Cadmium telluride photovoltaics

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some way attributable to the grain boundaries within the material. There have however been a number of studies which have suggested not only that GBs are not deleterious to performance but may in fact be beneficial as sources of enhanced carrier collection. So, the exact role of the grain boundaries in limitation of performance of CdTe-based solar cells remains unclear and the research is ongoing to address this question. However, in as-grown CdTe, grain boundaries are detrimental to performance. Subsequent processing may change this, but those effects should be studied on a case-by-case basis.

116: 670: 948: 414:, and therefore its production does not depend on PV market demand. CdTe PV modules provide a beneficial and safe use for cadmium that would otherwise be stored for future use or disposed of in landfills as hazardous waste. Mining byproducts can be converted into a stable CdTe compound and safely encapsulated inside CdTe PV solar modules for years. A large growth in the CdTe PV sector has the potential to reduce global cadmium emissions by displacing coal and oil power generation. 319: 390:, because module output was too low to offset tracker capital and operating costs. But relatively inexpensive single-axis tracking systems can add 25% output per installed watt. In addition, depending on the Tracker Energy Gain, the overall eco-efficiency of the PV system can be enhanced by lowering both system costs and environmental impacts. This is climate-dependent. Tracking also produces a smoother output plateau around midday, better matching afternoon peaks. 818: 521:

systems) and RESOLVED (REcovery of SOLar Valuable materials, Enrichment, and Decontamination) are European funded procedures. SENSE relies on mechanical, chemical and thermal treatments. RESOLVED relies on mainly mechanical treatments. The final method, First Solar, relies on mechanical and chemical processes. Mechanical methods of recycling are more environmentally friendly as they do not rely on the use of chemicals.

4522: 790: 804: 333:. In February 2016, First Solar announced that they had reached a record 22.1% conversion efficiency in their CdTe cells. In 2014, the record module efficiency was also raised by First Solar from 16.1% up to 17.0%. At this time, the company projected average production line module efficiency for its CdTe PV to be 17% by 2017, but by 2016, they predicted a module efficiency closer to ~19.5%. 217: 4534: 365:(since capital costs scale sublinearly and installation costs can be reduced), thinner layers (to save material, electricity, and processing time), and better material utilization (to save material and cleaning costs). 2014 CdTe module costs were about $ 72 per 1 square metre (11 sq ft), or about $ 90 per module. 20: 645:

During a module's lifespan it will not release any particles or vapors if used as intended. The only way for a completed module to release dust or vapor is by being ignited, or ground into a fine dust. When exposed to temperatures of approximately 1100 °C in laboratory tests, 0.4% to 0.6% of the

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By themselves, cadmium and tellurium are toxic and carcinogenic, but CdTe forms a crystalline lattice that is highly stable, and is several orders of magnitude less toxic than cadmium. The glass plates surrounding CdTe material sandwiched between them (as in all commercial modules) seal during a fire

146:. However, this technology suffers from low efficiencies and slow deposition rates (leading to high capital costs). Instead, the PV market reached some 4 gigawatts in 2007 with crystalline silicon comprising almost 90% of sales. The same source estimated that about 3 gigawatts were installed in 2007. 336:

To reach these record high efficiencies of 22%, alloying is used for band gap grading. A compound incorporating selenium into CdTe is used in the solar cell to improve the quantum efficiency response for certain wavelengths of light, in addition to unalloyed CdTe. The other major contributor to this

2304:

Like any solar price model, the Solar Advisory Model is quite sensitive to assumptions. Different sunlight, tax rates, interest rates, discount rates, loan durations, temperature coefficients, annual degradation rates, initial de-rating versus standard conditions, inverter efficiencies and O&M,

685:

Success of cadmium telluride PV has been due to the low cost achievable with the CdTe technology, made possible by combining adequate efficiency with lower module area costs. Direct manufacturing cost for CdTe PV modules reached $ 0.57 per watt in 2013, and capital cost per new watt of capacity was

507:

The size of the grains, and thus, the number of grain boundaries in a CdTe film are dependent on substrate temperature during film deposition. The higher the substrate temperature is, the larger the grain size, and the fewer the number of grain boundaries in the film. If a low substrate temperature

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Module efficiencies are measured in laboratories at standard testing temperatures of 25 °C, however in the field modules are often exposed to much higher temperatures. CdTe's relatively low temperature coefficient protects performance at higher temperatures. CdTe PV modules experience half the

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CdTe cells achieved above 15% efficiency in 1992 by adding a buffer layer to the TCO/CdS/CdTe stack and then thinned the CdS to admit more light. Chu used resistive tin oxide as the buffer layer and then thinned the CdS from several micrometres to under half a micrometre in thickness. Thick CdS, as

572:-equiv./m. These reductions show a highly beneficial change in the overall environmental profile of CdTe photovoltaic module. The LCA also showed that the main contributors to considered environmental impact categories are due to required chemicals and energy within the processing of CdTe modules. 503:

The grain boundary is the interface between two grains of a crystalline material and occur when two grains meet. They are a type of crystalline defect. It is often assumed that the open-circuit voltage gap seen in CdTe, in comparison to both single-crystal GaAs and the theoretical limit, may be in

520:

Photovoltaic modules can last anywhere from 25 – 30 years. Improper disposal of PV modules can release toxic materials into the environment. Only three methods of high-value recycling are industrially available for thin-film PV modules, as of 2013. SENSE (Sustainability EvaluatioN of Solar Energy

1586:. B. Basol patented numerous aspects of electrodeposition and CdTe contacting for Monosolar. Monosolar was subsequently bought by SOHIO, which was then absorbed by British Petroleum. Electrodeposition continued at BP Solar until about 2002 when it was canceled along with all thin film work at BP. 694:

Utility-scale CdTe PV solutions were claimed to be able to compete with peaking fossil fuel generation sources depending on irradiance levels, interest rates and other factors such as development costs. Recent installations of large First Solar CdTe PV systems were claimed to be competitive with

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has increased significantly. First Solar established the first global and comprehensive recycling program in the PV industry in 2005. Its recycling facilities operate at each of First Solar's manufacturing plants and recover up to 95% of semiconductor material for reuse in new modules and 90% of

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and increased PV recycling, the CdTe PV industry has the potential to fully rely on tellurium from recycled end-of-life modules by 2038. In the last decade, new supplies have been located, e.g., in Xinju, China as well as in Mexico and Sweden. In 1984 astrophysicists identified tellurium as the

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In the early 1990s, other players experienced mixed results. Golden Photon held the record for a short period for the best CdTe module measured at NREL at 7.7% using a spray deposition technique. Matsushita claimed an 11% module efficiency using CSS and then dropped the technology. A similar

80:

is an environmental concern during production and when the panels are disposed of. Some of this might be mitigated by recycling of CdTe modules at the end of their life time, as there are uncertainties regarding the recycling of CdTe modules and the public opinion is skeptical towards this

527:

As of 2013 the recycling costs for CdTe modules are higher than the re-sale of recycled materials. However, possible future recycling methods may decrease in cost through reduction of expensive and environmentally unfriendly processes. Promising future recycling methods include

237:, Monosolar's acquirer). BP Solar dropped CdTe in November 2002. Antec was able to make about 7%-efficient modules, but went bankrupt when it started producing commercially during a short, sharp market downturn in 2002. However, as of 2014 Antec still made CdTe PV modules. 3025:

Marchetti, Barbara; Corvaro, Francesco; Giacchetta, Giancarlo; Polonara, Fabio; Cocci Grifoni, Roberta; Leporini, Mariella (2018-02-12). "Double Green Process: a low environmental impact method for recycling of CdTe, a-Si and CIS/CIGS thin-film photovoltaic modules".

