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48:
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1369:. Wall sconces are available for tea light and votive candles. For pillar-type candles, the assortment of candle holders is broad. A fireproof plate, such as a glass plate or small mirror, can be a candle holder for a pillar-style candle. A pedestal of any kind, with the appropriate-sized fireproof top, is another option. A large glass bowl with a large flat bottom and tall mostly vertical curved sides is called a hurricane. The pillar-style candle is placed at the bottom center of the hurricane. A hurricane on a pedestal is sometimes sold as a unit.
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efficient production of candles with mould was only achieved in the 19th century. Wax and tallow candles were made in monasteries in the medieval period, and in rural households, tallow candles may be made at home. By the 13th century, candle making had become a guild craft in
England and France, with a French guild documented as early as 1061. The candle makers (chandlers) went from house to house making candles from the kitchen fats saved for that purpose, or made and sold their own candles from small candle shops.
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alternative to prevent these volatile organic compounds from being released into the environment. Candle companies such as "The Plant
Project" have created candles that are more environmentally sustainable and better for lung health. These alternatives include non-toxic wax blends, safe fragrances and eco-friendly packaging. Safer candles include candles made from coconut, soy, vegetable, and beeswax.
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494:, England, patented a machine that revolutionised candle making. It allowed for continuous production of molded candles by using a cylinder with a moveable piston to eject candles as they solidified. This more efficient mechanized production produced about 1,500 candles per hour. This allowed candles to be an affordable commodity for the masses.
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These are glass or metal tubes with an internal stricture partway along, which sit around the top of a lit candle. As the candle burns, the wax melts and the follower holds the melted wax in, whilst the stricture rests on the topmost solid portion of wax. Candle followers are often deliberately heavy
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Many candle holders use a friction-tight socket to keep the candle upright. In this case, a candle that is slightly too wide will not fit in the holder, and a candle that is slightly too narrow will wobble. Candles that are too big can be trimmed to fit with a knife; candles that are too small can be
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core was used in the wicks to keep them upright in container candles. Without a stiff core, the wicks of a container candle could sag and drown in the deep wax pool. Concerns rose that the lead in these wicks would vaporize during the burning process, releasing lead vapors – a known health and
470:
A number of improvements were made to candle in the 19th century. In older candles, the wick of a burning candle was not in direct contact with air, so it charred instead of being burnt. The charred wick inhibited further burning and produced black smoke, so the wick needed to be constantly trimmed
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Glass candle-holders are sometimes cracked by thermal shock from the candle flame, particularly when the candle burns down to the end. When burning candles in glass holders or jars, users should avoid lighting candles with chipped or cracked containers, and stop use once a half-inch or less of wax
993:
particles. The soot is formed through a series of complex chemical reactions, leading from the fuel molecule through molecular growth, until multi-carbon ring compounds are formed. The thermal structure of a flame is complex, hundreds of degrees over very short distances leading to extremely steep
1407:
Candle snuffers are instruments used to extinguish burning candles by smothering the flame with a small metal cup that is suspended from a long handle, and thus depriving it of oxygen. An older meaning refers to a scissor-like tool used to trim the wick of a candle. With skill, this could be done
1376:
is a drip-catching ring, which may also be affixed to a candle holder, or used independently of one. Bobèches can range from ornate metal or glass to simple plastic, cardboard, or wax paper. Use of paper or plastic bobèches is common at events where candles are distributed to a crowd or audience,
471:
or "snuffed". In 1825, a French man M. Cambacérès introduced the plaited wick soaked with mineral salts, which when burnt, curled towards the outer edge of the flame and become incinerated by it, thereby trimming itself. These are referred to as "self-trimming" or "self-consuming" wicks. In 1823,
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The candles were produced using a number of methods: dipping the wick in molten fat or wax, rolling the candle by hand around a wick, or pouring fat or wax onto a wick to build up the candle. In the 14th century Sieur de Brez introduced the technique of using a mould, but real improvement for the
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into the environment, which releases carbon into the air. The combustion process of lighting a candle includes the release of light, heat, carbon dioxide and water vapor, to fuel the flame. Candle use can be unsafe if fragrances are inhaled at high doses Non-toxic candles have been created as an
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instead of blowing on the flame. A candle snuffer is usually a small metal cup on the end of a long handle. Placing the snuffer over the flame cuts off the oxygen supply. Snuffers were common in the home when candles were the main source of lighting before electric lights were available. Ornate
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As the fuel (wax) is melted and burned, the candle becomes shorter. The end of the plaited wick bends and get consumed in the flame. The incineration of the wick limits the length of the exposed portion of the wick, thus maintaining a constant burning temperature and rate of fuel consumption.
