1279:
679:
on Kongre in 851. Kongre’s followers started to betray him. Desperate to strengthen his position among his dispirited followers, he told them: “I shall pay tributes to the Tang and borrow 500,000 Chinese soldiers to punish those who dare disobey me. I shall then make
Weizhou the capital of my state and request Tang to confer on me the title Zanpu.” Kongre came to Chang’an in the fifth month and requested the title Military Commissioner. Emperor Xuanzong, however, had no intention of accepting him as an outer subject. He accorded Kongre an audience but rejected his request. Kongre came back to Weizhou to rally his forces. Many of his former supporters, however, now refused to follow him. With only three hundred companions, Kongre moved farther northwest to Kuozhou and ceased to be a threat to China.
866:
married the daughter of the Uighur Khagan, thus reinforcing a positive relationship with the
Uighurs. In 918 Cao Yijin, with the support of the Uighur Khagan, the puye 僕射 of Liangzhou and the xianggong 相公 of Lingzhou, sent envoys to the Later Liang and was conferred by the court the title of military commissioner of the Guiyijun. Cao Yijin constructed a large cave (Cave 98) at Mogao in celebration of being acknowledged by the central dynasty. He strengthened his rear by sending envoys to the Yizhou and Xizhou Uighurs, and in 925, took advantage of the change of khagans among the Ganzhou Uighurs and led a military campaign against them, defeating them after heavy fighting. The newly established khagan took Cao Yijin’s daughter as his wife and thus became the military commissioner’s son-in-law.
807:
Uighurs in the west and the kingdom of Khotan. With Khotan they even entered into a marriage alliance, as the
Khotanese king Li Shengtian 李聖天 married the daughter of Cao Yijin, and Cao Yanlu also married the third daughter of the king of Khotan. Hence there were very close contacts between the two states. We can even say that in the eyes of the Khotanese people the Hexi-based Guiyijun came to represent China proper. During the late 10th century, as a result of the holy war launched by the Islamic Karakhanid Khanate against Khotanese Buddhists, Khotan increasingly relied on its eastern neighbors to resist hostile invasion.
607:
1004:
1330:
1345:
637:
626:
377:
710:
Chang’an in 872. In his absence, his nephew Zhang
Huaishen 張淮深 took over the rule of the Guiyijun, yet the Tang court did not officially appoint him military commissioner. Thus while Zhang Huaishen received no support from the Tang, the Uighurs, as part of their westward expansion, deeply invaded the territories of Ganzhou and Suzhou, and even attacked Guazhou. Even though Zhang Huaishen successfully defeated their scattered attacks, in 876 the Xizhou Uighurs seized Yizhou and with this the Guiyijun lost one of its important garrisons.
1074:
988:
1291:
850:
838:
1318:
1303:
488:
417:
389:
1264:
1245:
these articles provide a detailed analysis of
Sogdians in Dunhuang during this period, it is still questionable whether the sources he utilized indeed refer to Sogdians. Because of the continuous presence of Sogdians in Dunhuang and the substantial influence of Sogdian culture, I have raised the possibility that the Cao family who ruled Dunhuang during part of the Guiyijun period may have also been Sogdian descendants.
74:
910:
Dunhuang where Visa
Sambhava’s wife often stayed and where the heir to the Khotanese throne lived. The crown prince’s residence functioned as a representative office for the Khotanese, and it is very possible that the Khotanese language documents found in cave 17 were an archive donated by the crown prince’s residence to the Three Realms Monastery.
823:
678:
At the same time, the rivalry between the two
Tibetan generals, Kongre and Bibi, in the Hexi region worsened in 850. Their troops clashed several times in the eighth and ninth months, and Bibi suffered heavy casualties. The pro-Tang Zhang Yichao seized this opportunity to exert more military pressure
732:
In another memorial presented to the
Emperor Tang Yizong, Zhang Yichao implored the court not to abandon Liangzhou. It seems that the Wamo and Tibetans were trying hard to recapture Liangzhou in the late 860s, and their attacks appear to have been very heavy so that Chang'an was planning to withdraw
471:
in
Chinese as seen from Dunhuang manuscripts) according to their professions or other standards. It is not very clear yet to what extent the previous social relations and structure were changed, but apparently the great families in Dunhuang remained influential in local affairs during the occupation
1171:
To the east of the
Returning to Righteousness Army alone, names of some ten ethnic groups appear in both Chinese literature and Dunhuang manuscripts. Some of them had never been seen before in previous histories, such as the Wamo, the offsprings of the Chinese residents who were totally assimilated
1025:
classics were also taught in Buddhist monasteries. Many of Zhang Yichao's family converted to Buddhism. He also studied Buddhism in his youth. A manuscript from Dunhuang contains a signature that reads, "written by Buddha's secular disciple Zhang Yichao." After Zhang Yichao took over, the Buddhists
944:
During the Cao family’s rule of the Guiyijun in the Five Dynasties and early Song periods, the Yulin caves were also frequently visited by members of the Cao family, as it is attested by the many surviving donor images. For example, in Cave 16 the “Lady Li from Longxi 隴西, Princess Shengtian 聖天公主 of
865:
In 914, Cao Yijin 曹議金 (also called Cao Rengui 曹仁貴) took over the throne from Zhang Chengfeng, abolished the Jinshan state and the title of king, calling himself once again military commissioner of the Guiyijun. Cao Yijin improved the relationship with neighboring peoples, sent envoys to Ganzhou and
566:
The bandits had not expected that the Chinese troops would arrive so suddenly and were totally unprepared. Our armies proceeded to line up in a “black-cloud formation,” swiftly striking from all four sides. The barbarian bandits were panic-stricken. Like stars they splintered, north and south. The
517:
There are some indications that Zhang Yichao's family was kept away from the political sphere of Dunhuang at that time. The surviving text of the famous stone tablet commemorating Zhang Huaishen's (Zhang Yichao's nephew) merits clearly shows that the property and land of the family were confiscated
1244:
From the beginning of Tibetan rule over Dunhuang (786) through the Guiyijun period (848–1036), descendants of Sogdians were still active in Dunhuang. Zheng Binglin 鄭炳林 has published in succession a series of articles on the Sogdians in the Guiyijun, and on manuscripts written by Sogdians. Although
1049:
rather than scripture-based tradition. At the beginning of the Guiyi period, the Buddhist master Faheng and his disciples Fajing and Fahai delivered lectures in Dunhuang. After 883, lectures by monks are no longer mentioned in manuscript colophons and only lay devotional practices such as building
806:
During the Zhang family’s rule, the Guiyijun basically controlled the entire Hexi region but by the end of the 10th century it was only able to keep the prefectures of Guazhou and Shazhou. During the Cao family’s rule which began in 914, the Guiyijun maintained friendly relations with the Xizhou
792:
In 911 the Ganzhou Uyghurs attacked again and the Kingdom of Jinshan was forced to become a lesser partner in an alliance with the Ganzhou Uyghurs. The Great Chancellor (大宰相) and the elders of Jinshan State made a treaty with the Ganzhou Uyghurs, recognizing their superiority. The relationship
909:
The Cao family of Dunhuang and the royal family of Khotan had close ties. The Khotanese king Visa Sambhava, who ruled Khotan from 912 to 966, also used the Chinese name Li Shengtian. Sometime before 936 he married the daughter of Cao Yijin. The Khotanese royal family maintained a residence in
709:
In 867 Zhang Yichao extended his influence to Longyou and Xizhou, when his brother Zhang Yitan 張議潭, who had been sent to the Tang court as a hostage, died in Chang’an. Complying with the order of the court, Zhang Yichao traveled to the court in person. He never returned but eventually died in
1190:
Pelliot chinois 3319V (containing the following text: 石定信右全石丑子石定奴福延福全保昌張丑子李千子李定信), the names of the Nine Zhaowu Clans (昭武九姓), the prominent ethnic Sogdian families of China, have been deduced. Of these the most common Sogdian surname throughout China was
926:
In 944 Cao Yuanshen died and his brother Yuanzhong (曹元忠) succeeded him. Cao Yuanzhong's reign was characterized by progress in agriculture, transportation, and printing. Relationship with the Ganzhou Uyghurs remained relatively stable during this period.
