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37:
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1358:. Wall sconces are available for tea light and votive candles. For pillar-type candles, the assortment of candle holders is broad. A fireproof plate, such as a glass plate or small mirror, can be a candle holder for a pillar-style candle. A pedestal of any kind, with the appropriate-sized fireproof top, is another option. A large glass bowl with a large flat bottom and tall mostly vertical curved sides is called a hurricane. The pillar-style candle is placed at the bottom center of the hurricane. A hurricane on a pedestal is sometimes sold as a unit.
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efficient production of candles with mould was only achieved in the 19th century. Wax and tallow candles were made in monasteries in the medieval period, and in rural households, tallow candles may be made at home. By the 13th century, candle making had become a guild craft in
England and France, with a French guild documented as early as 1061. The candle makers (chandlers) went from house to house making candles from the kitchen fats saved for that purpose, or made and sold their own candles from small candle shops.
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alternative to prevent these volatile organic compounds from being released into the environment. Candle companies such as "The Plant
Project" have created candles that are more environmentally sustainable and better for lung health. These alternatives include non-toxic wax blends, safe fragrances and eco-friendly packaging. Safer candles include candles made from coconut, soy, vegetable, and beeswax.
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483:, England, patented a machine that revolutionised candle making. It allowed for continuous production of molded candles by using a cylinder with a moveable piston to eject candles as they solidified. This more efficient mechanized production produced about 1,500 candles per hour. This allowed candles to be an affordable commodity for the masses.
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These are glass or metal tubes with an internal stricture partway along, which sit around the top of a lit candle. As the candle burns, the wax melts and the follower holds the melted wax in, whilst the stricture rests on the topmost solid portion of wax. Candle followers are often deliberately heavy
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Many candle holders use a friction-tight socket to keep the candle upright. In this case, a candle that is slightly too wide will not fit in the holder, and a candle that is slightly too narrow will wobble. Candles that are too big can be trimmed to fit with a knife; candles that are too small can be
1158:
core was used in the wicks to keep them upright in container candles. Without a stiff core, the wicks of a container candle could sag and drown in the deep wax pool. Concerns rose that the lead in these wicks would vaporize during the burning process, releasing lead vapors – a known health and
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A number of improvements were made to candle in the 19th century. In older candles, the wick of a burning candle was not in direct contact with air, so it charred instead of being burnt. The charred wick inhibited further burning and produced black smoke, so the wick needed to be constantly trimmed
1150:
Glass candle-holders are sometimes cracked by thermal shock from the candle flame, particularly when the candle burns down to the end. When burning candles in glass holders or jars, users should avoid lighting candles with chipped or cracked containers, and stop use once a half-inch or less of wax
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particles. The soot is formed through a series of complex chemical reactions, leading from the fuel molecule through molecular growth, until multi-carbon ring compounds are formed. The thermal structure of a flame is complex, hundreds of degrees over very short distances leading to extremely steep
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Candle snuffers are instruments used to extinguish burning candles by smothering the flame with a small metal cup that is suspended from a long handle, and thus depriving it of oxygen. An older meaning refers to a scissor-like tool used to trim the wick of a candle. With skill, this could be done
1365:
is a drip-catching ring, which may also be affixed to a candle holder, or used independently of one. Bobèches can range from ornate metal or glass to simple plastic, cardboard, or wax paper. Use of paper or plastic bobèches is common at events where candles are distributed to a crowd or audience,
460:
or "snuffed". In 1825, a French man M. Cambacérès introduced the plaited wick soaked with mineral salts, which when burnt, curled towards the outer edge of the flame and become incinerated by it, thereby trimming itself. These are referred to as "self-trimming" or "self-consuming" wicks. In 1823,
351:
The candles were produced using a number of methods: dipping the wick in molten fat or wax, rolling the candle by hand around a wick, or pouring fat or wax onto a wick to build up the candle. In the 14th century Sieur de Brez introduced the technique of using a mould, but real improvement for the
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into the environment, which releases carbon into the air. The combustion process of lighting a candle includes the release of light, heat, carbon dioxide and water vapor, to fuel the flame. Candle use can be unsafe if fragrances are inhaled at high doses Non-toxic candles have been created as an
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instead of blowing on the flame. A candle snuffer is usually a small metal cup on the end of a long handle. Placing the snuffer over the flame cuts off the oxygen supply. Snuffers were common in the home when candles were the main source of lighting before electric lights were available. Ornate
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As the fuel (wax) is melted and burned, the candle becomes shorter. The end of the plaited wick bends and get consumed in the flame. The incineration of the wick limits the length of the exposed portion of the wick, thus maintaining a constant burning temperature and rate of fuel consumption.
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is yellow/white and is located above the dark zone. It is the brightest zone, but not the hottest. It is an oxygen-depleted zone with insufficient oxygen to burn all of the wax vapor rising from below it, resulting in only partial combustion. The zone also contains unburnt carbon particles.
347:
was widely used in church ceremonies, and compared to animal-based tallow, it burns cleanly without smoky flame, and does not release an unpleasant smell like tallow. Beeswax candles were expensive, and relatively few people could afford to burn them in their homes in medieval Europe.
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The hottest part of a candle flame is just above the very dull blue part to one side of the flame, at the base. At this point, the flame is about 1,400 °C (2,550 °F). However, this part of the flame is very small and releases little heat energy. The blue color is due to
1337:
959:, which represented the luminous intensity emitted by a candle made to particular specifications (a "standard candle"). The modern unit is defined in a more precise and repeatable way, but was chosen such that a candle's luminous intensity is still about one candela.
95:, but these candles were expensive and their use was limited to the elite and the churches. Tallow was a cheaper but a less aesthetically pleasing alternative. A variety of different materials have been developed in the modern era for making candles, including
567:, candles and oil lamps were commonly used for illumination. In areas without electricity, they are still used routinely. Until the 20th century, candles were more common in northern Europe. In southern Europe and the Mediterranean, oil lamps predominated.
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Pre-19th century wicks required regular trimming with scissors (or a specialized wick trimmer), usually to about one-quarter inch (~0.7 cm), to promote steady burning and to prevent it from releasing black smoke. Special candle scissors called "
2909:
1027:" were produced for this purpose in the 20th century and were often combined with an extinguisher. In modern candles, the wick is made in such a way that it curves over as it burns, which ensures that the end of the wick gets incinerated by
1015:. This flame provides sufficient heat to keep the candle burning via a self-sustaining chain of events: the heat of the flame melts the top of the mass of solid fuel; the liquefied fuel then moves upward through the wick via
1059:, which surrounds the base of the flame. Here the supply of oxygen is plentiful, and the fuel burns clean and blue. It is heat from this zone which causes the wax to melt. Temperatures are around 800 °C (1,470 °F).