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is yellow/white and is located above the dark zone. It is the brightest zone, but not the hottest. It is an oxygen-depleted zone with insufficient oxygen to burn all of the wax vapor rising from below it, resulting in only partial combustion. The zone also contains unburnt carbon particles.
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was widely used in church ceremonies, and compared to animal-based tallow, it burns cleanly without smoky flame, and does not release an unpleasant smell like tallow. Beeswax candles were expensive, and relatively few people could afford to burn them in their homes in medieval Europe.
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The hottest part of a candle flame is just above the very dull blue part to one side of the flame, at the base. At this point, the flame is about 1,400 °C (2,550 °F). However, this part of the flame is very small and releases little heat energy. The blue color is due to
1348:
970:, which represented the luminous intensity emitted by a candle made to particular specifications (a "standard candle"). The modern unit is defined in a more precise and repeatable way, but was chosen such that a candle's luminous intensity is still about one candela.
106:, but these candles were expensive and their use was limited to the elite and the churches. Tallow was a cheaper but a less aesthetically pleasing alternative. A variety of different materials have been developed in the modern era for making candles, including
578:, candles and oil lamps were commonly used for illumination. In areas without electricity, they are still used routinely. Until the 20th century, candles were more common in northern Europe. In southern Europe and the Mediterranean, oil lamps predominated.
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Pre-19th century wicks required regular trimming with scissors (or a specialized wick trimmer), usually to about one-quarter inch (~0.7 cm), to promote steady burning and to prevent it from releasing black smoke. Special candle scissors called "
2920:
1038:" were produced for this purpose in the 20th century and were often combined with an extinguisher. In modern candles, the wick is made in such a way that it curves over as it burns, which ensures that the end of the wick gets incinerated by
1026:. This flame provides sufficient heat to keep the candle burning via a self-sustaining chain of events: the heat of the flame melts the top of the mass of solid fuel; the liquefied fuel then moves upward through the wick via
1070:, which surrounds the base of the flame. Here the supply of oxygen is plentiful, and the fuel burns clean and blue. It is heat from this zone which causes the wax to melt. Temperatures are around 800 °C (1,470 °F).
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Zone I – this is the non-luminous, lowest, and coolest part of the candle flame. It is located around the base of the wick where there is insufficient oxygen for fuel to burn. Temperatures are around 600 °C
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and developed a commercially viable method of production. Paraffin could be used to make inexpensive candles of high quality. It was a bluish-white wax, which burned cleanly and left no unpleasant odor, unlike
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The liquid wax is hot and can cause skin burns, but the amount and temperature are generally rather limited and the burns are seldom serious. The best way to avoid getting burned from splashed wax is to use a
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to be continually burnt, thereby maintaining a constant flame. The candle shortens as the solid fuel is consumed, so does the wick. Wicks of pre-19th century candles required regular trimming with scissors or
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Based on measurements of a taper-type, paraffin wax candle, a modern candle typically burns at a steady rate of about 0.1 g/min, releasing heat at roughly 80 W. The light produced is about 13
837:
determines the rate at which the melted hydrocarbon is conveyed to the flame. If the capillarity is too great, the molten wax streams down the side of the candle. Wicks are often infused with a variety of
1498:
158:" to promote steady burning and prevent smoking. In modern candles, the wick is constructed so that it curves over as it burns, and the end of the wick gets trimmed by itself through incineration by
385:. As in Europe, these candles were expensive and limited to the elite, and most commoners used oil lamps instead. According to legend, the practice of using lamps and candles in mosque started with
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In the developed world today, candles are used mainly for their aesthetic value and scent, particularly to set a soft, warm, or romantic ambiance, for emergency lighting during electrical
99:
has largely made candle use nonessential for illumination, candles are still commonly used for functional, symbolic and aesthetic purposes and in specific cultural and religious settings.
