pressurization systems saw use during the 1920s and 1930s. In the 1940s,
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2132:
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721:
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550:
449:
424:
279:
234:
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419:
Keeping the cabin altitude below 8,000 ft (2,438 m) generally prevents significant
2647:
2618:
2420:
2393:
2171:
1416:"Commercial Airliner Environmental Control System: Engineering Aspects of Cabin Air Quality"
1387:
1379:
1021:
943:
892:
822:
767:
284:
240:
1861:
865:(British, Comet 1 1949 – the first jetliner, Comet 4 1958 – resolving the Comet 1 problems)
140:, feature reduced operating cabin altitudes as well as greater humidity levels; the use of
2149:
1989:
1252:
1037:
1009:
938:
the cabin. The first bomber built with a pressurised cabin for high altitude use was the
771:
596:
An airtight fuselage is pressurized using a source of compressed air and controlled by an
542:
420:
340:
304:
137:
48:
251:
Hypoxia may be addressed by the administration of supplemental oxygen, either through an
108:
Certain aircraft have unusual pressurization needs. For example, the supersonic airliner
774:
were killed after the cabin vent valve accidentally opened before atmospheric re-entry.
2107:. Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio: U.S. Air Force Publications. pp. 128–29.
1903:
1544:"Airlines are cutting costs – Are patients with respiratory diseases paying the price?"
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1392:
1367:
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875:(1968 USSR and 1969 Anglo-French respectively – first to operate at very high altitude)
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622:
565:
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481:
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78:, tanks. The air is cooled, humidified, and mixed with recirculated air by one or more
59:
2320:"Aircraft Accident Report AAR8903: Aloha Airlines, Flight 243, Boeing 737-200, N73711"
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816:
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522:
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101:
75:
1858:"Commercial Airliner Environmental Control System: Engineering Aspects of Cabin Air"
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807:(1921 – the first aircraft to fly with the addition of a pressurized cockpit module)
705:
Unplanned loss of cabin pressure at altitude/in space is rare but has resulted in a
17:
2276:
1291:
966:
962:
919:
904:
900:
473:
453:
440:
352:
74:
at the compressor stage, and for spacecraft, it is carried in high-pressure, often
2299:
Black Box: Why Air Safety is no Accident, The Book Every Air Traveller Should Read
364:
2024:
484:
aircraft found a median cabin pressure altitude of 5,159 ft (1,572 m).
1898:
1087:
1025:
993:
914:
The first airliner to enter commercial service with a pressurized cabin was the
878:
838:
804:
748:
730:
717:
605:
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269:
252:
168:
71:
1383:
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pressurization or rapid descent will be essential to avoid the risk of hypoxia.
2708:
2483:"Interim Policy on High Altitude Cabin Decompression – Relevant Past Practice"
1092:
1082:
989:
954:, drawing in part on licensing of patents held by Boeing for the Stratoliner.
856:
786:
Cessna P210 - First commercially successful pressurized single-engine aircraft
680:
614:
535:
464:
432:
336:
330:
63:
44:
2424:
2397:
2678:. Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio: U.S. Air Force Publications, 2002.
832:
819:(1932 – a French record breaking pressurized cockpit, experimental aircraft)
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601:
445:
381:
296:
222:
67:
1401:
1231:
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541:
By contrast, the United States used a pure oxygen atmosphere for its 1961
2152:
used partial pressurization to reduce the effort of using an oxygen mask.
1016:
872:
759:
592:
Piston-engine aircraft cabin pressurization using a dedicated compressor.
554:
405:
401:
114:
109:
93:
2659:
2630:
2183:
1958:
881:(1978) First commercially successful pressurized single-engine aircraft
752:
610:
193: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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airframes has aided the adoption of such comfort-maximizing practices.
132:
For increased passenger comfort, several modern airliners, such as the
600:(ECS). The most common source of compressed air for pressurization is
1573:
1571:
569:
497:
456:
divers flying within the "no fly" period after a dive are at risk of
300:
2651:
2622:
2175:
1454:"Bombardier's Stretching Range on Global Express Global Express XRS"
1852:
1850:
1562:"Final Policy FAR Part 25 Sec. 25.841 07/05/1996|Attachment 4"
847:(1938 – the first pressurized airliner to enter commercial service)
928:
781:
696:
632:
587:
572:, and a cabin atmosphere of 14.5 psi (1.00 bar) for the
410:
363:
151:
38:
2326:
558:
372:
The pressure inside the cabin is technically referred to as the
790:
The aircraft that pioneered pressurized cabin systems include:
2340:
Aloha Airlines Flight 243 incident report - AviationSafety.net
2227:
London: Royal Air Force Historical Society, 2001. pp. 123–125.