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tests, however more recent models can pass some elution tests. Despite the small amounts of Cd that may leach out, CdTe modules have low overall leachability as the hazardous materials within them are encased within two layers of glass. CdTe modules have very poor

2600:

It has been suggested that Te is unique in the universe in that its cosmic abundance is as great or greater than any of other element with an atomic number higher than 40, yet it is one of the least abundant elements in the Earth's crust and in ocean

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and do not allow any cadmium release unless the glass is broken. All other uses and exposures related to cadmium are minor and similar in kind and magnitude to exposures from other materials in the broader PV value chain, e.g., to toxic gases, lead

304:

gases flow across a cooler downstream region where they condense on a substrate to form solid CdTe. This process is preferred over CSS because it produces films of greater uniformity and allows for deposition on any configuration of the substrate.

466:) to increase the cell's overall efficiency. Cadmium chloride is toxic, relatively expensive and highly soluble in water, posing a potential environmental threat during manufacture. In 2014 research discovered that abundant and harmless 766:(after the application of all incentives). Defined in California as the "Market Referent Price," this set the price the PUC would pay for any daytime peaking power source, e.g., natural gas. Although PV systems are intermittent and not 2270: 1899: 292:

and Germany. In 2013, First Solar acquired GE's thin film solar panel technology in exchange for a 1.8% stake in the company. Today, First Solar manufactures over 3 gigawatts with an average module efficiency of 16.4% in 2016.

204:

An important step forward occurred when cells were scaled-up in size to make larger area products called modules. These products required higher currents than small cells and it was found that an additional layer, called a

429:. Te is almost exclusively obtained as a by-product of copper refining, with smaller amounts from lead and gold production. Only a small amount, estimated to be about 800 metric tons per year, is available. According to 287:

In its early years First Solar suffered setbacks, and initial module efficiencies were modest, about 7%. Commercial product became available in 2002. Production reached 25 megawatts in 2005. The company manufactured in

2886:

Giacchetta, Giancarlo; Leporini, Mariella; Marchetti, Barbara (July 2013). "Evaluation of the environmental benefits of new high value process for the management of the end of life of thin-film photovoltaic modules".

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or CIS-alloys remained under development. The latter is beginning to be produced in volumes of 1–30 megawatts per year due to very high small-area cell efficiencies approaching 20% in the laboratory. CdTe cell

260:, the Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research, focuses on the development of CdTe solar cells on flexible substrates and demonstrated cell efficiencies of 13.5% and 15.6% for flexible 166:

Research in CdTe dates back to the 1950s, because its band gap (~1.5 eV) is almost a perfect match to the distribution of photons in the solar spectrum in terms of conversion to electricity. A simple

345:/CdTe structure, MZO can be used in place of CdS. CdS is source of inefficient absorption, while MZO has a tunable band gap that can be optimized for high transparency and good alignment with CdSe 2766:

Beckmann, J.; Mennenga, A. (2011). "Calculation of emissions when there is a fire in a photovoltaic system made of cadmium telluride modules" (Document). Bavarian Environmental Protection Agency.

2171:

This number is calculated by multiplying efficiency (12.6%) by 1000 to get output watts per square meter (126 W/m), and then multiplying power by the stated cost of $ 0.57 per watt to get $ 72/m

512:

on the film and subsequently annealing. This is a crucial processing step, as cells deposited at low temperatures that lack this step are unable to reach conversion efficiencies above 10%.

3346: 229:

it was used in prior devices, blocked about 5 mA/cm of light, or about 20% of the light usable by a CdTe device. The additional layer did not compromise the device's other properties.

635:

Cadmium telluride photovoltaic cells have negative impacts on both workers and the ecosystem. When inhaled or ingested the materials of CdTe cells are considered to be both toxic and

276:, envisioned low-cost thin films made on a large scale. After trying amorphous silicon, he shifted to CdTe at the urging of Jim Nolan and founded Solar Cells Inc., which later became 1204:. Institute of Photovoltaics, University of Stuttgart, Germany - The 21st International Photovoltaic Science and Engineering Conference 2011 Fukuoka, Japan. p. 2. Archived from 1176: 433:, global production in 2007 was 135 metric tons. One gigawatt (GW) of CdTe PV modules would require about 93 metric tons (at current efficiencies and thicknesses). Through improved 642:

CdTe production facilities may cause environmental issues when there are accidents in high-efficiency production or from by-product exhaust in less efficient production methods.

425:

production and reserves estimates are subject to uncertainty and vary considerably. Tellurium is a rare, mildly toxic metalloid that is primarily used as a machining additive to

1919: 2316: 3132: 3097: 2639:

The ridges occur at 400-4000 m depths where currents have kept the rocks swept clean of sediments for millions of years. Crusts…forming pavements up to 250 mm thick

201:

but shifted in the 1990s to CSS. Cells of about 10% sunlight-to-electricity efficiency were produced by the early 1980s at Kodak, Matsushita, Monosolar and AMETEK.

81:

technology. The usage of rare materials may also become a limiting factor to the industrial scalability of CdTe technology in the mid-term future. The abundance of

711:

ever built. Agua Caliente features First Solar's plant control, forecasting and energy scheduling capabilities that contribute to grid reliability and stability.

4427: 4104: 2740: 1365: 296:

First Solar notably uses a high-rate vapor transport deposition process in lieu of CSS (closed space sublimation) for the deposition of CdTe. This is a type of

73:

of any current photovoltaic technology. CdTe's energy payback time of less than a year allows for faster carbon reductions without short-term energy deficits.

3460: 2380: 3909: 1035:

Jinqing Peng; Lin Lu; Hongxing Yang (2013). "Review on life cycle assessment of energy payback and greenhouse gas emission of solar photovoltaic systems".

280:. McMaster championed CdTe for its high-rate, high-throughput processing. In February 1999, McMaster sold the company to True North Partners, who named it 3225: 3782: 751:

A 128 MWp system installed by Belectric at Templin, Brandenburg, Germany is the current largest thin-film PV installation in Europe (as of January 2015).

639:

by the US Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Workers in processing facilities may be exposed to, and inhale, fine particles or fumes of Cd.

1753: 2069: 734: 213:, was available for other uses (thermally reflective windows). Made more conductive for PV, tin oxide became and remains the norm in CdTe PV modules. 90: 4244: 2613:

Hein, J.; Koschinsky, A.; Halliday, A. (2003). "Global Occurrence of tellurium-rich ferromanganese crusts and a model for enrichment of tellurium".

1771: 3395: 2288: 1222: 4211: 4206: 3540: 233:

efficiency and fate eventually occurred at BP Solar. BP used electrodeposition (inherited from Monosolar by a circuitous route when it purchased

2005: 1976: 1265: 748:, Germany was, at the time of its announcement in 2007, the world's largest and lowest cost planned PV system. The price was 130 million euros. 139:

layers to absorb and convert sunlight. Concentrators lower the number of panels by using lenses or mirrors to put more sunlight on each panel.

3353: 1595:

Peter Meyers, originally of Ametek, provides a thread stretching from Ametek through Solar Cells Inc. to First Solar. He is on Ametek patents

2593: 1920:

https://www.firstsolar.com/en-Emea/-/media/First-Solar/Sustainability-Documents/Sustainability-Peer-Reviews/Chile-Peer-Review---Cener_EN.ashx

1871: 730: 2426: 1294: 3318: 1571:. Tyan especially published both patents and papers of significance at Kodak and helped to establish CdTe as an important thin film option. 193:(CSS) and made the first 10% efficient cells and first multi-cell devices (12 cells, 8% efficiency, 30 cm). Monosolar and AMETEK used 3164: 1145: 4249: 1886: 1565:(EP0006025); Y. S. Tyan and E. A. Perez-Albuerne, 1982, Integrated array of photovoltaic cells having minimized shorting losses, Kodak, 1316: 719: 678: 580: 97: 1645: 524:

Materials that can be recovered in the recycling process include metals, mounts, glass, and, in high value cases, the whole PV module.

4265: 3617: 183: 2089:

Powalla, Michael; Paetel, Stefan; Ahlswede, Erik; Wuerz, Roland; Wessendorf, Cordula D.; Magorian Friedlmeier, Theresa (2018-12-01).

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showed a reduction in primary energy demand in End-Of-Life from 81 MJ/m to -12 MJ/m, a reduction of around 93 MJ/m, and in terms of

2984:

Zhang, Xiaofeng; Huang, Daxin; Jiang, Wenlong; Zha, Guozheng; Deng, Juhai; Deng, Pan; Kong, Xiangfeng; Liu, Dachun (January 2020).