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surrounds Zone IV. Here, the flame is at its hottest, at around 1,400 °C (2,550 °F), and complete combustion occurs. It is light blue in color, though most of it is invisible.
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By the 18th century, candle clocks were being made with weights set into the sides of the candle. As the candle melted, the weights fell off and made a noise as they fell into a bowl.
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the solid fuel by the controlled application of heat. The liquid is then poured into a mould, or a wick is repeatedly immersed in the liquid to create a dipped tapered candle. Often
412:
In early modern Syria, candles were in high demand by all socioeconomic classes because they were customarily lit during marriage ceremonies. There were candle makers' guilds in the
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has combined the modern candle with existing holders, which makes the ill-fitting candle more common. This friction-tight socket is only needed for the federals and the tapers. For
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95:. Candles have been used for over two millennia around the world, and were a significant form of indoor lighting until the invention of other types of light sources. Although
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Caliphates, beeswax was the dominant material used for candle making. Beeswax was often imported from long distances; for example, candle makers from Egypt used beeswax from
346:
In medieval Europe, candles were initially used primarily in
Christian churches. Its use spread later to the households of the wealthy as a luxury item. In northern Europe,
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period have been found. Because candle making requires a reliable supply of animal or vegetable fats, it is certain that candles could not have developed before the early
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In the days leading to
Christmas, some people burn a candle a set amount to represent each day, as marked on the candle. The type of candle used in this way is called the
366:
By the 16th century, beeswax candles were appearing as luxury household items among the wealthy. Candles were widely used in the 17th and 18th centuries, and a party in
137:
The combustion of the candle proceeds in self-sustaining manner. As the wick of candle is lit, the heat melts and ignites a small amount of solid fuel (the wax), which
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Prior to the invention of candles, ancient people used open fire, torches, splinters of resinous wood, and lamps to provide artificial illumination at night. Primitive
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and other plant fibre soaked in fat, pitch or oil and burned in lamps or pots. Candles of antiquity were made from various forms of natural fat, tallow, and wax, and
529:, based in London, was the largest candle manufacturer in the world. Founded by William Wilson in 1830, the company pioneered the implementation of the technique of
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and beeswax. Beeswax candles were expensive and their use was limited to the wealthy, instead oil lamps were the more commonly used lighting devices in Roman times.
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1142:, candles are a leading source of residential fires in the United States with almost 10% of civilian injuries and 6% of fatalities from fire attributed to candles.
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or weighted to ensure they move down as the candle burns lower, maintaining a seal and preventing wax escape. The purpose of a candle follower is threefold:
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266:. The "candles" used in these early periods would not have resembled the current forms; more likely they were made of plant materials dipped in animal fat.
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to modify their burning characteristics. For example, it is usually desirable that the wick not glow after the flame is extinguished. Typical agents are
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110:, which together with efficient production techniques, made candles affordable for the masses. Various devices can be used to hold candles, such as
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A candle flame is formed because wax vaporizes on burning. A candle flame is widely recognized as having between three and five regions or "zones":
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used torches and oil lamps, and likely adopted candle use in a later period from Rome. Early record in China suggests that candle was used in the
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533:, and was thus able to manufacture candles from a wide range of raw materials, including skin fat, bone fat, fish oil and industrial greases.
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As a decoration, either due to the ornate nature of the device, or (in the case of a glass follower) through light dispersion or colouration.
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fitted with aluminium foil. Traditionally, the candle and candle holders were made in the same place, so they were appropriately sized, but
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Despite advances in candle making, the candle industry declined rapidly upon the introduction of superior methods of lighting, including
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A candle wick is a piece of string or cord that holds the flame of a candle. Commercial wicks are made from braided cotton. The wick's
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candles, there is a variety of candle holders, including small glass holders and elaborate multi-candle stands. The same is true for
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without extinguishing the flame. The instrument now known as a candle snuffer was formerly called an "extinguisher" or "douter".
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703:(initially manufactured from animal fats but now produced almost exclusively from palm waxes). Today, most candles are made from
443:, was used to produce a superior candle that burned longer, brighter and gave off no offensive smell. Later in the 18th century,
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decreed that tallow be excluded for use in altar candles, and a high beeswax content is necessary for candles of the high altar.
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where the wick is very thin and the flame is very small. Candles whose main purpose is illumination use a much thicker wick.