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Zone I – this is the non-luminous, lowest, and coolest part of the candle flame. It is located around the base of the wick where there is insufficient oxygen for fuel to burn. Temperatures are around 600 °C
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and developed a commercially viable method of production. Paraffin could be used to make inexpensive candles of high quality. It was a bluish-white wax, which burned cleanly and left no unpleasant odor, unlike
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The liquid wax is hot and can cause skin burns, but the amount and temperature are generally rather limited and the burns are seldom serious. The best way to avoid getting burned from splashed wax is to use a
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to be continually burnt, thereby maintaining a constant flame. The candle shortens as the solid fuel is consumed, so does the wick. Wicks of pre-19th century candles required regular trimming with scissors or
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Based on measurements of a taper-type, paraffin wax candle, a modern candle typically burns at a steady rate of about 0.1 g/min, releasing heat at roughly 80 W. The light produced is about 13
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determines the rate at which the melted hydrocarbon is conveyed to the flame. If the capillarity is too great, the molten wax streams down the side of the candle. Wicks are often infused with a variety of
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147:" to promote steady burning and prevent smoking. In modern candles, the wick is constructed so that it curves over as it burns, and the end of the wick gets trimmed by itself through incineration by
374:. As in Europe, these candles were expensive and limited to the elite, and most commoners used oil lamps instead. According to legend, the practice of using lamps and candles in mosque started with
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In the developed world today, candles are used mainly for their aesthetic value and scent, particularly to set a soft, warm, or romantic ambiance, for emergency lighting during electrical
88:
has largely made candle use nonessential for illumination, candles are still commonly used for functional, symbolic and aesthetic purposes and in specific cultural and religious settings.
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surrounds Zone IV. Here, the flame is at its hottest, at around 1,400 °C (2,550 °F), and complete combustion occurs. It is light blue in color, though most of it is invisible.
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By the 18th century, candle clocks were being made with weights set into the sides of the candle. As the candle melted, the weights fell off and made a noise as they fell into a bowl.
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the solid fuel by the controlled application of heat. The liquid is then poured into a mould, or a wick is repeatedly immersed in the liquid to create a dipped tapered candle. Often
401:
In early modern Syria, candles were in high demand by all socioeconomic classes because they were customarily lit during marriage ceremonies. There were candle makers' guilds in the
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has combined the modern candle with existing holders, which makes the ill-fitting candle more common. This friction-tight socket is only needed for the federals and the tapers. For
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84:. Candles have been used for over two millennia around the world, and were a significant form of indoor lighting until the invention of other types of light sources. Although
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Caliphates, beeswax was the dominant material used for candle making. Beeswax was often imported from long distances; for example, candle makers from Egypt used beeswax from
335:
In medieval Europe, candles were initially used primarily in
Christian churches. Its use spread later to the households of the wealthy as a luxury item. In northern Europe,
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period have been found. Because candle making requires a reliable supply of animal or vegetable fats, it is certain that candles could not have developed before the early
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In the days leading to
Christmas, some people burn a candle a set amount to represent each day, as marked on the candle. The type of candle used in this way is called the
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By the 16th century, beeswax candles were appearing as luxury household items among the wealthy. Candles were widely used in the 17th and 18th centuries, and a party in
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The combustion of the candle proceeds in self-sustaining manner. As the wick of candle is lit, the heat melts and ignites a small amount of solid fuel (the wax), which
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Prior to the invention of candles, ancient people used open fire, torches, splinters of resinous wood, and lamps to provide artificial illumination at night. Primitive
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and other plant fibre soaked in fat, pitch or oil and burned in lamps or pots. Candles of antiquity were made from various forms of natural fat, tallow, and wax, and
518:, based in London, was the largest candle manufacturer in the world. Founded by William Wilson in 1830, the company pioneered the implementation of the technique of
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and beeswax. Beeswax candles were expensive and their use was limited to the wealthy, instead oil lamps were the more commonly used lighting devices in Roman times.
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1131:, candles are a leading source of residential fires in the United States with almost 10% of civilian injuries and 6% of fatalities from fire attributed to candles.
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or weighted to ensure they move down as the candle burns lower, maintaining a seal and preventing wax escape. The purpose of a candle follower is threefold:
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255:. The "candles" used in these early periods would not have resembled the current forms; more likely they were made of plant materials dipped in animal fat.
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to modify their burning characteristics. For example, it is usually desirable that the wick not glow after the flame is extinguished. Typical agents are
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99:, which together with efficient production techniques, made candles affordable for the masses. Various devices can be used to hold candles, such as
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A candle flame is formed because wax vaporizes on burning. A candle flame is widely recognized as having between three and five regions or "zones":
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used torches and oil lamps, and likely adopted candle use in a later period from Rome. Early record in China suggests that candle was used in the
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522:, and was thus able to manufacture candles from a wide range of raw materials, including skin fat, bone fat, fish oil and industrial greases.
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As a decoration, either due to the ornate nature of the device, or (in the case of a glass follower) through light dispersion or colouration.
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fitted with aluminium foil. Traditionally, the candle and candle holders were made in the same place, so they were appropriately sized, but
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Despite advances in candle making, the candle industry declined rapidly upon the introduction of superior methods of lighting, including
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A candle wick is a piece of string or cord that holds the flame of a candle. Commercial wicks are made from braided cotton. The wick's
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candles, there is a variety of candle holders, including small glass holders and elaborate multi-candle stands. The same is true for
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without extinguishing the flame. The instrument now known as a candle snuffer was formerly called an "extinguisher" or "douter".
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1115:
692:(initially manufactured from animal fats but now produced almost exclusively from palm waxes). Today, most candles are made from
432:, was used to produce a superior candle that burned longer, brighter and gave off no offensive smell. Later in the 18th century,
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decreed that tallow be excluded for use in altar candles, and a high beeswax content is necessary for candles of the high altar.
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where the wick is very thin and the flame is very small. Candles whose main purpose is illumination use a much thicker wick.
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United States: ASTM F2058, ASTM F2179, ASTM F2417, ASTM F2601, ASTM F2326 (all are federal and applies in all 50 states),
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2450:
Franz Willhöft and
Fredrick Horn "Candles" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2000, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.
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snuffers, often combined with a taper for lighting, are still found in those churches which regularly use large candles.
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during the 1500s and 1600s. However, candle makers had a relatively low social position in
Safavid Iran, comparable to
243:; however, it is unclear when and where candles were first used. Objects that could be candlesticks have been found in
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815:. The candle wick influences how the candle burns. Important characteristics of the wick include diameter, stiffness,
750:. The kind of wax also affects the burn rate, with beeswax and coconut wax burning longer than paraffin or soy wax.