1038:. Texts that had been lost in Dunhuang due to warfare were reproduced using Tang copies. Despite Zhang's association with Buddhism, due to a shortage of manpower, he made many temple households independent peasants to satisfy the demands of recruitment.
897:
In 931 Cao Yijin declared himself as Lord (令公) and Great King-reclaiming-the-west (拓西大王). The Cao rulers continued using the Chinese reign era names, and maintained cordial relations with the Chinese heartland and its socio-political system.
1215:
appear frequently in Dunhuang manuscripts and registers. Zhang Yichao appointed An Jingmin as vice commissioner of Guiyi, Kang Shijun as prefect of Guazhou, and Kang Tongxin as magistrate of some towns to the east. The influence of
567:
Chinese armies having gained the advantage, they pursued them, pressing close at their backs. Within fifteen miles, they caught up with them. This is the place where their slain corpses were strewn everywhere across the plain.
364:. The Guiyi Circuit was controlled by the Zhang family from the second half of the 9th century to the 10th century and then the Cao family until the 11th century. The Guiyi Circuit was headquartered in Shazhou (沙州; modern-day
1278:
945:
the Northern Uighurs” is the Uighur wife of Cao Yijin 曹議金. Donor figures and inscriptions of Guiyijun military commissioners Cao Yuande 曹元德, Cao Yuanzhong or Cao Yanlu can also be found in the Yulin caves.
723:
Around the years 881 and 882, Ganzhou and Liangzhou slipped from the control of the Guiyi Circuit. The Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom would establish itself in Ganzhou by 894. In Liangzhou, the Tibetan state of
1021:(Shazhou) during the Guiyi period, and had been before as well under Tibetan rule. Under Tibetan rule, the number of Buddhist temples increased from 6 to 19 and more than 40 new caves were created.
2244:
Mackerras, Colin, The Uighur Empire: According to the T'ang Dynastic Histories, A Study in Sino-Uighur Relations, 744–840. Publisher: Australian National University Press, 1972. 226 pages,
4160:
463:(Ch. Jieer ) to Dunhuang to be in charge of local administration. Since the Tang institutions in Dunhuang had totally broken down, all of the residents were reorganized into several
674:'s death in 842, he fought constantly with another commissioner, Shang Bibi. He was captured by Shang Bibi's subordinate, Tuoba Huaiguang, in 866 and sent to the Tang court.
459:
In respect to their political and social systems, the Tibetans made many changes in Dunhuang according to their own practice. As in many other conquered places, they sent a
2104:
History of civilizations of Central Asia Volume IV The age of achievement: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century Part One The historical, social and economic setting
3839:
2380:
518:
by the new government shortly after Dunhuang surrendered to the Tibetans. In another manuscript, P 3556, we find that Zhang Yichao's father, Zhang Qianyi, became a
955:
In 1002 Cao Yanlu's nephew Cao Zongshou rebelled in Shazhou. Cao Yanlu and his brother Cao Yanrui (曹延瑞) committed suicide. Cao Zongshou became ruler of Guiyi.
749:
In 894 Suo Xun was killed by a local aristocrat by the name of Li Mingzhen and Zhang Yichao's daughter. Li's sons shared control of Guiyi Circuit afterwards.
4145:
4099:
1172:
to the Tibetans during the century of Tibetan rule, and the Tokharian Longjia who came from Agni (Karashahr) and settled in many oases in the Gansu Corridor.
3538:
2428:
2157:
The Age of Achievement: A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century - Vol. 4, Part II : The Achievements (History of Civilizations of Central Asia)
770:
In 910 Zhang Chengfeng received news of the Tang dynasty's demise and declared himself Emperor Baiyi. The Guiyi Circuit was renamed Kingdom of Jinshan.
3691:
555:). Envoys from Shazhou reached the Tang court and the emperor responded by naming Zhang's territory the Guiyi Circuit and made Zhang Yichao the Guiyi
4130:
4092:
4155:
2562:
1317:
3835:
3793:
1042:
357:
746:
In 892 Zhang Huaiding died and left his son in the care of Suo Xun (索勳), son-in-law of Zhang Yichao. Suo Xun declared himself Guiyi Jiedushi.
2306:
1344:
1302:
1290:
1232:
is read. Sogdians of Dunhuang also commonly formed and joined lay associations among their local communities, convening at Sogdian-owned
3748:
2373:
1329:
883:
In 924 the Ganzhou Uyghur Khagan died and his successors Renmei and Diyin declared war on each other, with Diyin coming out victorious.
3473:
3743:
2744:
2333:
1014:
778:
The rulers of Guiyi in Dunhuang briefly called themselves "emperors" for a short period after the final collapse of the Tang dynasty.
502:
and was torn by civil war by 851. Tibetans in the Dunhuang region become part of a group known as wamo in Chinese historical sources.
4085:
3154:
2272:
2249:
2227:
1768:
1743:
1718:
1640:
1424:
472:
period. Many members from the Zhang, Yin, Suo, Yan and other clans were appointed by the Tibetan government to important positions.
588:
2403:
3826:
3753:
3023:
1098:
1065:
documents and other artifacts at Mogao Caves dating back to the Guiyi era reveal their coexistence in a multi-religious world.
244:
230:
216:
191:
4140:
3788:
3733:
2983:
2366:
279:
606:
4135:
3277:
2739:
1046:
600:
361:
352:, 911–914), was a Chinese regional military command and later an autonomous dynastic regime nominally subordinate to the
3966:
3854:
3738:
877:
4150:
3971:
3919:
1414:
670:
afterwards. Xizhou was also captured by the Uyghurs. BLon Khrom brZhe was an attack commissioner in the region. After
4015:
1708:
1127:. While the region occasionally fell under the rule of different states (the Tang, the Tibetan Empire, and later the
889:
In 926, Diyin died, and Aduoyu (阿咄欲) became the Khan of the Ganzhou Uyghurs. Aduoyu married a daughter of Cao Yijin.
545:
1263:
3961:
3874:
3869:
3860:
3003:
1003:
636:
625:
376:
3239:
2533:
1090:
3686:
3259:
2973:
2963:
2958:
2553:
2543:
2508:
1736:
Uygur Patronage in Dunhuang: Regional Art Centres on the Northern Silk Road in the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries
1152:
1031:
1007:
854:
826:
1135:), it retained its multilingual nature as evidenced by an abundance of manuscripts (religious and secular) in
752:
In 896 Li Mingzhen's sons were ousted and Zhang Chengfeng (張承奉), a grandson of Zhang Yichao, became jiedushi.
4005:
73:
3783:
3671:
3548:
3453:
3297:
3179:
2588:
2538:
2389:
987:
733:
from Liangzhou. Apparently, weak Tang could not give the Returning to Righteousness Army any practical help.
1073:
849:
4048:
3763:
3523:
2548:
2483:
1204:
1035:
237:
3598:
3573:
3483:
3114:
2948:
1208:
940:
In 976 Cao Yangong died and his brother Yanlu (曹延祿) succeeded him. Yanlu married a Khotanese princess.
487:
1224:(歸義軍) period (c. 850 - c. 1000 AD) of Dunhuang is evident in a large number of manuscripts written in
837:
4068:
4058:
3707:
3533:
3380:
2915:
2713:
1187:
1078:
499:
4027:
4010:
3804:
3819:
3773:
3563:
2988:
2978:
2708:
2633:
1026:
of Dunhuang reconnected with the Tang court and he presented the work of Cheng'en, a monk from the
1010:
dating back to the Guiyi era, a multicultural-influenced representation of Jesus Christ or a saint.