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United States: ASTM F2058, ASTM F2179, ASTM F2417, ASTM F2601, ASTM F2326 (all are federal and applies in all 50 states),
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2461:
Franz Willhöft and
Fredrick Horn "Candles" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2000, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.
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snuffers, often combined with a taper for lighting, are still found in those churches which regularly use large candles.
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during the 1500s and 1600s. However, candle makers had a relatively low social position in
Safavid Iran, comparable to
254:; however, it is unclear when and where candles were first used. Objects that could be candlesticks have been found in
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826:. The candle wick influences how the candle burns. Important characteristics of the wick include diameter, stiffness,
761:. The kind of wax also affects the burn rate, with beeswax and coconut wax burning longer than paraffin or soy wax.
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The manufacture of candles became an industrialized mass market in the mid 19th century. In 1834, Joseph Morgan, a
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1178:, which has become the industry standard. Wicks made from specially treated paper and cotton are also available.
619:. The candle designed for this purpose might have time measurements, usually in hours, marked along the wax. The
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of about 0.16 lumens per watt (luminous efficacy of a source) – almost a hundred times lower than an
557:
320:
304:
277:, and the earliest excavated Etruscan candlestick dates from the 7th century BC. Candles may have evolved from
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developmental hazard. Lead core wicks have not been common since the 1970s. Today, most metal-cored wicks use
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To contain the melted wax, making the candle more efficient, avoiding mess, and producing a more even burn.
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candles were used during the Middle Ages, with a mention of tallow candles in
English appearing in 1154.
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1130:, where he gives an in-depth analysis of the evolutionary development, workings and science of candles.
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in animal fats, and obtained a patent in 1825 to produce candles that are harder and can burn brighter.
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225:
184:
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Beg, M.A.J. (1997). "SHAMMÄ€'". In
Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P.; Lecomte, G. (eds.).
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The main determinant of the height of a candle flame is the diameter of the wick. This is evidenced in
615:
With the fairly consistent and measurable burning of a candle, a common use of candles was to tell the
2478:
Camp, William R.; Vollenweider, Jeffrey L.; Schutz, Wendy J. (12 October 1999). "Scented candle gel".
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temperature gradients. On average, the flame temperature is about 1,000 °C (1,800 °F). The
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China: QB/T 2119 Basic Candle, QB/T 2902 Art Candle, QB/T 2903 Jar Candle, GB/T 22256 Jelly Candle
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In the 21st century, there has been a huge spike in sales of scented candles in recent years. The
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Early evidence of candle use may be found in Italy, where depiction of a candlestick exists in an
149:. The flame then melts the top of the mass of solid fuel, which moves upward through the wick via
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Laws of Men and Laws of Nature: The
History of Scientific Expert Testimony in England and America
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Allen R. White (2013). "FTIR Study of
Combustion Species In Several Regions of a Candle Flame".
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2814:"You Need To Follow These Expert Tips To Make Sure You're Using Your Scented Candles Safely"
2751:, Laminar Smoke Points of Wax Candles, Combustion Science and Technology 181 (2009) 800–811.
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2266:"The cult of 'smellness': what's behind the extraordinary rise in sales of scented candles?"
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Sunderland, P.B.; Quintiere, J.G.; Tabaka, G.A.; Lian, D.; Chiu, C.-W. (6 October 2010).
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led to a dramatic increase in the sales of scented candles, diffusers and room sprays.
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is sometimes now used to describe a hanging fixture designed to hold multiple tapers.
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had become the largest candle manufacturer in the world by the end of the 19th century
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is from the word for candle, but now usually refers to an electric fixture. The word
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The size of the flame and corresponding rate of burning is controlled largely by the
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is a typical component of paraffin wax, from which most modern candles are produced.
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before 200 BC. These early Chinese candles may have been made from whale fat.
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was known to have used candles in the court in Damascus, while the Abbasid caliph
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candles. By the end of the 19th century, candles were made from paraffin wax and
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548:. From this point on, candles came to be marketed as more of a decorative item.
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In Christianity, candles gained significance in their decorative, symbolic and
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699:, which in turn spurred demand for the substance. Candles were also made from
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Decorative candleholders, especially those shaped as a pedestal, are called
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332:
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639:, although this term is also used to refer to a candle that are used in an
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2625:. "Science: Textbook for Class VIII". Publication Department, 2010, p. 72.