162:
2556:"Boeing 7E7 Offers Preferred Cabin Environment, Study Finds"
1782:
Belew, Leland F., ed. (1977). "2. Our First Space Station".
942:
in 1941 but the RAF changed policy and instead of acting as
303:, headaches, sleeplessness, and (on extended flights) even
972:
The world's first commercial jet airliner was the British
319:
The low partial pressure of gases, principally nitrogen (N
2350:
2348:
58:
is a process in which conditioned air is pumped into the
2411:
Hepburn, A.N. (1967). "Human Factors in the Concorde".
926:
in the aft just forward of the horizontal stabilizer."
853:(1943 – the first pressurized airliner in wide service)
744:
fitted to most planes cannot supply sufficient oxygen.
2710:
Video with Cabin Pressurization Demo in Civil Aircraft
2558:(Press release). Boeing. July 19, 2004. Archived from
2384:
Hepburn, A.N. (1967). "Human Factors in the Concord".
1440:"Manufacturers aim for more comfortable cabin climate"
388:
according to a standard atmospheric model such as the
87:
the first commercial aircraft with a pressurized cabin
1676:
Project Mercury – NASA's First Manned Space Programme
1590:
1588:
1012:
policies and led to changes in operating procedures.
30:"Cabin pressure" redirects here. For other uses, see
27:
Process to maintain internal air pressure in aircraft
1653:(Second ed.). New York: MacMillan. p. 256.
2199:
Aeronautical Research Council Reports and Memoranda
1879:"Differential Pressure Characteristics of Aircraft"
380:. This is defined as the equivalent altitude above
2527:American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
1926:
946:the aircraft were used for other purposes. The US
2127:William A. Schoneberger and Robert R. H. Scholl,
1928:"Massive 787 Electrical System Pressurizes Cabin"
2148:Some extremely high flying aircraft such as the
343:or sinuses. Pain may also be experienced in the
295:) to out-gas, raising the blood pH and inducing
1711:American Heritage of Invention & Technology
1242:– Online interactive altitude oxygen calculator
933:World War II era flying helmet and oxygen mask
841:(1938 – the first pressurized piston airliner)
339:(aerotitis) or paranasal sinuses by a blocked
2272:"Milestones in Aircraft Structural Integrity"
2098:
2096:
2094:
2092:
2090:
2088:
2086:
2084:
2082:
2080:
1519:Flight Test: Emivest SJ30 – Long-range rocket
8:
1839:. 2016-08-24. pp. 34–35. Archived from
2691:United States Naval Flight Surgeon's Manual
1679:. Chichester, UK: Springer Praxis. p.
1345:. International Air Transport Association.
1200:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
859:(1946 – first British pressurized airliner)
648:. Compressed air is also obtained from the
2494:
2492:
1832:Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge
1315:Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge
1145:"Why do aircraft use cabin pressurization"
978:two catastrophic airframe failures in 1954
2520:"Airbus and Boeing spar for middleweight"
2240:. McLean, Virginia: Paladwr Press, 1999.
2206:
2129:Out of Thin Air: Garrett's First 50 Years
1472:"Bombardier Global Express XRS Factsheet"
1391:
1119:"How Airplane Cabin Pressurization Works"
1049:fuselages eliminates the threat posed by
209:Learn how and when to remove this message
1503:"Aircraft Environmental Control Systems"
1372:Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine
1322:. 2016-08-24. p. 36. Archived from
1166:
1164:
952:Garrett AiResearch Manufacturing Company
825:(1936 – a Russian experimental aircraft)
701:Typical passenger oxygen mask deployment
2582:"Taking the lead: A350XWB presentation"
2224:The RAF and Nuclear Weapons, 1960–1998.
1109:
835:fuselage skin was the pressure vessel.)
637:Outflow and pressure relief valve on a
557:during a 1967 ground test. After this,
243:of oxygen at high altitude reduces the
82:before it is distributed to the cabin.
2261:London: Blandford Press, 1967. p. 155.