1811: 4398: 4161: 3642: 2430: 107:. With a share of 5.1% of worldwide PV production, CdTe technology accounted for more than half of the thin film market in 2013. 2091:"Thin-film solar cells exceeding 22% solar cell efficiency: An overview on CdTe-, Cu(In,Ga)Se2-, and perovskite-based materials" 4412: 3919: 3658: 2412: 755: 3424: 3151:

Fthenakis, V. M.; Moskowitz, P. D. (January 2000). "Photovoltaics: environmental, health and safety issues and perspectives".

4363: 3889: 3683: 3632: 846: 842: 532:

and the Double Green Process. Vulcanization-vacuum distillation has been suggested as a possible recycling process to obtain

150: 3288: 2664:

Major, J. D.; Treharne, R. E.; Phillips, L. J.; Durose, K. (2014). "A low-cost non-toxic post-growth activation step for Cd

2234:

Green, M. (August 2003). "General Temperature Dependence of Solar Cell Performance and Implications for Device Modelling".

4196: 1580:

B. Basol, E. Tseng, R.L. Rod, 1981, Thin film heterojunction photovoltaic cells and methods of making the same, Monosolar

1194: 584:

A small PV array used as part of Energy Systems Integration research ongoing at the National Wind Technology Center (NWTC)

536:

and can recover Te with purities up to 99.92%. The Double Green Process consists of almost entirely mechanical processes.

362: 2584:

Hein, J. (2004). "Chapter 5 from Workshop on Minerals other than Polymetallic Nodules of the International Seabed Area".

4483: 4463: 3843: 3602: 206: 2719: 1246: 944:, Jan 2008. CdTe PV is the cheapest example of PV technologies and prices are about 16¢/kWh with US Southwest sunlight. 4373: 3848: 3533: 2271:"Performance characterization and superior energy yield of First Solar PV power plants in high temperature conditions" 862: 704: 3483: 2749: 410:

considered a hazardous substance, is a waste byproduct of mining, smelting and refining sulfidic ores of zinc during

209:(TCO), could facilitate the movement of current across the top of the cell (instead of a metal grid). One such TCO, 4383: 4236: 4225: 4099: 3946: 3904: 3884: 3471: 961: 777:. The SCE program is designed to install 250 MW at a total cost of $ 875M (averaging $ 3.5/watt), after incentives. 774: 708: 194: 100: 2986:"Selective separation and recovery of rare metals by vulcanization-vacuum distillation of cadmium telluride waste" 174:(CdS). The cell was completed by adding top and bottom contacts. Early leaders in CdS/CdTe cell efficiencies were 3797: 3772: 3612: 2445: 2384: 1117:

de Wild-Scholten, Mariska (2013). "Energy payback time and carbon footprint of commercial photovoltaic systems".

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Y. A. Vodakov; G. A. Lomakina; G. P. Naumov; Y. P. Maslakovets (1960). "A P-N Junction photocell made of CdTe".

4565: 4537: 4298: 4280: 4171: 4017: 4004: 3999: 3899: 1623: 759: 557: 1331: 4388: 4308: 4186: 4156: 3914: 3894: 3823: 3709: 3704: 3673: 3668: 795: 767: 553: 540: 190: 115: 4580: 4526: 4368: 4338: 4303: 4290: 4176: 3951: 3752: 3742: 3637: 3526: 947: 136: 47: 4343: 4333: 4313: 4166: 3989: 3792: 3595: 3590: 3126: 3069: 2292: 1229: 745: 669: 549: 330: 323: 221: 155: 1863:

Hot, Flat, and Crowded: Why The World Needs A Green Revolution - and How We Can Renew Our Global Future

3187: 2742:

Experimental Investigation of Emissions and Redistribution of Elements in CdTe PV Modules during Fires

2588:. Kingston, Jamaica: Office of Resource and Environmental Monitoring, International Seabed Authority. 50:

layer designed to absorb and convert sunlight into electricity. Cadmium telluride PV is the only

4560: 4378: 4358: 4353: 4348: 4323: 4318: 3833: 3762: 3607: 3575: 3439: 2950: 2896: 2851: 2790: 2677: 2622: 2555: 2504: 2460: 2354: 2208: 2199:

P. Singh; N.M. Ravindra (June 2012). "Temperature Dependence of Solar Cell Performance—an Analysis".

2102: 2043: 1501: 1466: 1388: 1160: 1091: 1044: 991: 892: 770:

the way natural gas is, natural gas generators have an ongoing fuel price risk that PV does not have.

51: 3399: 2013: 1984: 4032: 4012: 3979: 3787: 3723: 3663: 3622: 2586:

Cobalt-Rich Ferromanganese Crusts: Global Distribution, Composition, Origin and Research Activities

1414:

R. H. Bube (1955). "Photoconductivity of the Sulfide, Selenide, and Telluride of Zinc or Cadmium".

1273: 887: 867: 529: 434: 318: 253: 124: 70: 59: 3304: 374:

reduction of crystalline silicon modules, resulting in an increased annual energy output of 5-9%.

4575: 4068: 4027: 3974: 3747: 3627: 3503: 3272: 3254: 3051: 2701: 2528: 2345:

M. Raugei; V. Fthenakis (2010). "Cadmium flows and emissions from CdTe PV: future expectations".

2251: 2118: 1958: 1846: 1689: 1439: 1302: 1017: 823: 467: 3325: 980:"Embodied energy and carbon from the manufacture of cadmium telluride and silicon photovoltaics" 482:) performs as well as cadmium chloride. This research may lead to cheaper and safer CdTe cells. 337:

large increase in efficiency is the usage of MgZnO (MZO) within the cell. In a cell using a CdSe

4073: 4094: 4089: 4022: 3818: 3757: 3688: 3678: 3207: 3168: 3043: 3007: 2966: 2912: 2693: 2589: 2520: 1948: 1867: 1431: 1009: 852: 837: 407: 143: 43: 915: 256:(Italy). Including Antec, their total production represents less than 70 megawatts per year. 4570: 4151: 4119: 4109: 3580: 3495: 3447: 3199: 3160: 3114: 3035: 2997: 2958: 2904: 2859: 2798: 2685: 2630: 2563: 2512: 2468: 2362: 2243: 2216: 2152: 2110: 2051: 1940: 1681: 1651: 1634: 1509: 1474: 1423: 1396: 1168: 1126: 1099: 1060: 1052: 999: 872: 817: 715: 674: 658: 451: 289: 104: 66: 4063: 3994: 3111:

24th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, 21–25 September 2009, Hamburg, Germany

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The overall Cd air emission estimates can range from 0.02 to 0.5 grams per gigawatt-hour.

361:

Process optimization improved throughput and lowered costs. Improvements included broader

273: 198: 171: 2495:

Zweibel, K. (2010). "The Impact of Tellurium Supply on Cadmium Telluride Photovoltaics".

2181: 1785: 937: 3443: 2954: 2900: 2864: 2855: 2839: 2794: 2681: 2626: 2559: 2508: 2464: 2358: 2212: 2106: 2047: 1772:"While First Solar keeps on trucking, others in CdTe thin-film PV pack keep on muddling" 1505: 1470: 1392: 1164: 1095: 1048: 995: 4473: 4448: 4114: 3966: 3868: 3858: 3828: 3585: 3226:"First Solar Reports Largest Quarterly Decline In CdTe Module Cost Per-Watt Since 2007" 2427:"First Solar CdTe Photovoltaic Technology: Environmental, Health and Safety Assessment" 609: 601: 167: 2634: 2034:

Sinha, P. (2013). "Life cycle materials and water management for CdTe photovoltaics".