444:
416:
3915:
3723:
3676:
3543:
3458:
3443:
3400:
3355:
3219:
3008:
2794:
2683:
2643:
2568:
2413:
1225:
1058:
802:
In 914 Cao Yijin usurped the throne and abolished the kingdom, reverting the name to Guiyi Army.
689:
In 867 Zhang Yichao departed for the Tang court after his brother Yitan, who had been staying in
3778:
2887:
2729:
2703:
2698:
2598:
2583:
2473:
2468:
2438:
2418:
2329:
2302:
2268:
2245:
2223:
1764:
1739:
1714:
1636:
1420:
1335:
1140:
902:
830:
4000:
3995:
3768:
3696:
3317:
3204:
3013:
2998:
2847:
2693:
2653:
2608:
2593:
2260:
1229:
1192:
1144:
1136:
667:
388:
209:
118:
110:
3758:
3701:
3641:
3631:
3593:
3335:
3028:
2827:
2784:
2766:
2603:
2573:
2478:
2453:
2408:
1183:
1160:
1156:
579:
By 861 the Guiyi Circuit had extended its authority to Guazhou, Ganzhou, Suzhou, Yizhou,
451:. Around the 770s or the 780s, Shazhou, otherwise known as Dunhuang, was occupied by the
297:
3812:
3718:
3681:
3503:
3438:
3312:
3164:
3149:
3119:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2837:
2688:
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2638:
2423:
1087:
1062:
655:
648:
510:
452:
448:
401:
381:
196:
2139:
The Empire of the Qara Khitai in Eurasian History: Between China and the Islamic World
4124:
3940:
3713:
3666:
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3390:
3375:
3307:
3066:
2832:
2804:
2789:
2749:
2648:
2503:
2443:
1148:
1027:
972:
962:
786:
663:
432:
785:), "The Golden Mountain Kingdom of the Western Han," and gave himself the title of "
743:
In 890 Zhang Huaishen was assassinated and his cousin Zhang Huaiding succeeded him.
4106:
4063:
4053:
3945:
3925:
3636:
3603:
3583:
3488:
3395:
3350:
3327:
3244:
3139:
3056:
3046:
2938:
2673:
2668:
2658:
2558:
2523:
2448:
1270:
1217:
1212:
1200:
1196:
1102:
596:
544:. Zhang claimed the title of acting prefect of Shazhou and submitted a petition to
506:
491:
440:
425:
409:
397:
353:
2618:
798:"...the Khan is the father, and the Son of Heaven is the son..." (...可汗是父,天子是子...)
659:
3990:
3728:
3661:
3613:
3578:
3553:
3518:
3513:
3508:
3498:
3493:
3448:
3428:
3420:
3249:
3234:
3184:
3174:
3129:
3086:
3081:
2862:
2857:
2822:
2623:
2578:
2518:
1361:
1128:
1124:
1111:
1083:
1054:
976:
931:
842:
690:
641:
630:
619:
611:
405:
114:
876:
In 916 Cao Yijin married a Ganzhou Uyghur princess and sent delegations to the
861:
In 914 Cao Yijin (曹議金) usurped the throne and restored the name Guiyi Circuit.
781:
In 910 Zhang Chengfeng established a kingdom known as the Xihan Jinshan (西漢金山國
693:
as a hostage, died. His nephew Zhang Huaishen succeeded him as Guiyi Jiedushi.
3900:
3879:
3864:
3608:
3433:
3365:
3360:
3287:
3269:
3229:
3214:
3194:
3159:
3144:
3106:
3096:
3071:
3038:
2925:
2852:
2812:
2628:
2528:
2458:
992:
923:
In 939 Cao Yuande (曹元德) died and was succeeded by his brother Yuanshen (曹元深).
1228:
from left to right instead of vertically, mirroring the direction of how the
1030:, to the Tang court to support the Buddhist restoration movement of emperors
17:
3935:
3528:
3478:
3410:
3345:
3292:
3282:
3254:
3189:
3134:
3124:
3061:
3051:
2897:
2774:
2734:
2663:
2513:
2218:
Mackerras, Colin (1990), "Chapter 12 - The Uighurs", in Sinor, Denis (ed.),
1022:
725:
671:
559:(歸義節度使, Governor of the Guiyi Circuit) and Cao Yijin his secretary general.
436:
223:
1416:
Maṇḍalas in the Making: The Visual Culture of Esoteric Buddhism at Dunhuang
2358:
2264:
937:
In 974 Cao Yuanzhong died and his nephew Cao Yangong (曹延恭) succeeded him.
3588:
3568:
3169:
2993:
2907:
2842:
2613:
1164:
1116:
1018:
996:
764:
699:
In 870 the Kingdom of Qocho attacked the Guiyi Circuit but was repelled.
696:
In 869 the Kingdom of Qocho attacked the Guiyi Circuit but was repelled.
615:
556:
552:
365:
99:
958:
In 1014 Cao Zongshou died and his son Cao Xianshun (曹賢順) succeeded him.
3930:
3895:
3468:
3463:
3405:
3340:
3224:
3209:
3076:
2953:
2943:
2892:
2498:
2175:
Tang China And The Collapse Of The Uighur Empire: A Documentary History
1237:
1132:
584:
580:
537:
533:
93:
1050:
caves, erecting statues, and addresses to common people are recorded.
4043:
3905:
3370:
3302:
2933:
2867:
2779:
2493:
1233:
1106:
592:
287:
647:
In 866 Zhang Yichao defeated the Tibetan general bLon Khrom brZhe (
3910:
3199:
3091:
3018:
2968:
2817:
2463:
1120:
1002:
986:
848:
836:
822:
821:
756:
635:
624:
605:
509:, a resident of Shazhou, led an uprising and captured Shazhou and
486:
421:
393:
375:
262:
3623:
3385:
2433:
920:
In 935 Cao Yijin died and was succeeded by his son, Cao Yuande.
760:
541:
3808:
2362:
1123:, a major center of Buddhist learning and home to the Buddhist
2317:
Tang China in Multi-Polar Asia: A History of Diplomacy and War
2130:
China's last Nomads: the history and culture of China's Kazaks
1794:
1792:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1685:
1530:
1528:
1526:
522:
and was kept out of political power during the Tibetan period.
1633:
The King's Road: Diplomacy and the Remaking of the Silk Road
1045:, Buddhism in Dunghuang gravitated towards lay Buddhism and
789:." This was followed by an invasion by the Ganzhou Uyghurs.
2122:
The History of Central Asia: The Age of the Steppe Warriors
312:'Returning-to-Righteousness Army', 848–1036 AD),
2072:
Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter,
2055:
Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter,
2026:
Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter,
2009:
Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter,
1992:
Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter,
1975:
Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter,
1928:
1926:
1467:
1465:
498:
After some 60 years of Tibetan rule, Tibet entered its
1943:
1941:
562:
In 856 Zhang attacked the Tibetans and defeated them.
384:
at its greatest extent around the 780s and the 790s CE
1614:
1612:
1610:
1585:
1583:
1581:
1579:
1513:
1511:
1509:
1507:
1494:
1492:
1397:
1395:
901:
In 934 Cao Yijin married his daughter to the king of
1452:
1450:
1448:
4077:
4036:
3980:
3954:
3888:
3847:
3654:
3622:
3419:
3326:
3268:
3105:
3037:
2924:
2906:
2803:
2765:
2758:
2722:
2396:
2328:, United States of America: Scarecrow Press, Inc.,
2211:
The Chinese, their history and culture, Volumes 1-2
2202:
Historical Atlas of the Medieval World, AD 600-1492
2074:
A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture
2057:
A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture
2028:
A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture
2011:
A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture
1994:
A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture
1977:
A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture
467:(literally meaning "thousand households", equal to
258:
154:
144:
132:
124:
106:
88:
80:
36:
720:In 880, Qocho attacked Shazhou, but was repelled.
968:In 1030 Cao Xianshun surrendered to the Tanguts.