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1030:; the liquefied fuel finally vaporizes to burn within the candle's flame.
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a small amount of fuel (the wax). Once vaporized, the fuel combines with
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Users who seek the aesthetics of a candle sometimes install an electric
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1282: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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989:, while the visible yellow color is due to radiative emission from hot
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888: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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takes place here. Temperature is around 1,000 °C (1,830 °F).
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in which a lit wick rested in a pool of oil or fat were used from the
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such as Christmas carolers or people at other concerts or festivals.
1206:
1149:. Proper wick trimming will reduce soot emissions from most candles.
1145:
A candle flame that is longer than its laminar smoke point will emit
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made of greased rushes were commonly used especially in England, but
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2842:"10 Eco-Friendly Sustainable Candles For A Clean Burn - The Eco Hub"
2762:"10 Eco-Friendly Sustainable Candles For A Clean Burn - The Eco Hub"
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2206:
Sekimoto, Hiroshi; Ryu, Kouichi; Yoshimura, Yoshikane (2001-11-01).
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Hamins, Anthony; Bundy, Matthew; Dillon, Scott E. (November 2005).
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For a candle to burn, a heat source (commonly a naked flame from a
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2494:"Candle Wax Guide: Comparing Soy, Paraffin, Coconut, and Beeswax"
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Time in History: Views of Time from Prehistory to the Present Day
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in Spain and Italy in the fourth century, the Christian festival
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2293:"UK sales of scented candles soar as Covid restrictions tighten"
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International markets have developed a range of standards and
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739:
727:
72:
3040:
964:
unit, candela, was in fact based on an older unit called the
1832:"The Best Candle Pouring Pots for Learning an Ancient Craft"
1077:
is a region directly above the wick containing unburnt wax.
818:
up to the flame. When the liquid fuel reaches the flame, it
3055:
961:
327:
recorded at the end of the 3rd century, were documented as
3045:
3013:
1165:
A former worry regarding the safety of candles was that a
3046:
Latin American Candle Manufacturers Association (ALAFAVE)
130:. A person who makes candles is traditionally known as a
2038:
2036:
2808:
2806:
2101:
Seven Centuries of Light: The Tallow Chandlers Company
1213:
Europe: GPSD, EN 15493, EN 15494, EN 15426, EN 14059,
1205:
to ensure compliance, while maintaining and improving
1014:) is used to light the candle's wick, which melts and
945:
source emitted uniformly in all directions, the total
2623:
National Council of Educational Research and Training
1996:
1994:
1992:
1990:
1988:
1986:
1984:
1912:
1910:
1217:, RAL-GZ 041 Candles (Germany), French Decree 91-1175
370:
was said to have been lit by 14,000 candles in 1779.
1971:
1969:
1931:
1929:
1780:
1778:
1728:
1726:
1724:
1093:
Temperature is around 1,200 °C (2,190 °F).
683:
For most of recorded history candles were made from
4040:
3995:
3936:
3859:
3775:
3700:
3570:
3510:
3458:
3430:
3308:
3210:
3182:
3173:
3093:
2747:K.M. Allan, J.R. Kaminski, J.C. Bertrand, J. Head,
1747:
1745:
2901:Metal Candlesticks: History, Styles and Techniques
2259:
2257:
2637:"Analysis and measurement of candle flame shapes"
2836:
2834:
1504:A candelabra with candles in a Swedish cathedral
1431:Candle followers are often found in churches on
1022:in the atmosphere to ignite and form a constant
2403:"Using stearic acid or stearin in candlemaking"
2320:"Candles Burn Bright Amid Coronavirus Pandemic"
1331:; if multiple candle tapers are held, the term
691:. From the mid-1800s, they were also made from
451:oil came into use as much cheaper substitutes.
405:was said to have spent 1.2 million silver
75:, or another flammable solid substance such as
2864:
2862:
2016:Value: Its Measurement, Design, and Management
2013:Shillito, M. Larry; David J. De Marle (1992).
1054:Five zones of a standard domestic candle flame
339:instituted the procession of lighted candles.
3071:
2922:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol. IX (SAN-SZE)
1951:. National Candle Association. Archived from
768:. More traditional production methods entail
246:period, and pottery and stone lamps from the
8:
2131:. Harvard University Press. pp. 89–91.