4554: 4135: 4058: 4048: 3961: 3853: 3570: 3549: 3055: 2651: 2567: 2122: 1962: 1916:

First Solar CdTe Photovoltaic Technology: Environmental, Health and Safety Assessment

1754:"First Solar Acquires GE's PrimeStar Solar IP, Misses Q2 Revenue and Lowers Guidance" 1478: 1021: 809: 617: 439: 411: 387: 3507: 3118: 2532: 2472: 2255: 1937:

Conference Record of the Twenty-Ninth IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, 2002

1693: 1443: 1348:"NREL: News - Record Makes Thin-Film Solar Cell Competitive with Silicon Efficiency" 4503: 4458: 4191: 3863: 3203: 2705: 1457:

D. A. Cusano (1963). "CdTe Solar Cells and PV Heterojunctions in II-VI Compounds".

882: 832: 383: 39: 3039: 2908: 2090: 3188:"Are green jobs just jobs? Cadmium narratives in the life cycle of Photovoltaics" 3098:

ftp://ftp.co.imperial.ca.us/icpds/eir/campo-verde-solar/final/life-cycle-cdte.pdf

3002: 2985: 2220: 2055: 1861: 1130: 272:

The major commercial success was by Solar Cells Incorporated (SCI). Its founder,

4498: 4468: 4443: 4201: 3838: 3813: 2366: 1004: 979: 857: 789: 737:, and was the region's largest PV power plant at the time of completion in 2013. 589: 281: 277: 210: 3499: 2962: 2446:"Future recycling flows of tellurium from cadmium telluride photovoltaic waste" 1932: 1685: 1559:

Y. S. Tyan, 1978, Polycrystalline thin film CdS/CdTe photovoltaic cell, Kodak,

1427: 1347: 1205: 1172: 1103: 1056: 3984: 3956: 3734: 3451: 2817: 2802: 2783:

European Material Research Society Meeting, Symposium for Environmental Issues

1944: 1825: 1647:

High-Efficiency CdTe and CIGS Thin-Film Solar Cells: Highlights and Challenges

1603: 1597: 1582: 1567: 1561: 1547: 1513: 877: 785: 636: 508:

is used during deposition, grain size is commonly increased by depositing CdCl

128: 55: 3211: 3172: 3047: 3011: 2970: 2916: 1650:. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401, USA. Archived from 1435: 1013: 588:

Photovoltaics can assist in reducing toxic emissions and pollution caused by

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Held, M. (2009-11-18). "Life Cycle Assessment of CdTe PV Module Recycling".

2516: 1400: 1223:"Water Solubility of Cadmium Telluride in a Glass-to-Glass Sealed PV Module" 803: 544: 533: 422: 261: 82: 3165:

10.1002/(sici)1099-159x(200001/02)8:1<27::aid-pip296>3.0.co;2-8

2818:"Technology Support of High-Throughput Processing of Thin Film CdTe Panels" 2697: 2524: 2006:"First Solar Sets Thin-Film Module Efficiency World Record of 17.0 Percent" 1826:"Technology Support of High-Throughput Processing of Thin Film CdTe Panels" 216: 3382:"First Solar announces two solar projects with Southern California Edison" 135:

were early attempts to lower costs. Thin films are based on using thinner

4488: 4478: 4453: 2748:. 19th European PV Solar Energy Conference. Paris, France. Archived from 2485:

Publications of the Sichuan Xinju Mineral Resource Development Co., China

2305:

and others can each have as much as a 10% impact on costs per unit power.

2070:"First Solar Hits Record 22.1% Conversion Efficiency for CdTe Solar Cell" 700: 300:

where CdTe is first sublimated in an upstream region. Then, the Cd and Te

2689: 1725: 1328: 1228:. Vitreous State Laboratory, and AMELIO Solar, Inc. 2011. Archived from 158:

is approaching 20% in the laboratory with a record of 22.1% as of 2016.

4493: 3511: 2157: 2140: 1977:"First Solar Builds the Highest Efficiency Thin Film PV Cell on Record" 1064: 653: 403: 77: 19: 3425:"CdTe photovoltaics: Life cycle environmental profile and comparisons" 2779:"CdTe Photovoltaics: Life Cycle Environmental Profile and Comparisons" 2114: 1918:. (2013). National Renewable Energy Centre (CENER), Fundacion Chile. 978:

Wikoff, Hope M.; Reese, Samantha B.; Reese, Matthew O. (2022-07-20).

492: 245: 3242: 2938: 2778: 2247: 1079: 916:"Publications, Presentations, and News Database: Cadmium Telluride" 3285: 2546:

B. L. Cohen (1984). "Anomalous behavior of tellurium abundances".

1638: 726: 718:

in California, finished construction in November 2014 and was the

620:

of electricity produced from PV would decrease the emissions of SO

592:. Emissions from fossil fuels that impact global climates such as 579: 495:, or solvents (most of which are not used in CdTe manufacturing). 426: 234: 215: 179: 114: 86: 18: 3518: 1790: 1672:

Fairley, P. (2003). "BP solar ditches thin-film photovoltaics".

741: 430: 257: 3522: 241: 142:

The first thin film technology to be extensively developed was

763: 593: 2939:"Life cycle impact analysis of cadmium in CdTe PV production" 1931:

McCandless, B.E.; Birkmire, R.W.; Buchanan, W.A. (May 2002).

1146:"Life cycle impact analysis of cadmium in CdTe PV production" 686:

about $ 0.9 per watt (including land and buildings) in 2008.

2141:"CdTe-Based Thin Film Solar Cells: Past, Present and Future" 1707: 1295:"NREL: Manufacturing Analysis - Supply Constraints Analysis" 762:

fixed the price for the generated electricity at $ 0.12 per

450:

The manufacture of a CdTe cell includes a thin coating with

170:

design evolved in which p-type CdTe was matched with n-type

2720:"The Lowdown on the Safety of First Solar's CdTe Thin Film" 1247:"The Lowdown on the Safety of First Solar's CdTe Thin Film" 773:

A contract for two megawatts of rooftop installations with

175: 2840:"Grain boundaries in CdTe thin-film solar cells: A review" 1080:"Life-cycle uses of water in U.S. electricity generation" 960:

Further mention of cost competitiveness: David Biello, "

329:

In August 2014 First Solar announced a device with 21.1%

252:, in Arvada, Colorado (acquired by First Solar from GE), 1887:

First Solar Gives GE 1.8% Stake in Thin-Film Partnership

442:

over 40. Certain undersea ridges are rich in tellurium.

3396:"California Utility to Install 250MW of Roof-Top Solar" 2289:"Parabolic Trough Technology Models and Software Tools" 1933:"Vapor transport deposition of cadmium telluride films" 1492:

B. Goldstein (1958). "Properties of PV Films of CdTe".

1379:

D. A. Jenny; R. H. Bube (1954). "Semiconducting CdTe".

2739:

V. Fthenakis; M. Fuhrmann; J. Heiser; W. Wang (2004).

23:

PV array made of cadmium telluride (CdTe) solar panels

3398:. SustainableBusiness.com. 2008-03-27. Archived from 3070:"Evolution of First Solar's Module Recycling Program" 3153:

Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications

2269:

N. Strevel; L. Trippel; M. Gloeckler (August 2012).

2236:

Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications

2139:

Romeo, Alessandro; Artegiani, Elisa (January 2021).

1329:

Various estimates of world module production in 2007

123:

The dominant PV technology has always been based on

93:

and contributes significantly to the module's cost.