2222:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 317–342,
2113:The Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China
1109:lived in China, especially in the multicultural
796:
666:. However they were immediately captured by the
1242:
1169:
1082:, a 10th-century line drawing uncovered at the
942:
907:
886:In 925 Cao Yijin defeated the Ganzhou Uyghurs.
863:
804:
730:
707:
676:
564:
515:
457:
4161:States and territories established in the 850s
1041:As the Tang dynasty collapsed and entered the
3820:
2374:
1882:
1840:
1828:
1798:
1761:Dunhuang Art: Through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie
1710:Dunhuang Art: Through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie
1695:
1534:
1195:(i.e. 石), whereas the surnames Shi (i.e. 史),
57:
51:
45:
8:
4100:Spring and Autumn Annals of the Ten Kingdoms
2353:Zhang Yichao and Dunhuang in the 9th Century
705:In 876 the Kingdom of Qocho seized Yizhou.
640:Monastic architecture in a mural painting,
629:Monastic architecture in a mural painting,
307:
3827:
3813:
3805:
2762:
2381:
2367:
2359:
2238:Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang
72:
33:
3692:Murals from the Christian temple at Qocho
2299:The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia
2220:The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia
1654:
1652:
1635:. Princeton University Press. p. 6.
1236:in scheduled meetings mentioned in their
84:Circuit/Kingdom/Tributary to Tang dynasty
4093:Historical Records of the Five Dynasties
1086:, which is probably associated with the
1072:
1053:In addition to Buddhism, discoveries of
833:and his queen, the daughter of Cao Yijin
447:, the Hexi Corridor was occupied by the
415:
387:
3539:Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex
2429:Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex
2326:Historical Dictionary of Medieval China
1373:
1259:
548:, offering his loyalty and submission.
348:
328:
302:
3836:Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period
3794:Siberian Collection of Peter the Great
1895:
1893:
1891:
1783:
1601:
1558:
1546:
1471:
1220:and multilingual Sogdians during this
1043:Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period
314:Golden Mountain Kingdom of Western Han
40:Golden Mountain Kingdom of Western Han
2059:, Brill: Leiden, Boston, pp 870, 873.
1763:. Abhinav Publications. p. 189.
857:, the wife of Cao Yanlu (r. 976–1002)
610:A 10th-century mural painting in the
153:
143:
139:
7:
2085:
2039:
1959:
1947:
1932:
1917:
1908:"The Genius of China", Robert Temple
1852:
1676:
1618:
1589:
1570:
1517:
1498:
1483:
1456:
1439:
1401:
1308:Buddhist donor and her retinue, 983
4146:Former countries in Chinese history
3749:Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription
2148:An Historical Atlas of Central Asia
2076:, Brill: Leiden, Boston, pp 872-73.
2013:, Brill: Leiden, Boston, pp 871-72.
1979:, Brill: Leiden, Boston, pp 870-71.
991:Earliest known representation of a
702:In 872 Zhang Yichao died at court.
618:depicting monastic architecture at
3744:Pul-i-Darunteh Aramaic inscription
2745:Silk Road transmission of Buddhism
2209:Latourette, Kenneth Scott (1964),
2155:Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (2000),
793:between the two was prescribed as
25:
4086:Old History of the Five Dynasties
3155:Desert castles of ancient Khorezm
2168:, Istanbul: Istanbul publications
755:In 904, Zhang Chengfeng attacked
2030:, Brill: Leiden, Boston, p. 872.
1343:
1328:
1316:
1301:
1289:
1277:
1262:
979:, annexed the Kingdom of Guiyi.
573:Zhang Yichao Transformation Text
443:with Northwest China. After the
242:
228:
214:
189:
4131:Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms
3754:Kandahar Greek Edicts of Ashoka
3024:Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi
2173:Drompp, Michael Robert (2005),
1996:, Brill: Leiden, Boston, p 871.
1296:Lady Liangguo, a Buddhist donor
1097:During the Tang and subsequent
658:Lun Kongre) and seized Luntai (
334:Dunhuang Kingdom of Western Han
42:Dunhuang Kingdom of Western Han
4156:1036 disestablishments in Asia
3789:Boar hunter (Hermitage Museum)
3734:Aramaic Inscription of Laghman
2301:, Cambridge University Press,
1713:. Abhinav Publications. 1994.
965:defeated the Ganzhou Uyghurs.
930:In 950 the first depiction of
841:Viśa' Saṃbhava and Cao Yijin,
551:In 851 Zhang captured Xizhou (
342:
337:
322:
317:
292:
283:
58:
52:
46:
1:
2740:Silk Road transmission of art
2281:Russell-Smith, Lilla (2005),
2257:Eighteen Lectures on Dunhuang
2184:Central Asia in World History
2166:The history of East Turkestan
435:was an important part of the
424:commemorating the victory of
396:commemorating the victory of
3739:Kandahar Aramaic inscription
2319:, University of Hawaii Press
2193:The Silk Road: A New History
2141:, Cambridge University Press
1734:Lilla Russell-Smith (2021).
1419:. BRILL. December 18, 2017.
1188:Tang-era Dunhuang manuscript
975:, who later established the
2291:A Historical Atlas of Tibet
2283:Uygur Patronage in Dunhuang
2240:, Columbia University Press
2236:Millward, James A. (2007),
1658:"归义军史研究——唐宋时代敦煌历史考索" by 荣新江
728:established itself by 906.
4177:
2120:Baumer, Christoph (2012),
829:(r. 912–966), the king of
532:By 850 Zhang had captured
29:Historical region of China
3889:Ten Kingdoms (Ten States)
3240:Siypantosh Rock Paintings
2195:, Oxford University Press
2186:, Oxford University Press
2182:Golden, Peter B. (2011),
2111:Barfield, Thomas (1989),
652:
494:departing from a fortress
168:
164:
140:
71:
66:
3687:Mogao Christian painting
3260:Zarautsoy Rock Paintings
2974:Petroglyphs of Arpa-Uzen
2964:Merke Turkic Sanctuaries
2289:Ryavec, Karl E. (2015),
2191:Hansen, Valerie (2015),
2068:Galambos, Imre (2015), "
2051:Galambos, Imre (2015), "
2022:Galambos, Imre (2015), "
2005:Galambos, Imre (2015), "
1988:Galambos, Imre (2015), "
1971:Galambos, Imre (2015), "
1153:Eastern Iranian language
1008:Mogao Christian painting
546:Emperor Xuānzong of Tang
3784:Saksanokhur gold buckle
3672:Hephthalite silver bowl
3549:Chakhil-i-Ghoundi Stupa
2589:Second Turkic Khaganate
2390:History of Central Asia
2342:Xue, Zongzheng (1992),
2315:Wang, Zhenping (2013),
2255:Rong, Xinjiang (2013),
1389:"吐蕃和平占領沙州城的宗教因素" by 張延清
1350:Dunhuang Buddhist women
1323:Dunhuang Buddhist donor
1284:Dunhuang Buddhist woman
1105:, large communities of
4049:Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom
3764:Stamp seal (BM 119999)
3524:Alexandria Prophthasia
2549:First Turkic Khaganate
2484:Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
2324:Xiong, Victor (2008),
2200:Haywood, John (1998),
2137:Biran, Michal (2005),
2128:Benson, Linda (1998),
1667:"羅叔言《補唐書張議潮傳》補正" by 向達
1253:
1180:
1094:
1093:of the Sogdian people.
1011:
1000:
953:
918:
874:
858:
846:
834:
815:
741:
718:
687:
644:
633:
622:
577:
530:
495:
480:
428:
413:
385:
238:Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom
156:• Disestablished
4141:10th century in China
3574:Gawhar Shad Mausoleum
2949:Karsakpay inscription
2404:Mal'ta–Buret' culture
2351:Yang, Jidong (1998),
2297:Sinor, Denis (1990),
2265:10.1163/9789004252332
2164:Bughra, Imin (1983),
2146:Bregel, Yuri (2003),
2102:Asimov, M.S. (1998),
1738:. BRILL. p. 64.