2236:Davies, R.E.G. and Philip J. Birtles.
2131:, Phoenix: Garrett Corporation, 1985 (
1957:Jedick MD/MBA, Rocky (28 April 2013).
1785:SP-400 Skylab: Our First Space Station
1193:
957:Post-war piston airliners such as the
452:and this has to be managed carefully.
2587:. EADS. December 2006. Archived from
2441:Nunn's applied respiratory physiology
2238:Comet: The World's First Jet Airliner
299:. Passengers may experience fatigue,
7:
2468:
2363:National Transportation Safety Board
1933:Aviation Week & Space Technology
1925:Dornheim, Michael (March 27, 2005).
1892:Ogando, Joseph, ed. (June 4, 2007).
1579:"FARs, 14 CFR, Part 25, Section 841"
1368:"Commercial aircraft cabin altitude"
521:spacecraft. This requires a heavier
191:adding citations to reliable sources
2499:Adams, Marilyn (November 1, 2006).
681:chemical contamination of the cabin
374:equivalent effective cabin altitude
227:
43:An airliner fuselage, such as this
2485:. Federal Aviation Administration.
1477:. Bombardier. 2011. Archived from
1286:Auld, D. J.; Srinivas, K. (2008).
1117:Brain, Marshall (April 12, 2011).
1024:at the emergency masks unlike the
25:
2481:Happenny, Steve (24 March 2006).
1985:"Triumph and Tragedy of Soyuz 11"
1818:. Washington DC: NASA. p. 1.
1788:. Washington DC: NASA. p. 18
1121:. How Stuff Works. Archived from
492:amendment imposes an operational
390:International Standard Atmosphere
156:The pressurization controls on a
98:two catastrophic failures in 1954
2444:. Butterworth-Heineman. p.
1704:Giblin, Kelly A. (Spring 1998).
1531:SJ30-2, United States of America
751:aircraft, the small size of the
716:(MSA), and the deployment of an
167:
2365:. June 14, 1989. NTSB/AAR-89/03
1946:"Boeing 787 from the Ground Up"
1837:Federal Aviation Administration
1829:"Chapter 7: Aircraft Systems".
1809:"5.4 Extravehicular Activities"
1630:Federal Aviation Administration
1600:Federal Aviation Administration
1320:Federal Aviation Administration
1312:"Chapter 7: Aircraft Systems".
604:from the compressor stage of a
437:Federal Aviation Administration
178:needs additional citations for
32:Cabin Pressure (disambiguation)
1993:. 12 July 1971. Archived from
1288:"Properties of the Atmosphere"
1041:study performed by Boeing and
758:On June 30, 1971, the crew of
124:incident in 1988, involving a
47:, forms an almost cylindrical
1:
2696:"121 Dead in Greek Air Crash"
2103:Cornelisse, Diana G. (2002).
1624:Steve Happenny (2006-03-24).
1173:"The DeHavilland Comet Crash"
148:Need for cabin pressurization
80:environmental control systems
1602:. 2006-03-24. Archived from
1548:European Respiratory Society
1533:Retrieved 27 September 2012.
1521:Retrieved 27 September 2012.
1508:. Carleton University. 2003.
1442:. Flightglobal. 19 Mar 2012.
1232:"Altitude oxygen calculator"
1098:Time of useful consciousness
727:time of useful consciousness
598:environmental control system
490:Federal Aviation Regulations
2501:"Breathe easy, Boeing says"
2438:Nunn, John Francis (1993).
2259:Civil Airliners since 1946.
2061:Tennessee Aircraft Services
1835:(FAA-H-8083-25B ed.).
1318:(FAA-H-8083-25B ed.).
1230:K. Baillie and A. Simpson.
801:Engineering Division USD-9A
675:Some aircraft, such as the
578:International Space Station
2761:
2055:New, Paul (May 17, 2018).
1384:10.1177/014107680710000207
1339:Medical Manual 9th Edition
1177:Aerospace Engineering Blog
940:Vickers Wellington Mark VI
918:, built in 1938, prior to
742:chemical oxygen generators
693:Uncontrolled decompression
690:
463:The cabin altitude of the
29:
2611:Pacific Historical Review
2518:Croft, John (July 2006).
2301:. London: Boxtree, 1996.
2164:Pacific Historical Review
2021:Encyclopedia Astronautica
1649:Gatland, Kenneth (1976).