4436: 4420: 4411: 4289: 4258: 4235: 4224: 4144: 4128: 4082: 4041: 3939: 3932: 3877: 3806: 3733: 3722: 3697: 3651: 3563: 3556: 2652:"Bean Curd Component Could Slash Solar Panel Costs" 1741:2011/02 Solar Fields LLC takes over Q-Cells shares 197:, a popular early method. Matsushita started with 962:Solar Power Lightens Up with Thin-Film Technology 3028:International Journal of Sustainable Engineering 65:On a lifecycle basis, CdTe PV has the smallest 1812:After long wait, McMaster to join hall of fame 4428:List of countries by photovoltaics production 4105:Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments Solar One 3534: 3131:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of March 2024 ( 2134: 2132: 119:Cross-section of a CdTe thin film solar cell. 8: 3461:"Progress in Photovoltaic Energy Conversion" 3243:Pacific Crest Presentation, August 3–5, 2008 2381:"Assessment of critical thin film resources" 3910:Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector 3299: 3297: 2579: 2577: 677:employs 9 million CdTe-modules. It was the 438:universe's most abundant element having an 96:CdTe photovoltaics are used in some of the 4417: 4232: 3936: 3783:Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells 3730: 3560: 3541: 3527: 3519: 1617: 1615: 1613: 1195:"Toxic Substances In Photovoltaic Modules" 3423:Fthenakis, V.; Kim, H. C. (31 May 2007). 3001: 2863: 2156: 1847:"First Solar annual manufacturing levels" 1003: 735:Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Solar Park 548:glass for reuse in new glass products. A 149:During this period cadmium telluride and 4245:Grid-connected photovoltaic power system 2943:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2816:D. H. Rose; et al. (October 1999). 2453:Resources, Conservation, & Recycling 2036:Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 1824:D. H. Rose; et al. (October 1999). 1786:"Empa CdTe—Thin Films and Photovoltaics" 1153:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 1119:Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 1084:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 1037:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 910: 908: 668: 568:-equiv./m, a reduction of around -8.5 CO 317: 4212:Victorian Model Solar Vehicle Challenge 4207:Hunt-Winston School Solar Car Challenge 2317:"Tracking systems boost eco-efficiency" 1860:Friedman, Thomas L. (5 November 2009). 904: 3384:. Semiconductor-Today.com. 2008-07-17. 3289:The world's biggest solar power plants 3124: 2990:Separation and Purification Technology 2201:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 1866:. Penguin Books Limited. p. 388. 1266:"Cadmium: The Dark Side of Thin-Film?" 918:. National Renewable Energy Laboratory 3484:"First Solar: Quest for the $ 1 Watt" 3146: 3144: 3142: 2932: 2930: 2928: 2926: 2881: 2879: 2877: 2875: 2315:P. Sinha; S. Dailey (November 2013). 1193:Werner, Jürgen H. (2 November 2011). 936:K. Zweibel, J. Mason, V. Fthenakis, " 731:Dubai Electricity and Water Authority 386:module systems to-date have been non- 7: 4533: 2937:Fthenakis, Vasilis M (August 2004). 2844:Semiconductor Science and Technology 2825:National Renewable Energy Laboratory 1833:National Renewable Energy Laboratory 1624:"Thin Films Past Present and Future" 632:by 1000 tons when compared to coal. 616:) are not emitted from PV. A single 264:and glass substrates, respectively. 42:(PV) technology based on the use of 4250:List of photovoltaic power stations 3255:"Grid-connected bulk power systems" 3113:. 21-25 September 2009: 2370–2375. 1607:, 1987; and SCI/First Solar patents 446:Cadmium chloride/magnesium chloride 54:with lower costs than conventional 4266:Rooftop photovoltaic power station 3669:Polycrystalline silicon (multi-Si) 3618:Third-generation photovoltaic cell 3482:Stevenson, Richard (August 2008). 2444:Max Marwede; Armin Reller (2012). 1835:. p. viii. NREL SR-520-27149. 543:the number of worldwide installed 14: 4271:Building-integrated photovoltaics 3768:Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics 3674:Monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si) 1078:V. Fthenakis; H. C. Kim. (2010). 707:in Arizona is one of the largest 4532: 4521: 4520: 3643:Polarizing organic photovoltaics 3273:"Agua Caliente (limited access)" 2777:V. Fthenakis; H. C. Kim (2006). 2431:National Renewable Energy Centre 1182:from the original on 8 May 2014. 946: 816: 802: 788: 679:world's largest PV power station 552:of CdTe module recycling by the 69:, lowest water use and shortest 3778:Cadmium telluride photovoltaics 3659:List of semiconductor materials 3286:http://www.power-technology.com 3186:Mulvaney, Dustin (2014-07-01). 3119:10.4229/24thEUPVSEC2009-3CO.7.4 2615:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2548:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2473:10.1016/j.resconrec.2012.09.003 2413:United States Geological Survey 1726:"Company—Yesterday to Tomorrow" 756:Blythe Photovoltaic Power Plant 725:First Solar's 13 MW project in 576:Environmental and health impact 224:in Germany uses CdTe PV modules 3890:Incremental conductance method 3684:Copper indium gallium selenide 3633:Thermodynamic efficiency limit 3347:"Belectric press announcement" 3204:10.1016/j.geoforum.2014.01.014 1144:Fthenakis, Vasilis M. (2004). 843:Copper indium gallium selenide 89:form—is comparable to that of 1: 4197:South African Solar Challenge 3468:NASA Technical Reports Server 3040:10.1080/19397038.2018.1424963 2909:10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.01.022 2889:Journal of Cleaner Production 2865:10.1088/0268-1242/31/9/093001 2635:10.1016/s0016-7037(02)01279-6 2182:"Regenerative Energiesysteme" 1644:R. Noufi; K. Zweibel (2006). 695:other forms of solar energy: 248:(formerly owned by Q-Cells), 91:platinum in the Earth's crust 3844:Photovoltaic mounting system 3003:10.1016/j.seppur.2019.115864 2568:10.1016/0016-7037(84)90363-6 2291:. 2008-07-25. Archived from 2221:10.1016/j.solmat.2012.02.019 2056:10.1016/j.solmat.2013.08.022 1529:Soviet Physics - Solid State 1479:10.1016/0038-1101(63)90078-9 1319:, July 28, 2014, pages 18,19 1301:. 2014-01-23. Archived from 1131:10.1016/j.solmat.2013.08.037 740:A 40 MW system installed by 207:transparent conducting oxide 3849:Maximum power point tracker 2838:Major, Jonathan D. (2016). 2433:. October 2013. p. 32. 2409:Mineral Commodity Summaries 2367:10.1016/j.enpol.2010.05.007 2275:Photovoltaics International 1900:"First Solar Annual Report" 1889:. bloomberg.com. 2013-08-07 1264:Guest Column (2008-09-25). 1005:10.1016/j.joule.2022.06.006 863:High efficiency solar cells 733:, is the first part of the 101:photovoltaic power stations 85:—of which telluride is the 62:in multi-kilowatt systems. 