1076:
1006:
990:
934:appeared in Shazhou.
852:
840:
825:
639:
628:
609:
490:
419:
391:
379:
362:Northern Song dynasty
349:Hsi-han Tun-huang kuo
329:Hsi-han Chin-shan kuo
107:Common languages
4136:9th century in China
3984:independent entities
3381:Kutlug Timur Minaret
2916:Noin-Ula burial site
2714:Chinese Central Asia
2204:, Barnes & Noble
1819:"敦煌历史上的曹元忠时代" by 荣新江
1759:Wenjie Duan (1994).
1069:Sogdians of Dunhuang
500:Era of Fragmentation
274:, also known as the
3774:Siberian Ice Maiden
3564:Dokhtar-i-Noshirwan
2979:Petrovka settlement
2709:Soviet Central Asia
2634:Great Seljuq Empire
2159:, UNESCO Publishing
2106:, UNESCO Publishing
1059:Nestorian Christian
759:and seized Yizhou (
513:from the Tibetans.
445:An Lushan Rebellion
146:• Established
4151:851 establishments
4037:Neighboring states
3724:Buddhas of Bamiyan
3677:Chilek silver bowl
3544:Buddhas of Bamiyan
3220:Obi-Rakhmat Grotto
3009:Talapty Settlement
2795:Filippovka kurgans
2684:Khanate of Bukhara
2644:Khwarazmian Empire
2569:Ikhshids of Sogdia
2414:Afanasievo culture
1883:Russell-Smith 2005
1841:Russell-Smith 2005
1829:Russell-Smith 2005
1799:Russell-Smith 2005
1696:Russell-Smith 2005
1535:Russell-Smith 2005
1269:Dunhuang woman in
1238:epistolary letters
1226:Chinese characters
1095:
1012:
1001:
859:
847:
835:
774:Kingdom of Jinshan
645:
634:
623:
496:
429:
420:Section of a wall
414:
392:Section of a wall
386:
343:Xīhàn Dūnhuáng guó
128:Monarchy, Military
4116:
4115:
3802:
3801:
3779:Ai-Khanoum plaque
3650:
3649:
3454:Chakhil-i-Ghoundi
2730:Central Asian art
2704:Russian Turkestan
2699:Chinese Turkestan
2599:Abbasid Caliphate
2563:Anxi Protectorate
2509:Kushano-Sasanians
2474:Macedonian Empire
2469:Achaemenid Empire
2439:Andronovo culture
2419:Sintashta culture
2308:978-0-521-24304-9
2115:, Basil Blackwell
1843:, p. 23, 65.
1047:apocryphal sūtras
1017:was prevalent in
323:Xīhàn Jīnshān guó
310:
268:
267:
254:
253:
250:
249:
202:
201:
16:(Redirected from
4168:
4059:Tibetan kingdoms
4019:
4001:Qingyuan Circuit
3829:
3822:
3815:
3806:
3769:Seal of Khingila
3697:Penjikent murals
3318:Kalai Kafirnigan
3205:Koi Krylgan Kala
3014:Turkistan (city)
2999:Steppe Geoglyphs
2763:
2694:Khanate of Khiva
2654:Chagatai Khanate
2609:Saffarid dynasty
2594:Uyghur Khaganate
2383:
2376:
2369:
2360:
2355:
2347:
2338:
2320:
2311:
2293:
2285:
2277:
2241:
2232:
2214:
2205:
2196:
2187:
2178:
2169:
2160:
2151:
2142:
2133:
2124:
2116:
2107:
2089:
2083:
2077:
2066:
2060:
2049:
2043:
2037:
2031:
2020:
2014:
2003:
1997:
1986:
1980:
1969:
1963:
1957:
1951:
1945:
1936:
1935:, p. 346-7.
1930:
1921:
1915:
1909:
1906:
1900:
1897:
1886:
1880:
1874:
1871:
1865:
1862:
1856:
1850:
1844:
1838:
1832:
1826:
1820:
1817:
1811:
1810:"中国古代印刷史" by 罗树宝
1808:
1802:
1796:
1787:
1781:
1775:
1774:
1756:
1750:
1749:
1731:
1725:
1724:
1705:
1699:
1693:
1680:
1679:, p. 327-8.
1674:
1668:
1665:
1659:
1656:
1647:
1646:
1631:Xin Wen (2023).
1628:
1622:
1616:
1605:
1599:
1593:
1587:
1574:
1568:
1562:
1556:
1550:
1544:
1538:
1532:
1521:
1515:
1502:
1496:
1487:
1481:
1475:
1469:
1460:
1454:
1443:
1437:
1431:
1430:
1411:
1405:
1399:
1390:
1387:
1381:
1380:"补唐书张议潮传" by 罗振玉
1378:
1347:
1332:
1320:
1311:
1305:
1293:
1281:
1266:
1251:
1230:Sogdian alphabet
1184:Chinese surnames
1178:
951:
916:
893:Kingdom of Guiyi
872:
813:
783:Xīhàn Jīnshānguó
739:
716:
685:
668:Kingdom of Qocho
654:
575:
528:
478:
350:
344:
339:
330:
324:
319:
311:
308:
304:
294:
285:
246:
245:
232:
231:
218:
217:
210:Dingnan Jiedushi
206:
205:
193:
192:
186:
185:
170:
169:
76:
61:
60:
55:
54:
49:
48:
34:
21:
4176:
4175:
4171:
4170:
4169:
4167:
4166:
4165:
4121:
4120:
4117:
4112:
4073:
4032:
4013:
4006:Jinghai Circuit
3996:Dingnan Circuit
3976:
3950:
3884:
3843:
3833:
3803:
3798:
3759:Afrasiab murals
3702:Sampul tapestry
3646:
3642:Shahr-e Sukhteh
3632:Bandian complex
3618:
3594:Musalla Complex
3474:Tapa-i Kafariha
3415:
3336:Cave of Dzhebel
3322:
3264:
3101:
3033:
3029:Araltobe kurgan
2920:
2902:
2828:Kizilgaha caves
2799:
2785:Pazyryk burials
2767:Southern Russia
2754:
2718:
2604:Tahirid dynasty
2574:Tokhara Yabghus
2479:Seleucid Empire
2454:Pazyryk culture
2409:Yamnaya culture
2392:
2387:
2350:
2341:
2336:
2323:
2314:
2309:
2296:
2288:
2280:
2275:
2254:
2235:
2230:
2217:
2208:
2199:
2190:
2181:
2172:
2163:
2154:
2145:
2136:
2127:
2119:
2110:
2101:
2098:
2093:
2092:
2084:
2080:
2067:
2063:
2050:
2046:
2038:
2034:
2021:
2017:
2004:
2000:
1987:
1983:
1970:
1966:
1962:, p. 73–5.