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The manufacture of candles became an industrialized mass market in the mid 19th century. In 1834, Joseph Morgan, a
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1167:, which has become the industry standard. Wicks made from specially treated paper and cotton are also available.
608:. The candle designed for this purpose might have time measurements, usually in hours, marked along the wax. The
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of about 0.16 lumens per watt (luminous efficacy of a source) – almost a hundred times lower than an
546:
309:
293:
266:, and the earliest excavated Etruscan candlestick dates from the 7th century BC. Candles may have evolved from
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developmental hazard. Lead core wicks have not been common since the 1970s. Today, most metal-cored wicks use
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To contain the melted wax, making the candle more efficient, avoiding mess, and producing a more even burn.
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candles were used during the Middle Ages, with a mention of tallow candles in
English appearing in 1154.
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1119:, where he gives an in-depth analysis of the evolutionary development, workings and science of candles.
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in animal fats, and obtained a patent in 1825 to produce candles that are harder and can burn brighter.
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173:
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Beg, M.A.J. (1997). "SHAMMÄ€'". In
Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P.; Lecomte, G. (eds.).
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The main determinant of the height of a candle flame is the diameter of the wick. This is evidenced in
604:
With the fairly consistent and measurable burning of a candle, a common use of candles was to tell the
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Camp, William R.; Vollenweider, Jeffrey L.; Schutz, Wendy J. (12 October 1999). "Scented candle gel".
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temperature gradients. On average, the flame temperature is about 1,000 °C (1,800 °F). The
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China: QB/T 2119 Basic Candle, QB/T 2902 Art Candle, QB/T 2903 Jar Candle, GB/T 22256 Jelly Candle
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In the 21st century, there has been a huge spike in sales of scented candles in recent years. The
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Early evidence of candle use may be found in Italy, where depiction of a candlestick exists in an
138:. The flame then melts the top of the mass of solid fuel, which moves upward through the wick via
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Laws of Men and Laws of Nature: The
History of Scientific Expert Testimony in England and America
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Allen R. White (2013). "FTIR Study of
Combustion Species In Several Regions of a Candle Flame".
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2803:"You Need To Follow These Expert Tips To Make Sure You're Using Your Scented Candles Safely"
2740:, Laminar Smoke Points of Wax Candles, Combustion Science and Technology 181 (2009) 800–811.
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2255:"The cult of 'smellness': what's behind the extraordinary rise in sales of scented candles?"
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Sunderland, P.B.; Quintiere, J.G.; Tabaka, G.A.; Lian, D.; Chiu, C.-W. (6 October 2010).
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led to a dramatic increase in the sales of scented candles, diffusers and room sprays.
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is sometimes now used to describe a hanging fixture designed to hold multiple tapers.
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had become the largest candle manufacturer in the world by the end of the 19th century
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is from the word for candle, but now usually refers to an electric fixture. The word
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The size of the flame and corresponding rate of burning is controlled largely by the
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is a typical component of paraffin wax, from which most modern candles are produced.
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before 200 BC. These early Chinese candles may have been made from whale fat.
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was known to have used candles in the court in Damascus, while the Abbasid caliph
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candles. By the end of the 19th century, candles were made from paraffin wax and
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537:. From this point on, candles came to be marketed as more of a decorative item.
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In Christianity, candles gained significance in their decorative, symbolic and
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Decorative candleholders, especially those shaped as a pedestal, are called
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321:
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628:, although this term is also used to refer to a candle that are used in an
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2614:. "Science: Textbook for Class VIII". Publication Department, 2010, p. 72.
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1019:; the liquefied fuel finally vaporizes to burn within the candle's flame.
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a small amount of fuel (the wax). Once vaporized, the fuel combines with
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Users who seek the aesthetics of a candle sometimes install an electric
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1271: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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978:, while the visible yellow color is due to radiative emission from hot
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877: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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takes place here. Temperature is around 1,000 °C (1,830 °F).
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in which a lit wick rested in a pool of oil or fat were used from the
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such as Christmas carolers or people at other concerts or festivals.
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1138:. Proper wick trimming will reduce soot emissions from most candles.
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A candle flame that is longer than its laminar smoke point will emit
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made of greased rushes were commonly used especially in England, but
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2831:"10 Eco-Friendly Sustainable Candles For A Clean Burn - The Eco Hub"
2751:"10 Eco-Friendly Sustainable Candles For A Clean Burn - The Eco Hub"
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Sekimoto, Hiroshi; Ryu, Kouichi; Yoshimura, Yoshikane (2001-11-01).
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Hamins, Anthony; Bundy, Matthew; Dillon, Scott E. (November 2005).
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For a candle to burn, a heat source (commonly a naked flame from a
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2483:"Candle Wax Guide: Comparing Soy, Paraffin, Coconut, and Beeswax"
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Time in History: Views of Time from Prehistory to the Present Day
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in Spain and Italy in the fourth century, the Christian festival
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2282:"UK sales of scented candles soar as Covid restrictions tighten"
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International markets have developed a range of standards and
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3029:
953:
unit, candela, was in fact based on an older unit called the
1821:"The Best Candle Pouring Pots for Learning an Ancient Craft"
1066:
is a region directly above the wick containing unburnt wax.
807:
up to the flame. When the liquid fuel reaches the flame, it
3044:
950:
316:
recorded at the end of the 3rd century, were documented as
3034:
3002:
1154:
A former worry regarding the safety of candles was that a
3035:
Latin American Candle Manufacturers Association (ALAFAVE)
119:. A person who makes candles is traditionally known as a
2027:
2025:
2797:
2795:
2090:
Seven Centuries of Light: The Tallow Chandlers Company
1202:
Europe: GPSD, EN 15493, EN 15494, EN 15426, EN 14059,
1194:
to ensure compliance, while maintaining and improving
1003:) is used to light the candle's wick, which melts and
934:
source emitted uniformly in all directions, the total
2612:
National Council of Educational Research and Training
1985:
1983:
1981:
1979:
1977:
1975:
1973:
1901:
1899:
1206:, RAL-GZ 041 Candles (Germany), French Decree 91-1175
359:
was said to have been lit by 14,000 candles in 1779.
1960:
1958:
1920:
1918:
1769:
1767:
1717:
1715:
1713:
1082:
Temperature is around 1,200 °C (2,190 °F).