4597: 4100:Solar panels on spacecraft 3947:Solar-powered refrigerator 3905:Concentrated photovoltaics 3885:Perturb and observe method 3664:Crystalline silicon (c-Si) 3500:10.1109/mspec.2008.4586284 2963:10.1016/j.rser.2003.12.001 1774:. Fabtech.org. 2008-08-21. 1686:10.1109/MSPEC.2003.1159741 1428:10.1109/JRPROC.1955.278046 1366:"First Solar, Inc. - News" 1173:10.1016/j.rser.2003.12.001 1104:10.1016/j.rser.2010.03.008 1057:10.1016/j.rser.2012.11.035 775:Southern California Edison 720:world's largest solar farm 709:photovoltaic power station 652:Early CdTe modules failed 244:(100 megawatts per year), 4516: 3798:Heterojunction solar cell 3773:Dye-sensitized solar cell 3613:Multi-junction solar cell 3603:Nominal power (Watt-peak) 3452:10.1016/j.tsf.2006.12.138 2803:10.1016/j.tsf.2006.12.138 1945:10.1109/PVSC.2002.1190623 1545:R. Colman, July 28, 1964 1514:10.1103/PhysRev.109.601.2 646:Cd content was released. 298:physical vapor deposition 4281:Strasskirchen Solar Park 4172:American Solar Challenge 4018:Solar-powered flashlight 4005:Solar-powered calculator 4000:Solar cell phone charger 3689:Amorphous silicon (a-Si) 760:power purchase agreement 558:global warming potential 151:copper indium diselenide 16:Type of solar power cell 4187:Frisian Solar Challenge 4157:List of solar car teams 3915:Space-based solar power 3895:Constant voltage method 3824:Solar charge controller 3710:Timeline of solar cells 3705:Growth of photovoltaics 2517:10.1126/science.1189690 2095:Applied Physics Reviews 1849:. FirstSolar.com. 2008. 1459:Solid State Electronics 1401:10.1103/PhysRev.96.1190 796:Renewable energy portal 554:University of Stuttgart 541:growth of photovoltaics 539:Due to the exponential 240:CdTe start-ups include 191:close-space sublimation 178:in the 1960s, and then 4177:Formula Sun Grand Prix 4009:Solar-powered fountain 3952:Solar air conditioning 3753:Quantum dot solar cell 3743:Nanocrystal solar cell 3638:Sun-free photovoltaics 3121:(inactive 2024-03-24). 1416:Proceedings of the IRE 682: 585: 326: 225: 120: 24: 4167:World Solar Challenge 3990:Photovoltaic keyboard 3920:PV system performance 3793:Perovskite solar cell 3591:Solar cell efficiency 1604:U.S. patent 4,710,589 1598:U.S. patent 4,260,427 1583:U.S. patent 4,388,483 1568:U.S. patent 4,315,096 1562:U.S. patent 4,207,119 1548:U.S. patent 3,142,586 746:Waldpolenz Solar Park 705:Agua Caliente project 672: 583: 550:life-cycle assessment 382:Almost all thin film 331:conversion efficiency 321: 222:Waldpolenz Solar Park 219: 118: 22: 4437:Individual producers 4145:Solar vehicle racing 3834:Solar micro-inverter 3763:Plasmonic solar cell 3608:Thin-film solar cell 3576:Photoelectric effect 1939:. pp. 547–550. 1317:Photovoltaics Report 1211:on 21 December 2014. 900:References and notes 893:Thin film solar cell 564:-equiv./m to -2.5 CO 357:Process optimization 189:By 1981, Kodak used 52:thin film technology 4033:Solar traffic light 4013:Solar-powered radio 3980:Solar-powered watch 3788:Printed solar panel 3623:Solar cell research 3444:2007TSF...515.5961F 3319:"Report at juwi.de" 2955:2004RSERv...8..303F 2901:2013JCPro..51..214G 2856:2016SeScT..31i3001M 2795:2007TSF...515.5961F 2690:10.1038/nature13435 2682:2014Natur.511..334M 2627:2003GeCoA..67.1117H 2560:1984GeCoA..48..203C 2509:2010Sci...328..699Z 2465:2012RCR....69...35M 2359:2010EnPol..38.5223R 2213:2012SEMSC.101...36S 2107:2018ApPRv...5d1602P 2048:2013SEMSC.119..271S 1708:"Bunter ist besser" 1622:K. Zweibel (1995). 1506:1958PhRv..109..601G 1471:1963SSEle...6..217C 1393:1954PhRv...96.1190J 1165:2004RSERv...8..303F 1096:2010RSERv..14.2039F 1049:2013RSERv..19..255P 996:2022Joule...6.1710W 966:Scientific American 942:Scientific American 868:Low cost solar cell 530:vacuum distillation 435:material efficiency 369:Ambient temperature 268:SCI and First Solar 125:crystalline silicon 71:energy payback time 60:crystalline silicon 4069:The Quiet Achiever 4028:Solar street light 3975:Solar-powered pump 3748:Organic solar cell 3628:Thermophotovoltaic 3596:Quantum efficiency 3514:on August 7, 2008. 2158:10.3390/en14061684 1334:2011-07-25 at the 1251:greentechmedia.com 1202:postfreemarket.net 938:A Solar Grand Plan 824:Environment portal 729:, operated by the 699:First Solar's 290- 683: 586: 468:magnesium chloride 327: 226: 220:The utility-scale 121: 25: 4548: 4547: 4512: 4511: 4407: 4406: 4220: 4219: 4095:Mauro Solar Riser 4090:Electric aircraft 4023:Solar-powered fan 3928: 3927: 3819:Balance of system 3807:System components 3758:Hybrid solar cell 3718: 3717: 3679:Cadmium telluride 3079:. 2013. p. 2 2789:(15): 5961–5963. 2676:(7509): 334–337. 2654:. 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January 2008. 2404: 2400: 2399: 2395: 2387: 2379: 2378: 2374: 2344: 2343: 2339: 2330: 2328: 2314: 2313: 2309: 2298: 2296: 2287: 2286: 2282: 2268: 2267: 2263: 2248:10.1002/pip.496 2233: 2232: 2228: 2198: 2197: 2193: 2180: 2179: 2175: 2170: 2166: 2138: 2137: 2130: 2088: 2087: 2083: 2074: 2072: 2068: 2067: 2063: 2033: 2032: 2028: 2019: 2017: 2004: 2003: 1999: 1990: 1988: 1975: 1974: 1970: 1955: 1930: 1929: 1925: 1914: 1910: 1902: 1898: 1897: 1893: 1885: 1881: 1874: 1859: 1858: 1854: 1845: 1844: 1840: 1828: 1823: 1822: 1818: 1810: 1806: 1796: 1794: 1784: 1783: 1779: 1770: 1769: 1765: 1752: 1751: 1747: 1734: 1732: 1724: 1723: 1719: 1706: 1705: 1701: 1671: 1670: 1666: 1657: 1655: 1643: 1626: 1621: 1620: 1611: 1602: 1596: 1594: 1590: 1581: 1579: 1575: 1566: 1560: 1558: 1554: 1546: 1544: 1540: 1526: 1525: 1521: 1491: 1490: 1486: 1456: 1455: 1451: 1413: 1412: 1408: 1378: 1377: 1373: 1364: 1363: 1359: 1346: 1345: 1341: 1336:Wayback Machine 1327: 1323: 1315:Fraunhofer ISE 1314: 1310: 1293: 1292: 1288: 1279: 1277: 1263: 1262: 1258: 1245: 1244: 1240: 1232: 1225: 1221: 1220: 1216: 1208: 1197: 1192: 1191: 1187: 1179: 1148: 1143: 1142: 1138: 1116: 1115: 1111: 1077: 1076: 1072: 1034: 1033: 1029: 977: 976: 972: 959: 955: 945: 935: 931: 921: 919: 914: 913: 906: 902: 897: 822: 815: 808: 801: 794: 787: 784: 692: 690:Notable systems 667: 631: 627: 623: 615: 607: 599: 594:nitrogen oxides 578: 571: 567: 563: 518: 511: 501: 488: 478: 475: 474: 473: 471: 462: 459: 458: 457: 455: 448: 420: 401: 396: 380: 371: 359: 352: 348: 344: 340: 316: 314:Cell efficiency 311: 303: 274:Harold McMaster 270: 250:PrimeStar Solar 199:screen printing 172:cadmium sulfide 164: 113: 98:world's largest 17: 12: 11: 5: 4594: 4592: 4584: 4583: 4578: 4573: 4568: 4563: 4553: 4552: 4546: 4545: 4543: 4542: 4530: 4517: 4514: 4513: 4510: 4509: 4507: 4506: 4501: 4496: 4491: 4486: 4481: 4476: 4474:Solar Frontier 4471: 4466: 4461: 4456: 