1958:
1954:
1946:
1939:
1931:
1924:
1916:
1912:
1907:
1903:
1898:
1889:
1881:
1877:
1873:"续资治通鉴长编" by 李焘
1872:
1868:
1863:
1859:
1851:
1847:
1839:
1835:
1827:
1823:
1818:
1814:
1809:
1805:
1797:
1790:
1782:
1778:
1771:
1758:
1757:
1753:
1746:
1733:
1732:
1728:
1721:
1707:
1706:
1702:
1694:
1683:
1675:
1671:
1666:
1662:
1657:
1650:
1643:
1630:
1629:
1625:
1617:
1608:
1600:
1596:
1588:
1577:
1569:
1565:
1557:
1553:
1545:
1541:
1533:
1524:
1516:
1505:
1497:
1490:
1482:
1478:
1470:
1463:
1455:
1446:
1438:
1434:
1427:
1413:
1412:
1408:
1400:
1393:
1388:
1384:
1379:
1375:
1370:
1358:
1351:
1348:
1339:
1333:
1324:
1321:
1312:
1309:
1306:
1297:
1294:
1285:
1282:
1273:
1267:
1258:
1252:
1249:
1179:
1176:
1071:
995:(upper right),
985:
952:
949:
917:
914:
895:
873:
870:
820:
814:
811:
776:
740:
737:
717:
714:
686:
683:
653:བློན་ཁྲོམ་བཞེར་
576:
571:
529:
526:
485:
479:
476:
374:
243:
229:
215:
190:
157:
147:
97:
62:
43:
41:
39:
30:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4174:
4172:
4164:
4163:
4158:
4153:
4148:
4143:
4138:
4133:
4123:
4122:
4114:
4113:
4111:
4110:
4103:
4096:
4089:
4081:
4079:
4075:
4074:
4072:
4071:
4066:
4061:
4056:
4051:
4046:
4040:
4038:
4034:
4033:
4031:
4030:
4028:Lulong Circuit
4025:
4020:
4011:Wuping Circuit
4008:
4003:
3998:
3993:
3987:
3985:
3978:
3977:
3975:
3974:
3969:
3964:
3958:
3956:
3952:
3951:
3949:
3948:
3943:
3938:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3913:
3908:
3903:
3898:
3892:
3890:
3886:
3885:
3883:
3882:
3877:
3872:
3867:
3857:
3851:
3849:
3848:Five Dynasties
3845:
3844:
3834:
3832:
3831:
3824:
3817:
3809:
3800:
3799:
3797:
3796:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3751:
3746:
3741:
3736:
3731:
3726:
3721:
3719:Bimaran Casket
3716:
3711:
3708:Sogdian Daēnās
3704:
3699:
3694:
3689:
3684:
3682:Gardez Ganesha
3679:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3658:
3656:
3652:
3651:
3648:
3647:
3645:
3644:
3639:
3634:
3628:
3626:
3620:
3619:
3617:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3571:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3506:
3504:Takht-e Rostam
3501:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3481:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3461:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3439:Dilberjin Tepe
3436:
3431:
3425:
3423:
3417:
3416:
3414:
3413:
3408:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3343:
3338:
3332:
3330:
3324:
3323:
3321:
3320:
3315:
3313:Takht-i Sangin
3310:
3305:
3300:
3295:
3290:
3285:
3280:
3274:
3272:
3266:
3265:
3263:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3172:
3167:
3165:Guldursun-Kala
3162:
3157:
3152:
3150:Dalverzin Tepe
3147:
3142:
3137:
3132:
3127:
3122:
3120:Akchakhan-Kala
3117:
3111:
3109:
3103:
3102:
3100:
3099:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3043:
3041:
3035:
3034:
3032:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2930:
2928:
2922:
2921:
2919:
2918:
2912:
2910:
2904:
2903:
2901:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2878:Dunhuang Caves
2875:
2873:Bezeklik Caves
2870:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2845:
2840:
2838:Subashi Temple
2835:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2809:
2807:
2801:
2800:
2798:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2771:
2769:
2760:
2756:
2755:
2753:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2737:
2732:
2726:
2724:
2720:
2719:
2717:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2689:Durrani Empire
2686:
2681:
2679:Timurid Empire
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2491:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2424:Vakhsh culture
2421:
2416:
2411:
2406:
2400:
2398:
2394:
2393:
2388:
2386:
2385:
2378:
2371:
2363:
2357:
2356:
2348:
2344:Turkic peoples
2339:
2335:978-0810860537
2334:
2321:
2312:
2307:
2294:
2286:
2278:
2273:
2252:
2242:
2233:
2228:
2215:
2206:
2197:
2188:
2179:
2170:
2161:
2152:
2143:
2134:
2125:
2117:
2108:
2097:
2094:
2091:
2090:
2088:, p. 331.
2078:
2061:
2044:
2042:, p. 121.
2032:
2015:
1998:
1981:
1964:
1952:
1950:, p. 124.
1937:
1922:
1920:, p. 108.
1910:
1901:
1887:
1875:
1866:
1857:
1855:, p. 477.
1845:
1833:
1821:
1812:
1803:
1788:
1786:, p. 222.
1776:
1769:
1751:
1744:
1726:
1719:
1700:
1681:
1669:
1660:
1648:
1641:
1623:
1606:
1604:, p. 312.
1594:
1575:
1573:, p. 130.
1563:
1551:
1549:, p. 314.
1539:
1522:
1503:
1501:, p. 189.
1488:
1476:
1474:, p. 188.
1461:
1444:
1442:, p. 106.
1432:
1425:
1406:
1404:, p. 101.
1391:
1382:
1372:
1371:
1369:
1366:
1365:
1364:
1357:
1354:
1353:
1352:
1349:
1342:
1340:
1334:
1327:
1325:
1322:
1315:
1313:
1307:
1300:
1298:
1295:
1288:
1286:
1283:
1276:
1274:
1268:
1261:
1257:
1254:
1247:
1186:listed in the
1174:
1099:Five Dynasties
1079:Sogdian Daēnās
1070:
1067:
984:
981:
947:
915:Valerie Hansen
912:
894:
891:
868:
855:Viśa' Saṃbhava
827:Viśa' Saṃbhava
819:
816:
809:
775:
772:
763:) and Xizhou (
735:
712:
681:
569:
524:
484:
481:
474:
449:Tibetan Empire
412:(9th century).
402:Tibetan Empire
382:Tibetan Empire
373:
370:
358:Five Dynasties
266:
265:
260:
256:
255:
252:
251:
248:
247:
240:
234:
233:
226:
220:
219:
212:
203:
200:
199:
197:Tibetan Empire
194:
182:
181:
176:
166:
165:
162:
161:
158:
155:
152:
151:
148:
145:
142:
141:
138:
137:
134:
130:
129:
126:
122:
121:
108:
104:
103:
90:
86:
85:
82:
78:
77:
69:
68:
64:
63:
44:
37:
28:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4173:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4128:
4126:
4119:
4109:
4108:
4104:
4102:
4101:
4097:
4095:
4094:
4090:
4088:
4087:
4083:
4082:
4080:
4076:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4055:
4052:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4042:
4041:
4039:
4035:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4023:Guiyi Circuit
4021:
4017:
4012:
4009:
4007:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3992:
3989:
3988:
3986:
3983:
3979:
3973:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3959:
3957:
3953:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3941:Southern Tang
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3921:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3893:
3891:
3887:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3862:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3852:
3850:
3846:
3841:
3837:
3830:
3825:
3823:
3818:
3816:
3811:
3810:
3807:
3795:
3792:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3747:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3720:
3717:
3715:
3714:Oxus Treasure
3712:
3710:
3709:
3705:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3683:
3680:
3678:
3675:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3667:Orlat plaques
3665:
3663:
3660:
3659:
3657:
3653:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3633:
3630:
3629:
3627:
3625:
3621:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3559:Dasht-e Nawar
3557:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3507:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3426:
3424:
3422:
3418:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3391:Monjukli Depe
3389:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3376:Konye-Urgench
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3333:
3331:
3329:
3325:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3308:Takht-i Kuwad
3306:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3286:
3284:
3281:
3279:
3276:
3275:
3273:
3271:
3267:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3208:
3206:
3203:
3201:
3198:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3138:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3112:
3110:
3108:
3104:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3067:Koshoy Korgon
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3044:
3042:
3040:
3036:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2962:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2935:
2932:
2931:
2929:
2927:
2923:
2917:
2914:
2913:
2911:
2909:
2905:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2833:Kumtura Caves
2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2810:
2808:
2806:
2805:Western China
2802:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2790:Salbyk kurgan
2788:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2780:Arzhan kurgan
2778:
2776:
2773:
2772:
2770:
2768:
2764:
2761:
2757:
2751:
2750:Serindian art
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2727:
2725:
2721:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2649:Mongol Empire
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2639:Ghurid Empire
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2564:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2554:Western Turks
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2504:Kushan Empire
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2489:Guiyi Circuit
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2464:Median Empire
2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2444:Tagar culture
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2401:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2384:
2379:
2377:
2372:
2370:
2365:
2364:
2361:
2354:
2349:
2345:
2340:
2337:
2331:
2327:
2322:
2318:
2313:
2310:
2304:
2300:
2295:
2292:
2287:
2284:
2279:
2276:
2274:9789004250420
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2253:
2251:
2250:0-7081-0457-6
2247:
2243:
2239:
2234:
2231:
2229:9780521243049
2225:
2221:
2216:
2212:
2207:
2203:
2198:
2194:
2189:
2185:
2180:
2176:
2171:
2167:
2162:
2158:
2153:
2149:
2144:
2140:
2135:
2132:, M.E. Sharpe
2131:
2126:
2123:
2118:
2114:
2109:
2105:
2100:
2099:
2095:
2087:
2082:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2065:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2048:
2045:
2041:
2036:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2019:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2002:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1985:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1968:
1965:
1961:
1956:
1953:
1949:
1944:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1929:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1914:
1911:
1905:
1902:
1896:
1894:
1892:
1888:
1885:, p. 46.