1427:If necessary, to shield the flame from wind.
389:who lit a lamp he brought from Syria in the
2350:. Oxford University Press. pp. 90–91.
2104:. Book Production Consultants. p. 74.
1480:Candles used in Iran in a mourning ceremony
428:workers, fortune tellers, bricklayers, and
409:annually on candles for his royal palaces.
202:
196:
59:A small ornamental candle with a gold stand
3179:
3078:
3064:
3056:
3029:Association of European Candlemakers(AECM)
2457:
2455:
2453:
1765:"Let There be Light: A History of Candles"
27:Wick embedded in solid flammable substance
3051:Guide To Candle Safety At Home - Osmology
2870:"The Ultimate Guide To Non-Toxic Candles"
2538:
1651:
1649:
1298:Learn how and when to remove this message
956:of a typical candle is approximately one
904:Learn how and when to remove this message
2182:An Economic History of London, 1800-1914
2179:Ball, Michael; David Sunderland (2001).
814:, drawing ("wicking") the melted wax or
585:, and for religious or ritual purposes.
2644:Proceedings of the Combustion Institute
2375:Geddes, Gordon; Jane Griffiths (2002).
2299:. The Guardian News & Media Limited
2042:
1624:
1442:
1319:A type of decorative candelabra called
558:Ceremonial use of lights § Candles
2787:"Candles: What do they emit when lit?"
2732:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
2725:
2527:Journal of Fire Protection Engineering
2264:Ferrier, Morwenna (19 December 2018).
1916:
1855:
1784:
1732:
1711:
1695:
925:A room lit by the glow of many candles
687:(rendered from beef or mutton-fat) or
51:Tapers (long thin candles) in a church
7:
1975:
1935:
1883:
1871:
1800:
1751:
1280:adding citations to reliable sources
1140:National Fire Protection Association
886:adding citations to reliable sources
695:, a waxy substance derived from the
2520:"Characterization of Candle Flames"
2272:. Guardian News & Media Limited
2000:
949:would be only about 18.40 mW.
439:, a waxy substance produced by the
25:
3041:European Candle Association (ECA)
2208:"CANDLE: The New Burnup Strategy"
1452:Object in the tomb of Tutankhamun
3023:The Chemical History of a Candle
3001:
1533:
1521:
1509:
1497:
1492:Candles used in a Chinese temple
1485:
1473:
1457:
1445:
1256:
1127:The Chemical History of a Candle
862:
435:In the 18th and 19th centuries,
3595:Parabolic aluminized reflector
2945:from the original on 2022-03-25
2318:Thomas, Ellen (10 April 2020).
2212:Nuclear Science and Engineering
2185:. Routledge. pp. 131–132.
1678:. The Free Dictionary By Farlex
1656:European Candle Association FAQ
1635:. The Free Dictionary By Farlex
1335:is also used. The root form of
1267:needs additional citations for
998:is approximately 1,000 K.
873:needs additional citations for
373:In the Middle East, during the
3540:Hydrargyrum medium-arc iodide
2928:. Leiden: Brill. p. 288.
2791:Office for Science and Society
2684:"Internet History Sourcebooks"
2480:United States Patent 5,964,905
2291:Wood, Zoe (10 November 2020).
714:Candles can also be made from
544:and the 1879 invention of the
289:made true dipped candles from
1:
2961:Studies in Ancient Technology
2958:Forbes, Robert James (1966).
1528:A decorative candle in Mexico
1352:A candle holder, 19th century
679:Unlit twisted beeswax candles
323:in churches. Wax candles, or
231:
102:Early candles may be made of
2563:"On Fire – Background Essay"
2155:London's Industrial Heritage
2056:"A Brief History of Candles"
505:from coal and oil shales at
310:Church of the Holy Sepulchre
87:. A candle can also provide
3785:Automotive light bulb types
3635:Intelligent street lighting
3014:National Candle Association
2656:10.1016/j.proci.2010.06.095
2575:WGBH Educational Foundation
1901:national candle association
1042:, thereby trimming itself.
764:Production methods utilize
170:The word candle comes from
4124:
3548:Hydrargyrum quartz iodide
2019:. Wiley-IEEE. p. 33.