4451: 4449:Hanwha Q CELLS 4446: 4440: 4438: 4434: 4433: 4431: 4430: 4424: 4422: 4415: 4409: 4408: 4405: 4404: 4402: 4401: 4396: 4394:United Kingdom 4391: 4386: 4381: 4376: 4371: 4366: 4361: 4356: 4351: 4346: 4341: 4336: 4331: 4329:Czech Republic 4326: 4321: 4316: 4311: 4306: 4301: 4295: 4293: 4287: 4286: 4284: 4283: 4278: 4273: 4268: 4262: 4260: 4256: 4255: 4253: 4252: 4247: 4241: 4239: 4230: 4222: 4221: 4218: 4217: 4215: 4214: 4209: 4204: 4199: 4194: 4189: 4184: 4179: 4174: 4169: 4164: 4159: 4154: 4148: 4146: 4142: 4141: 4139: 4138: 4132: 4130: 4126: 4125: 4123: 4122: 4117: 4115:Qinetiq Zephyr 4112: 4107: 4102: 4097: 4092: 4086: 4084: 4080: 4079: 4077: 4076: 4071: 4066: 4061: 4056: 4051: 4045: 4043: 4042:Land transport 4039: 4038: 4036: 4035: 4030: 4025: 4020: 4015: 4010: 4007: 4002: 3997: 3992: 3987: 3982: 3977: 3972: 3969: 3967:Solar backpack 3964: 3959: 3954: 3949: 3943: 3941: 3934: 3930: 3929: 3926: 3925: 3923: 3922: 3917: 3912: 3907: 3902: 3897: 3892: 3887: 3881: 3879: 3875: 3874: 3872: 3871: 3869:Synchronverter 3866: 3861: 3859:Solar shingles 3856: 3851: 3846: 3841: 3836: 3831: 3829:Solar inverter 3826: 3821: 3816: 3810: 3808: 3804: 3803: 3801: 3800: 3795: 3790: 3785: 3780: 3775: 3770: 3765: 3760: 3755: 3750: 3745: 3739: 3737: 3728: 3720: 3719: 3716: 3715: 3713: 3712: 3707: 3701: 3699: 3695: 3694: 3692: 3691: 3686: 3681: 3676: 3671: 3666: 3661: 3655: 3653: 3649: 3648: 3646: 3645: 3640: 3635: 3630: 3625: 3620: 3615: 3610: 3605: 3600: 3599: 3598: 3588: 3586:Solar constant 3583: 3578: 3573: 3567: 3565: 3558: 3554: 3553: 3548: 3546: 3545: 3538: 3531: 3523: 3517: 3516: 3479: 3477:on 2011-06-06. 3456: 3418: 3415: 3413: 3412: 3387: 3373: 3338: 3331:on 2012-01-13. 3310: 3307:. First Solar. 3293: 3278: 3275:. First Solar. 3264: 3261:. First Solar. 3246: 3235: 3217: 3178: 3138: 3101: 3090: 3061: 3034:(3): 173–185. 3017: 2976: 2949:(4): 303–334. 2922: 2871: 2830: 2808: 2769: 2758: 2755:on 2008-10-07. 2731: 2711: 2668:solar cells". 2656: 2643: 2605: 2594: 2573: 2554:(1): 204–205. 2538: 2487: 2478: 2436: 2418: 2393: 2390:on 2009-05-07. 2372: 2337: 2321:Solar Industry 2307: 2280: 2261: 2242:(5): 333–340. 2226: 2191: 2173: 2164: 2128: 2081: 2061: 2026: 2010:firstsolar.com 1997: 1981:firstsolar.com 1968: 1953: 1923: 1908: 1891: 1879: 1872: 1852: 1838: 1816: 1804: 1777: 1763: 1758:GrenntechMedia 1745: 1717: 1712:antec-solar.de 1699: 1664: 1609: 1588: 1573: 1552: 1538: 1519: 1500:(2): 601–603. 1484: 1465:(3): 217–218. 1449: 1406: 1371: 1357: 1339: 1321: 1308: 1305:on 2014-12-21. 1286: 1256: 1238: 1235:on 2015-06-26. 1214: 1185: 1159:(4): 303–334. 1136: 1109: 1070: 1027: 970: 953: 929: 903: 901: 898: 896: 895: 890: 885: 880: 875: 870: 865: 860: 855: 850: 840: 835: 829: 828: 827: 813: 799: 783: 780: 779: 778: 771: 754:For the 21 MW 752: 749: 738: 723: 712: 691: 688: 666: 663: 629: 625: 624:by 10 tons, NO 621: 613: 610:sulfur dioxide 605: 602:carbon dioxide 597: 577: 574: 569: 565: 561: 528:vulcanization- 517: 514: 509: 500: 497: 487: 484: 476: 460: 447: 444: 423:Tellurium (Te) 419: 416: 400: 397: 395: 392: 388:solar tracking 379: 378:Solar tracking 376: 370: 367: 358: 355: 350: 346: 342: 338: 315: 312: 310: 307: 301: 269: 266: 186:, and AMETEK. 168:heterojunction 163: 160: 112: 109: 103:, such as the 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4593: 4582: 4581:Photovoltaics 4579: 4577: 4574: 4572: 4569: 4567: 4564: 4562: 4559: 4558: 4556: 4541: 4540: 4531: 4529: 4528: 4519: 4518: 4515: 4505: 4502: 4500: 4497: 4495: 4492: 4490: 4487: 4485: 4482: 4480: 4477: 4475: 4472: 4470: 4467: 4465: 4462: 4460: 4457: 4455: 4452: 4450: 4447: 4445: 4442: 4441: 4439: 4435: 4429: 4426: 4425: 4423: 4419: 4416: 4414: 4410: 4400: 4397: 4395: 4392: 4390: 4387: 4385: 4382: 4380: 4377: 4375: 4372: 4370: 4367: 4365: 4362: 4360: 4357: 4355: 4352: 4350: 4347: 4345: 4342: 4340: 4337: 4335: 4332: 4330: 4327: 4325: 4322: 4320: 4317: 4315: 4312: 4310: 4307: 4305: 4302: 4300: 4297: 4296: 4294: 4292: 4288: 4282: 4279: 4277: 4274: 4272: 4269: 4267: 4264: 4263: 4261: 4257: 4251: 4248: 4246: 4243: 4242: 4240: 4238: 4234: 4231: 4229: 4223: 4213: 4210: 4208: 4205: 4203: 4200: 4198: 4195: 4193: 4190: 4188: 4185: 4183: 4180: 4178: 4175: 4173: 4170: 4168: 4165: 4163: 4160: 4158: 4155: 4153: 4150: 4149: 4147: 4143: 4137: 4134: 4133: 4131: 4127: 4121: 4118: 4116: 4113: 4111: 4108: 4106: 4103: 4101: 4098: 4096: 4093: 4091: 4088: 4087: 4085: 4083:Air transport 4081: 4075: 4072: 4070: 4067: 4065: 4062: 4060: 4059:Solar roadway 4057: 4055: 4052: 4050: 4049:Solar vehicle 4047: 4046: 4044: 4040: 4034: 4031: 4029: 4026: 4024: 4021: 4019: 4016: 4014: 4011: 4008: 4006: 4003: 4001: 3998: 3996: 3993: 3991: 3988: 3986: 3983: 3981: 3978: 3976: 3973: 3970: 3968: 3965: 3963: 3962:Solar charger 3960: 3958: 3955: 3953: 3950: 3948: 3945: 3944: 3942: 3938: 3935: 3931: 3921: 3918: 3916: 3913: 3911: 3908: 3906: 3903: 3901: 3898: 3896: 3893: 3891: 3888: 3886: 3883: 3882: 3880: 3876: 3870: 3867: 3865: 3862: 3860: 3857: 3855: 3854:Solar tracker 3852: 3850: 3847: 3845: 3842: 3840: 3837: 3835: 3832: 3830: 3827: 3825: 3822: 3820: 3817: 3815: 3812: 3811: 3809: 3805: 3799: 3796: 3794: 3791: 3789: 3786: 3784: 3781: 3779: 3776: 3774: 3771: 3769: 3766: 3764: 3761: 3759: 3756: 3754: 3751: 3749: 3746: 3744: 3741: 3740: 3738: 3736: 3732: 3729: 3727: 3721: 3711: 3708: 3706: 3703: 3702: 3700: 3696: 3690: 3687: 3685: 3682: 3680: 3677: 3675: 3672: 3670: 3667: 3665: 3662: 3660: 3657: 3656: 3654: 3650: 3644: 3641: 3639: 3636: 3634: 3631: 3629: 3626: 3624: 3621: 3619: 3616: 3614: 3611: 3609: 3606: 3604: 3601: 3597: 3594: 3593: 3592: 3589: 3587: 3584: 3582: 3579: 3577: 3574: 3572: 3571:Photovoltaics 3569: 3568: 3566: 3562: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3550:Photovoltaics 3544: 3539: 3537: 3532: 3530: 3525: 3524: 3521: 3513: 3509: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3488:IEEE Spectrum 3485: 3480: 3473: 3469: 3462: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3426: 3421: 3420: 3416: 3402:on 2009-05-07 3401: 3397: 3391: 3388: 3383: 3377: 3374: 3359:on 2015-01-13 3355: 3348: 3342: 3339: 3327: 3320: 3314: 3311: 3306: 3300: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3287: 3282: 3279: 3274: 3268: 3265: 3260: 3256: 3250: 3247: 3244: 3239: 3236: 3232:. 2013-11-07. 3231: 3230:CleanTechnica 3227: 3221: 3218: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3182: 3179: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3147: 3145: 3143: 3139: 3134: 3128: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3105: 3102: 3099: 3094: 3091: 3078: 3071: 3065: 3062: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3021: 3018: 3013: 3009: 3004: 2999: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2980: 2977: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2933: 2931: 2929: 2927: 2923: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2882: 2880: 2878: 2876: 2872: 2866: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2850:(9): 093001. 