672:
For most of recorded history candles were made from
4029:
3984:
3925:
3848:
3764:
3689:
3559:
3499:
3447:
3419:
3297:
3199:
3171:
3162:
3082:
2736:K.M. Allan, J.R. Kaminski, J.C. Bertrand, J. Head,
1736:
1734:
2890:Metal Candlesticks: History, Styles and Techniques
2248:
2246:
2626:"Analysis and measurement of candle flame shapes"
2825:
2823:
1493:A candelabra with candles in a Swedish cathedral
1420:Candle followers are often found in churches on
1011:in the atmosphere to ignite and form a constant
2392:"Using stearic acid or stearin in candlemaking"
2309:"Candles Burn Bright Amid Coronavirus Pandemic"
1320:; if multiple candle tapers are held, the term
680:. From the mid-1800s, they were also made from
440:oil came into use as much cheaper substitutes.
394:was said to have spent 1.2 million silver
64:, or another flammable solid substance such as
2853:
2851:
2005:Value: Its Measurement, Design, and Management
2002:Shillito, M. Larry; David J. De Marle (1992).
1043:Five zones of a standard domestic candle flame
328:instituted the procession of lighted candles.
3060:
2911:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol. IX (SAN-SZE)
1940:. National Candle Association. Archived from
757:. More traditional production methods entail
235:period, and pottery and stone lamps from the
8:
2120:. Harvard University Press. pp. 89–91.
1416:If necessary, to shield the flame from wind.
378:who lit a lamp he brought from Syria in the
2339:. Oxford University Press. pp. 90–91.
2093:. Book Production Consultants. p. 74.
1469:Candles used in Iran in a mourning ceremony
417:workers, fortune tellers, bricklayers, and
398:annually on candles for his royal palaces.
191:
185:
48:A small ornamental candle with a gold stand
3168:
3067:
3053:
3045:
3018:Association of European Candlemakers(AECM)
2446:
2444:
2442:
1754:"Let There be Light: A History of Candles"
16:Wick embedded in solid flammable substance
3040:Guide To Candle Safety At Home - Osmology
2859:"The Ultimate Guide To Non-Toxic Candles"
2527:
1640:
1638:
1287:Learn how and when to remove this message
945:of a typical candle is approximately one
893:Learn how and when to remove this message
2171:An Economic History of London, 1800-1914
2168:Ball, Michael; David Sunderland (2001).
803:, drawing ("wicking") the melted wax or
574:, and for religious or ritual purposes.
2633:Proceedings of the Combustion Institute
2364:Geddes, Gordon; Jane Griffiths (2002).
2288:. The Guardian News & Media Limited
2031:
1613:
1431:
1308:A type of decorative candelabra called
547:Ceremonial use of lights § Candles
2776:"Candles: What do they emit when lit?"
2721:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
2714:
2516:Journal of Fire Protection Engineering
2253:Ferrier, Morwenna (19 December 2018).
1905:
1844:
1773:
1721:
1700:
1684:
914:A room lit by the glow of many candles
676:(rendered from beef or mutton-fat) or
40:Tapers (long thin candles) in a church
7:
1964:
1924:
1872:
1860:
1789:
1740:
1269:adding citations to reliable sources
1129:National Fire Protection Association
875:adding citations to reliable sources
684:, a waxy substance derived from the
2509:"Characterization of Candle Flames"
2261:. Guardian News & Media Limited
1989:
938:would be only about 18.40 mW.
428:, a waxy substance produced by the
14:
3030:European Candle Association (ECA)
2197:"CANDLE: The New Burnup Strategy"
1441:Object in the tomb of Tutankhamun
3012:The Chemical History of a Candle
2990:
1522:
1510:
1498:
1486:
1481:Candles used in a Chinese temple
1474:
1462:
1446:
1434:
1245:
1116:The Chemical History of a Candle
851:
424:In the 18th and 19th centuries,
3584:Parabolic aluminized reflector
2934:from the original on 2022-03-25
2307:Thomas, Ellen (10 April 2020).
2201:Nuclear Science and Engineering
2174:. Routledge. pp. 131–132.
1667:. The Free Dictionary By Farlex
1645:European Candle Association FAQ
1624:. The Free Dictionary By Farlex
1324:is also used. The root form of
1256:needs additional citations for
987:is approximately 1,000 K.
862:needs additional citations for
362:In the Middle East, during the
3529:Hydrargyrum medium-arc iodide
2917:. Leiden: Brill. p. 288.
2780:Office for Science and Society
2673:"Internet History Sourcebooks"
2469:United States Patent 5,964,905
2280:Wood, Zoe (10 November 2020).
703:Candles can also be made from
533:and the 1879 invention of the
278:made true dipped candles from
1:
2950:Studies in Ancient Technology
2947:Forbes, Robert James (1966).
1517:A decorative candle in Mexico
1341:A candle holder, 19th century
668:Unlit twisted beeswax candles
312:in churches. Wax candles, or
220:
91:Early candles may be made of
2552:"On Fire – Background Essay"
2144:London's Industrial Heritage
2045:"A Brief History of Candles"
494:from coal and oil shales at
299:Church of the Holy Sepulchre
76:. A candle can also provide
3774:Automotive light bulb types
3624:Intelligent street lighting
3003:National Candle Association
2645:10.1016/j.proci.2010.06.095
2564:WGBH Educational Foundation
1890:national candle association
1031:, thereby trimming itself.
753:Production methods utilize
159:The word candle comes from
4111:
3537:Hydrargyrum quartz iodide
2008:. Wiley-IEEE. p. 33.
1381:
1172:volatile organic compounds
1085:Zone V – The non-luminous
966:
784:
544:
514:By the late 19th century,
203:
32:A candle in a candle stick
18:
3976:Stage lighting instrument
2968:LeFever, Gregory (2007).
2370:. Heinemann. p. 89.
2087:Phillips, Gordon (1999).
1803:"Candles, Roman, 500 BCE"
1211:California Proposition 65
1113:'s significant works was
612:in China (960–1279) used
251:cultures, as well in the
4037:Battlefield illumination
3794:high-intensity discharge
3226:Electrochemiluminescence
2538:10.1177/1042391505053163
2456:10.1002/14356007.a05_029
2422:"Stearic acid (stearin)"
563:Before the invention of
490:succeeded in distilling
324:was named after it, and
206:History of candle making
3897:Electroluminescent wire
2893:. Schiffer Publishing.
2887:Baur, Veronika (1996).
2692:John Hall, NFPA 2009,
2333:Whitrow, G. J. (1989).
2141:Geoff Marshall (2013).
2070:"Joseph Morgan and Son"
928:incandescent light bulb
799:A candle wick works by
555:Candle lighting in the
535:incandescent light bulb
466:Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
177:
164:
80:or a method of keeping
72:, and in some cases, a
21:Candle (disambiguation)
3579:Multifaceted reflector
1393:
1374:
1342:
1313:
1182:to avoid the hazards.