1258:Harvard Health Publishing
1043:Oklahoma State University
1002:Aloha Airlines Flight 243
948:Boeing B-29 Superfortress
707:number of fatal accidents
470:Bombardier Global Express
122:Aloha Airlines Flight 243
2342:, accessed July 5, 2014.
1673:Catchpole, John (2001).
1253:"Barotrauma What is it?"
1015:The supersonic airliner
897:Packard-Le Père LUSAC-11
795:Packard-Le Père LUSAC-11
714:minimum sector altitude
530:when cosmonauts perform
376:or more commonly as the
1149:aerospace.honeywell.com
687:Unplanned decompression
532:extravehicular activity
261:partial oxygen pressure
2640:Technology and Culture
2425:10.1093/occmed/17.2.47
2398:10.1093/occmed/17.2.47
2023:. 2007. Archived from
1860:. 1995. Archived from
1706:"Fire in the Cockpit!"
1598:. Renton, Washington:
1263:Harvard Medical School
959:Lockheed Constellation
934:
916:Boeing 307 Stratoliner
851:Lockheed Constellation
845:Boeing 307 Stratoliner
787:
702:
641:
593:
528:decompression sickness
517:, and 1967 to present
458:decompression sickness
429:decompression sickness
416:
369:
345:gastrointestinal tract
315:Decompression sickness
160:
52:
2730:Aerospace engineering
2674:Cornelisse, Diana G.
2413:Occupational Medicine
2386:Occupational Medicine
1769:"The Apollo 1 Fire –"
1171:rmjg20 (2012-06-09).
1034:Boeing 787 Dreamliner
1026:continuous-flow masks
932:
785:
700:
677:Boeing 787 Dreamliner
636:
591:
574:Space Shuttle orbiter
414:
367:
155:
134:Boeing 787 Dreamliner
42:
2745:Atmospheric pressure
1965:. Go Flight Medicine
1963:goflightmedicine.com
1758:Gatland, p. 278, 284
1722:on November 20, 2008
1596:"Exemption No. 8695"
762:, Soviet cosmonauts
650:auxiliary power unit
386:atmospheric pressure
187:improve this article
56:Cabin pressurization
18:Cabin pressurisation
2562:on November 6, 2011
2221:Jefford, C.G., ed.
1718:(4). Archived from
1125:on January 15, 2013
347:or even the teeth (
72:gas turbine engines
2689:Portions from the
2686:. pp. 128–29.
2603:General references
2027:on 30 October 2007
1626:"PS-ANM-03-112-16"
1460:. October 7, 2003.
1366:Bagshaw M (2007).
1063:Aerotoxic syndrome
974:de Havilland Comet
935:
863:de Havilland Comet
788:
764:Georgy Dobrovolsky
703:
642:
594:
534:, as current soft
417:
370:
161:
96:in 1949. However,
91:de Havilland Comet
62:of an aircraft or
53:
2297:Faith, Nicholas.
2257:Munson, Kenneth.
1997:on March 18, 2008
1867:on 31 March 2012.
1651:Manned Spacecraft
1458:Aero-News Network
1352:978-92-9229-445-8
1219:. FAA. p. 1.
1073:Atmosphere (unit)
1068:Air cycle machine
627:air cycle machine
551:Apollo spacecraft
425:altitude sickness
280:Altitude sickness
219:
218:
211:
16:(Redirected from
2752:
2735:Pressure vessels
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2541:
2536:on July 10, 2007
2535:
2529:. Archived from
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2007:
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1954:
1948:
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1922:
1916:
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1911:
1906:on April 6, 2012
1902:. Archived from
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1421:. Archived from
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1412:
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1363:
1357:
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1344:
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1309:
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1290:. Archived from
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1179:. Archived from
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1159:
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1141:
1135:
1134:
1132:
1130:
1114:
893:John A. Macready
823:Chizhevski BOK-1
768:Vladislav Volkov
384:having the same
285:Hyperventilation
241:partial pressure
214:
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21:
2760:
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2740:Aviation safety
2720:
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2652:10.2307/3102997
2637:
2623:10.2307/3636792
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2329:. 14 June 1989.