1392:
1183:volatile organic compounds
1096:Zone V – The non-luminous
977:
795:
555:
525:By the late 19th century,
214:
43:A candle in a candle stick
29:
3987:Stage lighting instrument
2979:LeFever, Gregory (2007).
2381:. Heinemann. p. 89.
2098:Phillips, Gordon (1999).
1814:"Candles, Roman, 500 BCE"
1222:California Proposition 65
1124:'s significant works was
623:in China (960–1279) used
262:cultures, as well in the
4048:Battlefield illumination
3805:high-intensity discharge
3237:Electrochemiluminescence
2549:10.1177/1042391505053163
2467:10.1002/14356007.a05_029
2433:"Stearic acid (stearin)"
574:Before the invention of
501:succeeded in distilling
335:was named after it, and
217:History of candle making
3908:Electroluminescent wire
2904:. Schiffer Publishing.
2898:Baur, Veronika (1996).
2703:John Hall, NFPA 2009,
2344:Whitrow, G. J. (1989).
2152:Geoff Marshall (2013).
2081:"Joseph Morgan and Son"
939:incandescent light bulb
810:A candle wick works by
566:Candle lighting in the
546:incandescent light bulb
477:Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
188:
175:
91:or a method of keeping
83:, and in some cases, a
32:Candle (disambiguation)
3590:Multifaceted reflector
1404:
1385:
1353:
1324:
1193:to avoid the hazards.
1066:Zone II – this is the
1055:
926:
807:
806:Candle with unlit wick
680:
672:
612:
571:
473:Michel Eugène Chevreul
467:
316:
235:
203:
197:
60:
52:
44:
3980:ellipsoidal reflector
3585:Ellipsoidal reflector
3269:Fluorescent induction
3247:field-induced polymer
2981:"Early Candle Making"
2602:Ohio State University
2437:howtomakecandles.info
2158:. The History Press.
1403:A candle extinguisher
1402:
1383:
1351:
1318:
1053:
924:
805:
678:
659:
607:
565:
462:
307:
224:
145:in the air to form a
58:
50:
42:
3817:Rear position lights
3790:Daytime running lamp
3718:Mechanically powered
3605:Aviation obstruction
3010:at Wikimedia Commons
1949:"History of candles"
1874:, p. 8–9.
1818:Smith College Museum
1276:improve this article
882:improve this article
716:microcrystalline wax
308:Candles used in the
30:For other uses, see
3225:Electron-stimulated
2988:Early American Life
2749:Peter B. Sunderland
2224:2001NSE...139..306S
2125:Golan, Tal (2004).
1897:"history of candle"
1359:international trade
1323:, late 17th century
264:tomb of Tutankhamun
4068:Luminous gemstones
3242:Electroluminescent
3220:Cathodoluminescent
3034:2011-07-04 at the
3025:by Michael Faraday
1771:. 3 December 2021.
1661:2012-01-13 at the
1405:
1386:
1354:
1325:
1056:
954:luminous intensity
927:
808:
766:extrusion moulding
681:
673:
613:
572:
531:steam distillation
497:In the mid-1850s,
468:
317:
236:
141:and combines with
61:
53:
45:
4093:
4092:
3610:Balanced-arm lamp
3566:
3565:
3450:Yablochkov candle
3318:Acetylene/Carbide
3288:Radioluminescence
3160:Luminous efficacy
3106:Color temperature
3006:Media related to
2990:. pp. 62–71.
2567:PBS LearningMedia
2498:valiantcandle.com
2388:978-0-435-30693-9
2364:on June 10, 2015.
2357:978-0-19-285211-3
2232:10.13182/NSE01-01
2111:978-1-85757-064-9
2026:978-0-471-52738-1
1838:. 6 December 2020
1308:
1307:
1300:
1138:According to the
996:color temperature
987:chemiluminescence
935:luminous efficacy
914:
913:
906:
830:, and tethering.