1055:Zone II – this is the
1044:
915:
796:
795:Candle with unlit wick
669:
661:
601:
560:
462:Michel Eugène Chevreul
456:
305:
224:
192:
186:
49:
41:
33:
3969:ellipsoidal reflector
3574:Ellipsoidal reflector
3258:Fluorescent induction
3236:field-induced polymer
2970:"Early Candle Making"
2591:Ohio State University
2426:howtomakecandles.info
2147:. The History Press.
1392:A candle extinguisher
1391:
1372:
1340:
1307:
1042:
913:
794:
667:
648:
596:
554:
451:
296:
213:
134:in the air to form a
47:
39:
31:
3806:Rear position lights
3779:Daytime running lamp
3707:Mechanically powered
3594:Aviation obstruction
2999:at Wikimedia Commons
1938:"History of candles"
1863:, p. 8–9.
1807:Smith College Museum
1265:improve this article
871:improve this article
705:microcrystalline wax
297:Candles used in the
19:For other uses, see
3214:Electron-stimulated
2977:Early American Life
2738:Peter B. Sunderland
2213:2001NSE...139..306S
2114:Golan, Tal (2004).
1886:"history of candle"
1348:international trade
1312:, late 17th century
253:tomb of Tutankhamun
4057:Luminous gemstones
3231:Electroluminescent
3209:Cathodoluminescent
3023:2011-07-04 at the
3014:by Michael Faraday
1760:. 3 December 2021.
1650:2012-01-13 at the
1394:
1375:
1343:
1314:
1045:
943:luminous intensity
916:
797:
755:extrusion moulding
670:
662:
602:
561:
520:steam distillation
486:In the mid-1850s,
457:
306:
225:
130:and combines with
50:
42:
34:
4082:
4081:
3599:Balanced-arm lamp
3555:
3554:
3439:Yablochkov candle
3307:Acetylene/Carbide
3277:Radioluminescence
3149:Luminous efficacy
3095:Color temperature
2995:Media related to
2979:. pp. 62–71.
2556:PBS LearningMedia
2487:valiantcandle.com
2377:978-0-435-30693-9
2353:on June 10, 2015.
2346:978-0-19-285211-3
2221:10.13182/NSE01-01
2100:978-1-85757-064-9
2015:978-0-471-52738-1
1827:. 6 December 2020
1297:
1296:
1289:
1127:According to the
985:color temperature
976:chemiluminescence
924:luminous efficacy
903:
902:
895:
819:, and tethering.
731:(generally palm,
696:, a byproduct of
579:COVID-19 pandemic
565:electric lighting
4102:
3882:Christmas lights
3816:Safety reflector
3811:Reversing lights
3746:Navigation light
3697:Bicycle lighting
3587:
3540:
3532:
3506:
3265:Photoluminescent
3248:Fluorescent lamp
3221:Chemiluminescent
3169:
3137:Bi-pin lamp base
3132:Lightbulb socket
3069:
3062:
3055:
3046:
2994:
2980:
2974:
2964:
2943:
2941:
2939:
2933:
2916:
2904:
2874:
2873:
2871:
2870:
2855:
2846:
2845:
2843:
2842:
2827:
2818:
2817:
2815:
2814:
2799:
2790:
2789:
2787:
2786:
2772:
2766:
2765:
2763:
2762:
2747:
2741:
2734:
2728:
2726:
2720:
2712:
2710:
2709:
2700:. Archived from
2699:
2690:
2684:
2683:
2681:
2680:
2669:
2663:
2662:
2660:
2659:
2653:
2647:. Archived from
2639:(2): 2489–2496.
2630:
2621:
2615:
2609:
2603:
2602:
2586:
2580:
2579:
2577:
2575:
2570:on April 3, 2015
2566:. Archived from
2548:
2542:
2541:
2531:
2513:
2504:
2498:
2497:
2495:
2493:
2479:
2473:
2472:
2464:
2458:
2448:
2437:
2436:
2434:
2432:
2418:
2412:
2411:
2409:
2407:
2398:. Archived from
2388:
2382:
2381:
2361:
2355:
2354:
2349:. Archived from
2330:
2324:
2323:
2321:
2319:
2304:
2298:
2297:
2295:
2293:
2277:
2271:
2270:
2268:
2266:
2250:
2241:
2240:
2192:
2186:
2185:
2165:
2159:
2158:
2138:
2132:
2131:
2111:
2105:
2104:
2084:
2078:
2077:
2066:
2060:
2059:
2057:
2056:
2047:. Archived from
2041:
2035:
2029:
2020:
2019:
1999:
1993:
1987:
1968:
1962:
1953:
1952:
1950:
1949:
1934:
1928:
1922:
1913:
1903:
1894:
1893:
1882:
1876:
1870:
1864:
1858:
1852:
1842:
1836:
1835:
1833:
1832:
1817:
1811:
1810:
1799:
1793:
1787:
1781:
1771:
1762:
1761:
1750:
1744:
1738:
1729:
1719:
1708:
1698:
1692:
1682:
1676:
1675:
1673:
1672:
1661:
1655:
1642:
1633:
1632:
1630:
1629:
1618:
1526:
1514:
1505:Handmade candles
1502:
1490:
1478:
1466:
1450:
1438:
1401:Candle followers
1292:
1285:
1281:
1278:
1272:
1249:
1241:
1180:flameless candle
1105:History of study
1052:(1,112 °F).