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2208:10.1.1.226.7667
2196:
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2176:10.2307/3636792
2161:
2160:
2156:
2150:Westland Welkin
2147:
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2078:
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1983:
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1749:Gatland, p. 269
1748:
1744:
1740:Gatland, p. 264
1739:
1735:
1725:
1723:
1703:
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1663:Gatland, p. 134
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1265:. December 2018
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1038:Airbus A350 XWB
1010:aviation safety
780:
772:Viktor Patsayev
695:
689:
664:) and 650
586:
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398:
362:
341:Eustachian tube
322:
305:pulmonary edema
294:
215:
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138:Airbus A350 XWB
49:pressure vessel
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2703:External links
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623:heat exchanger
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382:mean sea level
378:cabin altitude
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360:Cabin altitude
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306:
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265:mole fraction
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2277:ResearchGate
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1127:. Retrieved
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967:Douglas DC-7
963:Douglas DC-6
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901:McCook Field
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474:Emivest SJ30
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441:pneumothorax
418:
399:
377:
373:
371:
353:pneumothorax
325:gas embolism
324:
220:
205:
196:
185:Please help
180:verification
177:
131:
119:
107:
84:
55:
54:
36:
2369:February 5,
1899:Design News
1088:Rarefaction
994:radiography
944:Pathfinders
899:biplane at
879:Cessna P210
839:Renard R.35
805:Airco DH.9A
749:jet fighter
731:hypothermia
718:oxygen mask
606:gas turbine
549:, and 1967
536:space suits
478:Airbus A380
270:oxygen mask
253:oxygen mask
2724:Categories
2139:), p. 275.
2031:20 October
2017:"Soyuz 11"
2001:20 October
1635:2009-09-23
1610:2008-10-02
1488:2012-01-09
1298:2008-03-13
1269:2019-04-14
1237:2006-08-13
1187:2022-08-26
1154:2022-08-24
1093:Space suit
1083:Fume event
990:Boeing 707
857:Avro Tudor
668:(9.4
660:(7.8
646:redundancy
613:(392
564:After the
505:Spacecraft
501:aircraft.
465:Boeing 767
433:barotrauma
337:middle ear
331:Barotrauma
239:The lower
64:spacecraft
45:Boeing 737
2668:112829106
2505:USA Today
2469:Nunn 1993
2203:CiteSeerX
1959:"Hypoxia"
1726:March 23,
1378:(2): 64.
1104:Footnotes
1047:composite
833:monocoque
735:frostbite
609:200
602:bleed air
584:Mechanics
446:inner ear
402:airliners
297:alkalosis
228:see below
223:sea level
199:July 2024
142:composite
76:cryogenic
70:from the
2566:June 14,
2309:. p. 72.
2283:22 March
1969:17 March
1792:July 15,
1402:17277266
1196:cite web
1057:See also
1036:and the
1017:Concorde
924:bulkhead
873:Concorde
760:Soyuz 11
576:and the
555:Apollo 1
406:fuselage
396:Aircraft
245:alveolar
136:and the
115:airframe
110:Concorde
94:jetliner
68:bled off
2715:YouTube
2660:3102997
2631:3636792
2540:July 8,
2184:3636792
1550:. 2010.
1393:1790988
778:History
753:cockpit
722:hypoxia
545:, 1965
543:Mercury
515:Voskhod
513:, 1964
494:ceiling
450:sinuses
421:hypoxia
235:Hypoxia
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2066:21 May
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770:, and
570:Skylab
547:Gemini
511:Vostok
498:Airbus
431:, and
301:nausea
2698:, CNN
2664:S2CID
2656:JSTOR
2627:JSTOR
2592:(PDF)
2585:(PDF)
2534:(PDF)
2523:(PDF)
2359:(PDF)
2323:(PDF)
2180:JSTOR
1865:(PDF)
1812:(PDF)
1506:(PDF)
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1419:(PDF)
1343:(PDF)
895:in a
519:Soyuz
454:Scuba
60:cabin
2680:ISBN
2568:2011
2542:2007
2450:ISBN
2371:2016
2327:NTSB
2303:ISBN
2285:2019
2242:ISBN
2133:ISBN
2109:ISBN
2068:2021
2033:2007
2003:2007
1990:Time
1971:2014
1912:2011
1794:2019
1728:2011
1685:ISBN
1398:PMID
1347:ISBN
1202:link
1131:2012
871:and
625:and
559:NASA
448:and
120:The
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1388:PMC
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