1884:
1879:
1876:
1870:
1867:
1864:"宋会要辑稿" by 徐松
1861:
1858:
1854:
1849:
1846:
1842:
1837:
1834:
1831:, p. 65.
1830:
1825:
1822:
1816:
1813:
1807:
1804:
1801:, p. 64.
1800:
1795:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1780:
1777:
1772:
1770:9788170173137
1766:
1762:
1755:
1752:
1747:
1745:9789047415695
1741:
1737:
1730:
1727:
1722:
1720:9788170173137
1716:
1712:
1711:
1704:
1701:
1698:, p. 63.
1697:
1692:
1690:
1688:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1673:
1670:
1664:
1661:
1655:
1653:
1649:
1644:
1642:9780691237831
1638:
1634:
1627:
1624:
1621:, p. 44.
1620:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1598:
1595:
1592:, p. 43.
1591:
1586:
1584:
1582:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1567:
1564:
1561:, p. 83.
1560:
1555:
1552:
1548:
1543:
1540:
1537:, p. 57.
1536:
1531:
1529:
1527:
1523:
1520:, p. 42.
1519:
1514:
1512:
1510:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1495:
1493:
1489:
1486:, p. 41.
1485:
1480:
1477:
1473:
1468:
1466:
1462:
1459:, p. 40.
1458:
1453:
1451:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1436:
1433:
1428:
1426:9789004360402
1422:
1418:
1417:
1410:
1407:
1403:
1398:
1396:
1392:
1386:
1383:
1377:
1374:
1367:
1363:
1360:
1359:
1355:
1346:
1341:
1337:
1331:
1326:
1319:
1314:
1304:
1299:
1292:
1287:
1280:
1275:
1272:
1265:
1260:
1255:
1250:Rong Xinjiang
1246:
1241:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1189:
1185:
1173:
1168:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1113:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1092:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1080:
1075:
1068:
1066:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1051:
1048:
1044:
1039:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1028:Hexi Corridor
1024:
1020:
1016:
1009:
1005:
998:
994:
989:
982:
980:
978:
974:
969:
966:
964:
959:
956:
950:Rong Xinjiang
946:
941:
938:
935:
933:
928:
924:
921:
911:
906:
904:
899:
892:
890:
887:
884:
881:
879:
871:Rong Xinjiang
867:
862:
856:
851:
844:
839:
832:
828:
824:
817:
812:Rong Xinjiang
808:
803:
800:
799:
794:
790:
788:
787:Son of Heaven
784:
779:
773:
771:
768:
766:
762:
758:
753:
750:
747:
744:
734:
729:
727:
721:
715:Rong Xinjiang
711:
706:
703:
700:
697:
694:
692:
684:Wang Zhenping
680:
675:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
650:
643:
638:
632:
627:
621:
617:
613:
608:
604:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
574:
568:
563:
560:
558:
554:
549:
547:
543:
539:
535:
523:
521:
520:xiaoyao zhike
514:
512:
508:
503:
501:
493:
489:
482:
473:
470:
466:
462:
456:
454:
450:
446:
442:
439:, connecting
438:
434:
433:Hexi Corridor
427:
423:
418:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
390:
383:
378:
371:
369:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
345:
335:
331:
325:
315:
305:
299:
295:
289:
281:
277:
273:
272:Guiyi Circuit
264:
261:
259:Today part of
257:
241:
239:
236:
235:
227:
225:
222:
221:
213:
211:
208:
207:
204:
198:
195:
188:
187:
184:
183:
180:
177:
175:
172:
171:
167:
163:
159:
149:
135:
131:
127:
123:
120:
116:
112:
109:
105:
101:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
70:
65:
38:Guiyi Circuit
35:
32:
27:
19:
18:Cao Yuanzhong
4118:
4107:Wudai Huiyao
4105:
4098:
4091:
4084:
4054:Liao dynasty
4022:
3991:Yiwu Circuit
3981:
3955:Other states
3946:Northern Han
3926:Southern Han
3706:
3637:Mount Khajeh
3604:Qala-i-Jangi
3584:Khair Khaneh
3489:Khair Khaneh
3396:Namazga-Tepe
3351:Anau culture
3328:Turkmenistan
3245:Tavka Kurgan
3140:Balalyk Tepe
3057:Burana Tower
3047:Aigyr-Zhal 2
2939:Issyk kurgan
2674:Kart dynasty
2669:Sufi dynasty
2659:Golden Horde
2584:Oghuz Yabgus
2559:Tang dynasty
2524:Hephthalites
2488:
2449:Uyuk culture
2352:
2343:
2325:
2316:
2298:
2290:
2282:
2256:
2237:
2219:
2210:
2201:
2192:
2183:
2174:
2165:
2156:
2147:
2138:
2129:
2121:
2112:
2103:
2096:Bibliography
2081:
2073:
2069:
2064:
2056:
2052:
2047:
2035:
2027:
2023:
2018:
2010:
2006:
2001:
1993:
1989:
1984:
1976:
1972:
1967:
1955:
1913:
1904:
1899:"西夏紀" by 戴锡章
1878:
1869:
1860:
1848:
1836:
1824:
1815:
1806:
1779:
1760:
1754:
1735:
1729:
1709:
1703:
1672:
1663:
1632:
1626:
1597:
1566:
1554:
1542:
1479:
1435:
1415:
1409:
1385:
1376:
1243:
1221:
1181:
1170:
1110:
1103:Song dynasty
1096:
1077:
1052:
1040:
1013:
971:In 1036 the
970:
967:
961:In 1028 the
960:
957:
954:
943:
939:
936:
929:
925:
922:
919:
908:
900:
896:
888:
885:
882:
875:
864:
860:
853:Daughter of
805:
801:
797:
795:
791:
782:
780:
777:
769:
754:
751:
748:
745:
742:
731:
722:
719:
708:
704:
701:
698:
695:
688:
677:
646:
578:
572:
565:
561:
550:
531:
519:
516:
507:Zhang Yichao
504:
497:
492:Zhang Yichao
483:Zhang family
468:
464:
460:
458:
441:Central Asia
430:
426:Zhang Yichao
410:Tang dynasty
398:Zhang Yichao
354:Tang dynasty
347:
341:
333:
332:, 909–911),
327:
321:
313:
301:
291:
275:
271:
269:
179:Succeeded by
178:
173:
31:
26:
4014: [
3855:Later Liang
3729:Kabul hoard
3662:Sokh snakes
3614:Surkh Kotal
3579:Haji Piyada
3554:Darra-e Kur
3519:Yemshi Tepe
3514:Tillya Tepe
3509:Tepe Fullol
3499:Tepe Narenj
3494:Tapa Sardar