1017:capillary action
898:
891:
887:
884:
878:
855:
847:
837:ammonium sulfate
833:ammonium nitrate
801:capillary action
713:honey collection
711:(a byproduct of
649:The hydrocarbon
581:and the ensuing
380:Prophet's Mosque
222:
195:
189:
180:
167:
140:capillary action
68:, that provides
56:is an ignitable
4110:
4109:
4105:
4104:
4103:
4101:
4100:
4099:
4085:
4084:
4083:
4078:
4042:Bioluminescence
4025:
3994:
3980:
3937:
3921:
3860:
3844:
3760:
3685:
3609:Emergency light
3585:
3551:
3538:
3530:
3504:
3502:
3495:
3443:
3415:
3386:Magnesium torch
3293:
3195:
3164:
3158:
3115:Light pollution
3090:Accent lighting
3078:
3073:
3025:Wayback Machine
2987:
2972:
2967:
2961:
2946:
2937:
2935:
2931:
2925:
2914:
2907:
2901:
2886:
2883:
2878:
2877:
2868:
2866:
2857:
2856:
2849:
2840:
2838:
2829:
2828:
2821:
2812:
2810:
2801:
2800:
2793:
2784:
2782:
2774:
2773:
2769:
2760:
2758:
2749:
2748:
2744:
2735:
2731:
2713:
2707:
2705:
2697:
2695:"Archived copy"
2693:
2691:
2687:
2678:
2676:
2671:
2670:
2666:
2657:
2655:
2654:on 4 March 2016
2651:
2628:
2623:
2622:
2618:
2610:
2606:
2588:
2587:
2583:
2573:
2571:
2550:
2549:
2545:
2529:10.1.1.548.3798
2511:
2506:
2505:
2501:
2491:
2489:
2481:
2480:
2476:
2466:
2465:
2461:
2449:
2440:
2430:
2428:
2420:
2419:
2415:
2405:
2403:
2402:on 4 March 2016
2390:
2389:
2385:
2378:
2363:
2362:
2358:
2347:
2332:
2331:
2327:
2317:
2315:
2306:
2305:
2301:
2291:
2289:
2279:
2278:
2274:
2264:
2262:
2252:
2251:
2244:
2194:
2193:
2189:
2182:
2167:
2166:
2162:
2155:
2140:
2139:
2135:
2128:
2113:
2112:
2108:
2101:
2086:
2085:
2081:
2068:
2067:
2063:
2054:
2052:
2043:
2042:
2038:
2030:
2023:
2016:
2001:
2000:
1996:
1988:
1971:
1963:
1956:
1947:
1945:
1944:on May 17, 2012
1936:
1935:
1931:
1923:
1916:
1904:
1897:
1884:
1883:
1879:
1875:, pp. 7–8.
1871:
1867:
1859:
1855:
1843:
1839:
1830:
1828:
1819:
1818:
1814:
1801:
1800:
1796:
1788:
1784:
1772:
1765:
1758:Hellenic Museum
1752:
1751:
1747:
1739:
1732:
1720:
1711:
1699:
1695:
1683:
1679:
1670:
1668:
1663:
1662:
1658:
1652:Wayback Machine
1643:
1636:
1627:
1625:
1620:
1619:
1615:
1610:
1605:
1601:Yahrzeit candle
1541:
1534:
1531:memorial candle
1527:
1518:
1515:
1506:
1503:
1494:
1491:
1482:
1479:
1470:
1467:
1458:
1451:
1442:
1439:
1430:
1403:
1386:
1380:
1378:Candle snuffers
1302:
1293:
1282:
1276:
1273:
1262:
1250:
1239:
1188:
1125:
1111:Michael Faraday
1107:
1062:Zone III – the
1037:
993:
971:
965:
908:
899:
888:
882:
879:
868:
856:
845:
843:Characteristics
817:fire resistance
789:
783:
658:
654:
643:
638:
591:
549:
543:
516:Price's Candles
453:Price's Candles
446:
382:in Medina. The
310:ceremonial uses
208:
202:
157:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4108:
4106:
4098:
4097:
4087:
4086:
4080:
4079:
4077:
4076:
4075:
4074:
4064:
4059:
4054:
4049:
4044:
4039:
4033:
4031:
4030:Related topics
4027:
4026:
4024:
4023:
4018:
4013:
4008:
4003:
3997:
3995:
3993:
3992:
3989:
3985:
3982:
3981:
3979:
3978:
3973:
3972:
3971:
3961:
3956:
3951:
3946:
3940:
3938:
3936:
3935:
3932:
3926:
3923:
3922:
3920:
3919:
3914:
3909:
3904:
3899:
3894:
3889:
3884:
3879:
3874:
3869:
3863:
3861:
3859:
3858:
3853:
3849:
3846:
3845:
3843:
3842:
3841:
3840:
3830:
3825:
3824:
3823:
3821:retroreflector
3813:
3808:
3803:
3802:
3801:
3796:
3791:
3781:
3776:
3770:
3768:
3762:
3761:
3759:
3758:
3753:
3748:
3743:
3738:
3733:
3732:
3731:
3721:
3716:
3715:
3714:
3709:
3699:
3693:
3691:
3687:
3686:
3684:
3683:
3678:
3676:Track lighting
3673:
3668:
3667:
3666:
3656:
3651:
3649:Recessed light
3646:
3641:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3619:Gooseneck lamp
3616:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3590:
3589:
3581:
3576:
3565:
3563:
3557:
3556:
3553:
3552:
3550:
3549:
3544:
3543:
3542:
3534:
3526:
3516:
3510:
3508:
3501:High-intensity
3497:
3496:
3494:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3482:
3481:
3471:
3470:
3469:
3459:
3453:
3451:
3445:
3444:
3442:
3441:
3436:
3431:
3425:
3423:
3417:
3416:
3414:
3413:
3408:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3373:
3372:
3371:
3366:
3356:
3355:
3354:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3303:
3301:
3295:
3294:
3292:
3291:
3290:
3289:
3279:
3274:
3273:
3272:
3270:Laser headlamp
3262:
3261:
3260:
3255:
3240:
3239:
3238:
3228:
3223:
3218:
3217:
3216:
3205:
3203:
3197:
3196:
3194:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3177:
3175:
3166:
3160:
3159:
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2985:External links
2983:
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2960:978-9004006263
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763:fragrance oils
719:(a mixture of
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572:power failures
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326:Pope Sergius I
318:Easter candles
284:Ancient Greece
270:with wick of
204:Main article:
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161:Middle English
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86:electric light
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3457:Deuterium arc
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2900:9780764301568
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2863:British Vogue
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2835:theecohub.com
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2755:theecohub.com
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2704:on 2011-07-27
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2675:. Fordham.edu
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2396:happynews.com
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2154:9780752492391
2150:
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2118:
2110:
2107:
2102:
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2092:
2091:
2083:
2080:
2075:
2071:
2065:
2062:
2051:on 2013-03-18
2050:
2046:
2040:
2037:
2034:, p. 65.
2033:
2028:
2026:
2022:
2017:
2011:
2007:
2006:
1998:
1995:
1991:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1980:
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1961:
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1955:
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1816:
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1808:
1804:
1798:
1795:
1792:, p. 18.