2849: 2845: 2841: 2834: 2831: 2826: 2819: 2812: 2809: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2773: 2770: 2762: 2759: 2751: 2744: 2743: 2735: 2732: 2721: 2715: 2712: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2660: 2657: 2653: 2650:Karen Field. 2647: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2609: 2606: 2602: 2597: 2591: 2587: 2580: 2578: 2574: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2542: 2539: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2491: 2488: 2482: 2479: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2447: 2440: 2437: 2432: 2428: 2422: 2419: 2414: 2410: 2403: 2397: 2394: 2386: 2382: 2376: 2373: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2347:Energy Policy 2341: 2338: 2327:on 2013-12-13 2326: 2322: 2318: 2311: 2308: 2295:on 2008-09-22 2294: 2290: 2284: 2281: 2276: 2272: 2265: 2262: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2230: 2227: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2195: 2192: 2187: 2186:Hanser Verlag 2183: 2177: 2174: 2168: 2165: 2159: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2135: 2133: 2129: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2101:(4): 041602. 2100: 2096: 2092: 2085: 2082: 2071: 2065: 2062: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2030: 2027: 2016:on 2014-03-20 2015: 2011: 2007: 2001: 1998: 1987:on 2014-09-09 1986: 1982: 1978: 1972: 1969: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1954:0-7803-7471-1 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1927: 1924: 1921: 1917: 1912: 1909: 1901: 1895: 1892: 1888: 1883: 1880: 1875: 1869: 1865: 1864: 1856: 1853: 1848: 1842: 1839: 1834: 1827: 1820: 1817: 1813: 1808: 1805: 1793: 1792: 1787: 1781: 1778: 1773: 1767: 1764: 1759: 1755: 1749: 1746: 1742: 1731: 1727: 1721: 1718: 1713: 1709: 1703: 1700: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1674:IEEE Spectrum 1668: 1665: 1654:on 2008-10-07 1653: 1649: 1648: 1640: 1639:10.2172/61140 1636: 1632: 1625: 1618: 1616: 1614: 1610: 1605: 1599: 1592: 1589: 1584: 1577: 1574: 1569: 1563: 1556: 1553: 1549: 1542: 1539: 1534: 1530: 1523: 1520: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1488: 1485: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1453: 1450: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1410: 1407: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1375: 1372: 1367: 1361: 1358: 1353: 1349: 1343: 1340: 1337: 1333: 1330: 1325: 1322: 1318: 1312: 1309: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1290: 1287: 1276:on 2018-09-03 1275: 1271: 1267: 1260: 1257: 1253:. 2012-03-19. 1252: 1248: 1242: 1239: 1231: 1224: 1218: 1215: 1207: 1203: 1196: 1189: 1186: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1147: 1140: 1137: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1113: 1110: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1074: 1071: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1031: 1028: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1006: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 985: 981: 974: 971: 968:, April 2008. 967: 963: 957: 954: 949: 943: 939: 933: 930: 917: 911: 909: 905: 899: 894: 891: 889: 886: 884: 881: 879: 876: 874: 871: 869: 866: 864: 861: 859: 856: 854: 851: 848: 844: 841: 839: 836: 834: 831: 830: 825: 819: 814: 811: 810:Energy portal 805: 800: 797: 791: 786: 781: 776: 772: 769: 765: 761: 757: 753: 750: 747: 743: 739: 736: 732: 728: 724: 721: 717: 713: 710: 706: 702: 698: 697: 696: 689: 687: 680: 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3512:the original 3494:(8): 26–31. 3491: 3487: 3472:the original 3467: 3459:Hill, A. H. 3438:(15): 5961. 3435: 3431: 3404:. Retrieved 3400:the original 3390: 3376: 3361:. Retrieved 3354:the original 3341: 3326:the original 3313: 3281: 3267: 3258: 3249: 3238: 3229: 3220: 3195: 3191: 3181: 3159:(1): 27–38. 3156: 3152: 3127:cite journal 3110: 3104: 3093: 3081:. Retrieved 3076: 3064: 3031: 3027: 3020: 2993: 2989: 2979: 2946: 2942: 2892: 2888: 2847: 2843: 2833: 2824: 2811: 2786: 2782: 2772: 2761: 2750:the original 2741: 2734: 2723:. Retrieved 2714: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2659: 2646: 2638: 2618: 2614: 2608: 2599: 2585: 2551: 2547: 2541: 2500: 2496: 2490: 2481: 2459:(4): 35–49. 2456: 2452: 2439: 2421: 2408: 2396: 2385:the original 2375: 2350: 2346: 2340: 2329:. Retrieved 2325:the original 2320: 2310: 2297:. Retrieved 2293:the original 2283: 2274: 2264: 2239: 2235: 2229: 2204: 2200: 2194: 2185: 2176: 2167: 2148: 2144: 2098: 2094: 2084: 2073:. Retrieved 2064: 2039: 2035: 2029: 2018:. Retrieved 2014:the original 2009: 2000: 1989:. 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Retrieved 883:Solar energy 833:Abound Solar 768:dispatchable 722:at the time. 693: 684: 651: 648: 644: 641: 637:carcinogenic 634: 590:fossil fuels 587: 538: 526: 523: 519: 506: 502: 489: 449: 421: 404:Cadmium (Cd) 402: 384:photovoltaic 381: 372: 360: 335: 328: 324:efficiencies 295: 286: 271: 262:plastic foil 249: 239: 231: 227: 203: 188: 165: 148: 141: 122: 95: 75: 64: 40:photovoltaic 35: 31: 27: 26: 4561:Solar cells 4499:Trina Solar 4444:First Solar 4384:Switzerland 4364:Netherlands 4202:Tour de Sol 3900:Fill factor 3839:Solar cable 3814:Solar panel 3735:Solar cells 3198:: 178–186. 2895:: 214–224. 2402:"Tellurium" 2388:(.doc file) 2151:(6): 1684. 2042:: 271–275. 1125:: 296–305. 1065:10397/34975 1043:: 255–274. 922:23 February 888:Solar panel 858:First Solar 714:The 550 MW 322:Solar cell 282:First Solar 278:First Solar 56:solar cells 4555:Categories 4421:By country 4291:By country 4226:Generation 4136:Solar boat 3985:Solar Tuki 3971:Solar tree 3957:Solar lamp 3940:Appliances 3564:Technology 3406:2009-04-06 3363:2015-01-06 3305:"Projects" 3077:FirstSolar 2996:: 115864. 2725:2016-11-08 2331:2013-12-13 2299:2008-10-14 2075:2016-11-08 2020:2014-03-20 1991:2014-08-25 1658:2008-10-09 1280:2014-12-21 1270:gigaom.com 878:Solar cell 545:PV systems 363:substrates 309:Technology 184:Matsushita 156:efficiency 129:Thin films 111:Background 46:in a thin 4576:Tellurium 4299:Australia 4276:Solar Ark 4182:Solar Cup 4074:Sunmobile 4054:Solar car 3652:Materials 3212:0016-7185 3173:1062-7995 3056:115286183 3048:1939-7038 3012:1383-5866 2971:1364-0321 2917:0959-6526 2207:: 36–45. 2123:139533600 1963:119779034 1735:August 1, 1680:: 18–19. 1494:Phys. 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