3484:Fondukistan
3449:Tapa Shotor
3429:Tepe Fullol
3421:Afghanistan
3250:Toprak-Kala
3235:Shahrukhiya
3185:Kampir Tepe
3175:Itchan Kala
3130:Ancient Pap
3087:Shakh Fazil
2959:Krasnyi Yar
2863:Mogao Caves
2823:Kizil Caves
2759:Archaeology
2624:Farighunids
2579:Turk Shahis
2519:Alchon Huns
2346:, 中国社会科学出版社
2213:, Macmillan
1784:Hansen 2015
1602:Baumer 2012
1559:Ryavec 2015
1547:Baumer 2012
1472:Hansen 2015
1362:Mogao Caves
1256:Mogao Caves
1177:Yang Jidong
1143:, but also
1131:led by the
1129:Western Xia
1125:Mogao Caves
1088:Zoroastrian
1084:Mogao Caves
1063:Zoroastrian
977:Western Xia
932:fire lances
878:Later Liang
843:Mogao Caves
738:Yang Jidong
642:Mogao Caves
631:Mogao Caves
620:Mount Wutai
612:Mogao Caves
527:Yang Jidong
477:Yang Jidong
174:Preceded by
115:Old Tibetan
4125:Categories
3901:Former Shu
3880:Later Zhou
3865:Later Tang
3609:Rag-i-Bibi
3434:Ai-Khanoum
3366:Gonur Depe
3361:Dev-Kesken
3298:Kafir-kala
3288:Ajina tepe
3270:Tajikistan
3230:Sarmishsay
3215:Kyzyl-Kala
3195:Khalchayan
3180:Kafir-kala
3160:Fayaz Tepe
3145:Burchmulla
3107:Uzbekistan
3097:Tash Rabat
3072:Manas Ordo
3039:Kyrgyzstan
2926:Kazakhstan
2629:Ghaznavids
2534:Ustrushana
2529:Tocharians
2459:Massagetae
1368:References
1271:Tang dress
1203:(i.e. 米),
1157:the region
1155:native to
1055:Manichaean
993:fire lance
818:Cao family
465:stong-sdes
408:156, Late
406:Mogao Cave
372:Background
360:, and the
303:Kui-i Chün
298:Wade–Giles
276:Guiyi Army
125:Government
4078:Histories
3936:Later Shu
3875:Later Han
3870:Later Jin
3655:Artifacts
3529:Aq Kupruk
3479:Mes Aynak
3411:Ulug Depe
3346:Altyndepe
3293:Cyropolis
3283:Penjikent
3255:Varakhsha
3190:Kara Tepe
3135:Ayaz-Kala
3125:Akhsikath
3115:Afrasiyab
3062:Issyk-Kul
3052:Balasagun
2898:Beshbalik
2775:Sintashta
2735:Silk Road
2664:Ilkhanate
2619:Ma'munids
2514:Kidarites
2259:, Brill,
2086:Rong 2013
2040:Yang 1998
1960:Rong 2013
1948:Yang 1998
1933:Rong 2013
1918:Yang 1998
1853:Rong 2013
1677:Rong 2013
1619:Rong 2013
1590:Rong 2013
1571:Yang 1998
1518:Rong 2013
1499:Wang 2013
1484:Rong 2013
1457:Rong 2013
1440:Yang 1998
1402:Yang 1998
1336:Khotanese
1218:Sinicized
1182:From the
1151:(another
1149:Khotanese
1023:Confucian
999:, 950 AD.
726:Xiliangfu
672:Langdarma
597:Liangzhou
437:Silk Road
400:over the
293:Guīyì Jūn
224:Xiliangfu
98:Shazhou (
92:Ganzhou (
4069:Đại Việt
3982:De facto
3840:Timeline
3589:Mundigak
3569:Firozkoh
3459:Shotorak
3278:Bunjikat
3170:Hazorasp
2994:Shilikty
2984:Boralday
2908:Mongolia
2843:Dunhuang
2614:Samanids
2544:Farghana
2397:Polities
1356:See also
1248:—
1222:Guiyijun
1175:—
1165:Sanskrit
1117:Dunhuang
1112:entrepôt
1107:Sogdians
1032:Xuanzong
1019:Dunhuang
1015:Buddhism
997:Dunhuang
983:Religion
948:—
913:—
869:—
810:—
765:Gaochang
736:—
713:—
691:Chang'an
682:—
664:Tingzhou
616:Dunhuang
585:Shanzhou
570:—
557:Jiedushi
553:Gaochang
525:—
475:—
461:rtse-rje
453:Tibetans
366:Dunhuang
100:Dunhuang
67:851–1036
3931:Jingnan
3534:Asqalan
3469:Bimaran
3464:Paitava
3406:Togolok
3341:Abiward
3225:Poykent
3210:Koktepe
3077:Navekat
2954:Kerderi
2944:Jankent
2893:Kashgar
2868:Tumshuq
2813:Bulayïq
2723:Culture
2539:Khuttal
2499:Xiongnu
2177:, Brill
2150:, Brill
1234:taverns
1145:Sogdian
1141:Tibetan
1137:Chinese
1133:Tanguts
973:Tanguts
963:Tanguts
649:Tibetan
601:Kuozhou
593:Minzhou
581:Lanzhou
534:Ganzhou
511:Guazhou
505:In 848
280:Chinese
133:History
119:Sogdian
111:Chinese
94:Zhangye
89:Capital
4044:Balhae
3599:Nagara
3371:Jeitun
3303:Sarazm
2989:Sawran
2934:Begash
2888:Khotan
2883:Loulan
2494:Yuezhi
2332:
2305:
2271:
2248:
2226:
1767:
1742:
1717:
1639:
1423:
1338:donors
1211:, and
1163:, and
1161:Uyghur
1061:, and
1036:Yizong
903:Khotan
831:Khotan
662:) and
660:Ürümqi
599:, and
589:Hezhou
542:Yizhou
540:, and
538:Suzhou
356:, the
300::
290::
288:pinyin
282::
136:
81:Status
4018:]
3911:Wuyue
3444:Hadda
3200:Khiva
3092:Suyab
3082:Özgön
3019:Urpek
3004:Sumbe
2969:Otrar
2858:Rawak
2848:Miran
2818:Kucha
1121:Gansu
845:mural
757:Qocho
469:buluo
422:mural
394:mural
338:西漢敦煌國
318:西漢金山國
263:China
59:西漢敦煌國
53:西漢金山國
4064:Dali
3967:Zhao
3863:) /
3624:Iran
3401:Nisa
3386:Merv
3356:Anau
2853:Niya
2434:Saka
2330:ISBN
2303:ISBN
2269:ISBN
2246:ISBN
2224:ISBN
1765:ISBN
1740:ISBN
1715:ISBN
1637:ISBN
1421:ISBN
1205:Kang
1139:and
1101:and
1091:cult
1034:and
761:Hami
431:The
380:The
309:lit.
270:The
160:1036
3972:Yan
3920:Yin
3918:/ (
3916:Min
3906:Chu
3861:Jin
2261:doi
2070:She
2053:She
2024:She
2007:She
1990:She
1973:She
1240:.
1209:Cao
1193:Shi
1159:),
1115:of
767:).
656:論恐熱
614:at
368:).
284:歸義軍
150:851
47:歸義軍
4127::
4016:zh
3962:Qi
3896:Wu
2267:,
1940:^
1925:^
1890:^
1791:^
1684:^
1651:^
1609:^
1578:^
1525:^
1506:^
1491:^
1464:^
1447:^
1394:^
1310:AD
1213:He
1207:,
1201:Mi
1199:,
1197:An
1167:.
1147:,
1119:,
1057:,
905:.
880:.
651::
603:.
595:,
591:,
587:,
583:,
536:,
455:.
404:,
346:;
340:;
326:;
320:;
306:;
296:;
286:;
117:,
113:,
56:/
50:/
3922:)
3859:(
3842:)
3838:(
3828:e
3821:t
3814:v
2565:)
2561:(
2382:e
2375:t
2368:v
2263::
1773:.
1748:.
1723:.
1645:.
1429:.
336:(
316:(
278:(
102:)
96:)
20:)
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