1791:
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1599:
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1592:
1589:
1587:
1586:Trick candles
1584:
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1579:
1577:
1574:
1572:
1569:
1567:
1564:
1562:
1559:
1557:
1554:
1552:
1551:Candle warmer
1549:
1547:
1546:Candle-making
1544:
1543:
1538:
1533:(soul candle)
1532:
1525:
1520:
1513:
1508:
1501:
1496:
1489:
1484:
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1465:
1460:
1457:being carried
1456:
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1423:
1422:altar candles
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1259:
1254:This section
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1212:
1208:
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1200:
1199:
1198:, including:
1197:
1193:
1185:
1183:
1181:
1176:
1173:
1170:Candles emit
1168:
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1122:
1120:
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1100:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1079:luminous zone
1076:
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866:
865:
860:This section
858:
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814:
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695:
691:
687:
683:
679:
675:
666:
659:
647:
640:
635:
633:
631:
630:Advent wreath
627:
626:
625:Advent candle
620:
617:
615:
614:candle clocks
611:
607:
600:
595:
588:
586:
584:
580:
575:
573:
568:
566:
558:
557:Visoki DeÄŤani
553:
548:
540:
538:
536:
532:
528:
523:
521:
517:
512:
510:
506:
501:
497:
493:
489:
484:
482:
478:
473:
471:
468:separate out
467:
463:
454:
450:
443:
441:
439:
435:
431:
427:
422:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
399:
397:
393:
392:al-Mutawakkil
389:
385:
381:
377:
376:Tamim al-Dari
373:
369:
365:
360:
358:
353:
349:
346:
342:
338:
333:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
314:candela cerea
311:
304:
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295:
291:
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285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
256:
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89:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
46:
38:
30:
26:
22:
3917:Strobe light
3912:Plasma globe
3887:Crackle tube
3877:Bubble light
3838:trafficators
3833:Turn signals
3659:Street light
3614:Gas lighting
3547:Sodium vapor
3519:Metal-halide
3421:Electric arc
3321:
3173:Incandescent
3142:Edison screw
2976:
2949:
2936:. Retrieved
2910:
2889:
2881:Bibliography
2867:. Retrieved
2865:. 2020-05-12
2862:
2839:. Retrieved
2837:. 2021-04-08
2834:
2811:. Retrieved
2809:. 2022-09-27
2806:
2783:. Retrieved
2779:
2770:
2759:. Retrieved
2757:. 2021-04-08
2754:
2745:
2732:
2706:. Retrieved
2702:the original
2688:
2677:. Retrieved
2667:
2656:. Retrieved
2649:the original
2636:
2632:
2619:
2607:
2590:
2584:
2572:. Retrieved
2568:the original
2555:
2546:
2519:
2515:
2502:
2490:. Retrieved
2486:
2477:
2468:
2462:
2431:25 September
2429:. Retrieved
2425:
2416:
2406:25 September
2404:. Retrieved
2400:the original
2395:
2386:
2367:Christianity
2366:
2359:
2351:the original
2335:
2328:
2316:. Retrieved
2312:
2302:
2290:. Retrieved
2286:The Guardian
2285:
2275:
2263:. Retrieved
2259:The Guardian
2258:
2204:
2200:
2190:
2170:
2163:
2143:
2136:
2116:
2109:
2089:
2082:
2074:Graces Guide
2073:
2064:
2053:. Retrieved
2049:the original
2039:
2032:LeFever 2007
2004:
1997:
1967:, p. 9.
1946:. Retrieved
1942:the original
1932:
1927:, p. 8.
1889:
1880:
1868:
1856:
1840:
1829:. Retrieved
1824:
1815:
1806:
1797:
1785:
1757:
1748:
1743:, p. 7.
1696:
1680:
1669:. Retrieved
1659:
1626:. Retrieved
1616:
1596:Unity candle
1419:
1404:
1395:
1373:Wick-trimmer
1360:
1344:
1331:
1325:
1321:
1318:candlesticks
1315:
1283:
1277:January 2021
1274:
1263:Please help
1258:verification
1255:
1229:states only)
1189:
1177:
1169:
1153:
1149:
1140:
1133:
1126:
1114:
1108:
1096:
1090:
1086:
1078:
1074:
1063:
1056:
1046:
1035:Candle flame
1021:
994:
972:
954:
940:
936:radiant flux
917:
889:
883:January 2021
880:
869:Please help
864:verification
861:
821:
798:
752:
745:
702:
694:paraffin wax
671:
623:
621:
618:
610:Song dynasty
603:
599:candle clock
576:
569:
562:
524:
513:
509:stearic acid
500:West Lothian
492:paraffin wax
485:
474:
458:
423:
400:
361:
354:
350:
334:
313:
307:
257:
226:
196:'to shine'.
181:, both from
174:Anglo-Norman
158:
125:
101:candlesticks
97:paraffin wax
90:
60:embedded in
53:
51:
25:
4062:Signal lamp
4016:Stroboscope
3892:DJ lighting
3828:Stop lights
3799:sealed beam
3751:Searchlight
3491:Xenon flash
3434:Klieg light
3282:Solid-state
3243:Fluorescent
3201:Luminescent
2492:24 February
1906:Forbes 1966
1845:Forbes 1966
1774:Forbes 1966
1722:Forbes 1966
1701:Forbes 1966
1685:Forbes 1966
1566:Julleuchter
1322:candelabrum
1237:Accessories
1223:New England
1192:regulations
963:Temperature
956:candlepower
824:capillarity
787:Candle wick
748:candle wick
741:soybean wax
729:plant waxes
727:), or some
725:mineral oil
686:Sperm whale
488:James Young
430:sperm whale
405:capital of
388:Al-Walid II
330:Papal bulls
288:Qin dynasty
247:and middle
233:Paleolithic
218:candelabrum
170:Old English
109:chandeliers
105:candelabras
4006:Grow light
4001:Germicidal
3991:Scientific
3988:Industrial
3944:Floodlight
3930:Theatrical
3872:Blacklight
3867:Aroma lamp
3856:Decorative
3766:Automotive
3756:Solar lamp
3719:Glow stick
3702:Flashlight
3634:Nightlight
3629:Light tube
3604:Chandelier
3561:Stationary
3503:discharge
3429:Carbon arc
3299:Combustion
3165:generation
3163:Methods of
2869:2022-11-13
2841:2022-11-13
2813:2022-11-13
2785:2022-11-13
2761:2022-11-07
2708:2013-01-27
2679:2012-12-25
2658:2015-02-10
2599:1811/55436
2522:(4): 277.
2292:4 February
2265:4 February
2055:2015-07-06
1948:2012-05-19
1908:, p.
1847:, p.
1831:2023-02-02
1776:, p.
1724:, p.
1703:, p.
1687:, p.
1671:2012-05-19
1628:2012-05-19
1622:"Chandler"
1608:References
1556:Candelabra
1332:chandelier
1327:chandelier
1215:California
1186:Regulation
1163:or a zinc
1087:outer zone
991:Combustion
969:Combustion
967:See also:
777:is added.
700:refining.
682:spermaceti
636:Components
597:A type of
589:Other uses
545:See also:
481:Manchester
444:Modern era
426:spermaceti
245:Babylonian
241:Bronze Age
4072:Reflected
4052:Light art
3964:Spotlight
3949:Footlight
3934:Cinematic
3902:Lava lamp
3664:in the US
3569:Reflector
3486:Xenon arc
3467:Neon lamp
3396:Rushlight
3376:Limelight
3125:Hong Kong
2953:. Brill.
2524:CiteSeerX
2237:121714669
2229:0029-5639
1965:Baur 1996
1925:Baur 1996
1873:Baur 1996
1861:Baur 1996
1790:Baur 1996
1741:Baur 1996
1576:Rushlight
1352:tea light
1310:girandole
1151:remains.
1099:tealights
1068:Pyrolysis
1064:dark zone
1057:blue zone
1005:vaporizes
829:chemicals
809:vaporizes
698:petroleum
583:lockdowns
559:monastery
434:colza oil
415:bathhouse
337:rushlight
322:Candlemas
303:Jerusalem
237:Neolithic
229:oil lamps
172:and from
155:Etymology
128:vaporizes
74:fragrance
4089:Category
3784:Headlamp
3724:Headlamp
3712:Tactical
3690:Portable
3671:Torchère
3352:Petromax
3347:Kerosene
3317:Campfire
3287:LED lamp
3083:Concepts
3076:Lighting
3021:Archived
2929:Archived
2717:cite web
2574:April 8,
1990:Beg 1997
1825:Art News
1665:"Candle"
1648:Archived
1561:Eulachon
1539:See also
1227:New York
1025:snuffers
922:, for a
813:combusts
737:bayberry
733:carnauba
527:kerosene
496:Bathgate
477:pewterer
438:rapeseed
262:tomb at
260:Etruscan
215:Etruscan
145:snuffers
121:chandler
113:lanterns
4095:Candles
4067:Sources
4021:Tanning
3907:Marquee
3852:Display
3736:Lantern
3729:outdoor
3681:Troffer
3524:ceramic
3381:Luchina
3359:Lantern
3252:compact
3250: (
3186:Halogen
3181:Regular
3005:of the
2997:Candles
2938:13 June
2209:Bibcode
1910:138–139
1428:Gallery
1363:bobèche
1356:votives
1217:only),
1123:Hazards
1109:One of
1001:lighter
947:candela
932:candela
773:-based
771:aniline
759:melting
721:polymer
709:beeswax
690:stearin
678:beeswax
470:stearin
419:porters
411:barbers
407:Isfahan
403:Safavid
396:dirhams
386:caliph
384:Umayyad
368:Fatimid
364:Abbasid
357:Dresden
345:Beeswax
264:Orvieto
223:550 B.C
200:History
193:candēre
190:, from
187:candēla
178:candele
168:, from
117:sconces
93:beeswax
3789:hidden
3654:Sconce
3479:Sulfur
3474:Plasma
3406:Tilley
3401:Safety
3364:Fanous
3327:Carcel
3322:Candle
3312:Argand
3191:Nernst
3120:Hawaii
2957:
2921:
2897:
2526:
2374:
2343:
2318:24 May
2235:
2227:
2178:
2151:
2124:
2097:
2012:
1591:Trudon
1196:safety
1075:middle
1009:oxygen
949:. The
920:lumens
674:tallow
505:tallow
341:tallow
280:tallow
276:Romans
249:Minoan
165:candel
132:oxygen
66:tallow
54:candle
4047:Laser
3959:Scoop
3586:(PAR)
3539:(HQI)
3531:(HMI)
3505:(HID)
3411:Torch
3369:Paper
3337:Flare
3105:Glare
2973:(PDF)
2932:(PDF)
2915:(PDF)
2698:(PDF)
2652:(PDF)
2629:(PDF)
2512:(PDF)
2233:S2CID
1219:CONEG
1204:REACH
1165:alloy
1013:flame
997:match
906:Light
739:, or
531:lamps
479:from
372:Tunis
272:oakum
268:taper
183:Latin
136:flame
103:, or
70:light
3954:Gobo
3462:Neon
3332:Diya
3007:U.S.
2955:ISBN
2940:2022
2919:ISBN
2895:ISBN
2723:link
2576:2015
2562:and
2494:2021
2433:2014
2408:2014
2372:ISBN
2341:ISBN
2320:2021
2294:2021
2267:2021
2225:ISSN
2176:ISBN
2149:ISBN
2122:ISBN
2095:ISBN
2010:ISBN
1225:and
1161:zinc
1156:lead
1136:soot
1091:veil
1029:fire
980:soot
941:The
835:and
811:and
805:fuel
781:Wick
723:and
606:time
529:and
464:and
436:and
366:and
149:fire
115:and
82:time
78:heat
58:wick
3391:Oil
3342:Gas
2641:doi
2595:hdl
2560:PBS
2534:doi
2452:doi
2313:WWD
2217:doi
2205:139
1849:141
1778:140
1726:134
1705:126
1689:127
1267:by
1089:or
1077:or
999:or
873:by
775:dye
769:or
743:).
717:gel
715:),
641:Wax
541:Use
498:in
301:in
62:wax
4091::
2975:.
2927:.
2861:.
2850:^
2833:.
2822:^
2805:.
2794:^
2778:.
2753:.
2719:}}
2715:{{
2637:33
2635:.
2631:.
2593:.
2558:.
2554:.
2532:.
2520:15
2518:.
2514:.
2485:.
2441:^
2424:.
2394:.
2311:.
2284:.
2257:.
2245:^
2231:.
2223:.
2215:.
2203:.
2199:.
2072:.
2024:^
1972:^
1957:^
1917:^
1898:^
1888:.
1823:.
1805:.
1766:^
1756:.
1733:^
1712:^
1637:^
1529:A
1453:A
1424:.
1361:A
951:SI
839:.
765:,
735:,
707:,
657:64
653:31
632:.
616:.
511:.
421:.
413:,
221:c.
151:.
123:.
111:,
107:,
52:A
3254:)
3068:e
3061:t
3054:v
2963:.
2942:.
2903:.
2872:.
2844:.
2816:.
2788:.
2764:.
2727:.
2725:)
2711:.
2682:.
2661:.
2643::
2601:.
2597::
2578:.
2540:.
2536::
2496:.
2471:.
2454::
2435:.
2410:.
2380:.
2322:.
2296:.
2269:.
2239:.
2219::
2211::
2184:.
2157:.
2130:.
2103:.
2076:.
2058:.
2018:.
1951:.
1912:.
1892:.
1851:.
1834:.
1809:.
1780:.
1728:.
1707:.
1691:.
1674:.
1654:.
1631:.
1290:)
1284:(
1279:)
1275:(
1261:.
1221:(
1213:(
896:)
890:(
885:)
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867:.
655:H
651:C
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23:.
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