742:(generally palm,
707:, a byproduct of
590:COVID-19 pandemic
576:electric lighting
16:(Redirected from
4113:
3893:Christmas lights
3827:Safety reflector
3822:Reversing lights
3757:Navigation light
3708:Bicycle lighting
3598:
3551:
3543:
3517:
3276:Photoluminescent
3259:Fluorescent lamp
3232:Chemiluminescent
3180:
3148:Bi-pin lamp base
3143:Lightbulb socket
3080:
3073:
3066:
3057:
3005:
2991:
2985:
2975:
2954:
2952:
2950:
2944:
2927:
2915:
2885:
2884:
2882:
2881:
2866:
2857:
2856:
2854:
2853:
2838:
2829:
2828:
2826:
2825:
2810:
2801:
2800:
2798:
2797:
2783:
2777:
2776:
2774:
2773:
2758:
2752:
2745:
2739:
2737:
2731:
2723:
2721:
2720:
2711:. Archived from
2710:
2701:
2695:
2694:
2692:
2691:
2680:
2674:
2673:
2671:
2670:
2664:
2658:. Archived from
2650:(2): 2489–2496.
2641:
2632:
2626:
2620:
2614:
2613:
2597:
2591:
2590:
2588:
2586:
2581:on April 3, 2015
2577:. Archived from
2559:
2553:
2552:
2542:
2524:
2515:
2509:
2508:
2506:
2504:
2490:
2484:
2483:
2475:
2469:
2459:
2448:
2447:
2445:
2443:
2429:
2423:
2422:
2420:
2418:
2409:. Archived from
2399:
2393:
2392:
2372:
2366:
2365:
2360:. Archived from
2341:
2335:
2334:
2332:
2330:
2315:
2309:
2308:
2306:
2304:
2288:
2282:
2281:
2279:
2277:
2261:
2252:
2251:
2203:
2197:
2196:
2176:
2170:
2169:
2149:
2143:
2142:
2122:
2116:
2115:
2095:
2089:
2088:
2077:
2071:
2070:
2068:
2067:
2058:. Archived from
2052:
2046:
2040:
2031:
2030:
2010:
2004:
1998:
1979:
1973:
1964:
1963:
1961:
1960:
1945:
1939:
1933:
1924:
1914:
1905:
1904:
1893:
1887:
1881:
1875:
1869:
1863:
1853:
1847:
1846:
1844:
1843:
1828:
1822:
1821:
1810:
1804:
1798:
1792:
1782:
1773:
1772:
1761:
1755:
1749:
1740:
1730:
1719:
1709:
1703:
1693:
1687:
1686:
1684:
1683:
1672:
1666:
1653:
1644:
1643:
1641:
1640:
1629:
1537:
1525:
1516:Handmade candles
1513:
1501:
1489:
1477:
1461:
1449:
1412:Candle followers
1303:
1296:
1292:
1289:
1283:
1260:
1252:
1191:flameless candle
1116:History of study
1063:(1,112 °F).
1028:capillary action
909:
902:
898:
895:
889:
866:
858:
848:ammonium sulfate
844:ammonium nitrate
812:capillary action
724:honey collection
722:(a byproduct of
660:The hydrocarbon
592:and the ensuing
391:Prophet's Mosque
233:
206:
200:
191:
178:
151:capillary action
79:, that provides
67:is an ignitable
21:
4123:
4122:
4116:
4115:
4114:
4112:
4111:
4110:
4096:
4095:
4094:
4089:
4053:Bioluminescence
4036:
4005:
3991:
3948:
3932:
3871:
3855:
3771:
3696:
3620:Emergency light
3596:
3562:
3549:
3541:
3515:
3513:
3506:
3454:
3426:
3397:Magnesium torch
3304:
3206:
3175:
3169:
3126:Light pollution
3101:Accent lighting
3089:
3084:
3036:Wayback Machine
2998:
2983:
2978:
2972:
2957:
2948:
2946:
2942:
2936:
2925:
2918:
2912:
2897:
2894:
2889:
2888:
2879:
2877:
2868:
2867:
2860:
2851:
2849:
2840:
2839:
2832:
2823:
2821:
2812:
2811:
2804:
2795:
2793:
2785:
2784:
2780:
2771:
2769:
2760:
2759:
2755:
2746:
2742:
2724:
2718:
2716:
2708:
2706:"Archived copy"
2704:
2702:
2698:
2689:
2687:
2682:
2681:
2677:
2668:
2666:
2665:on 4 March 2016
2662:
2639:
2634:
2633:
2629:
2621:
2617:
2599:
2598:
2594:
2584:
2582:
2561:
2560:
2556:
2540:10.1.1.548.3798
2522:
2517:
2516:
2512:
2502:
2500:
2492:
2491:
2487:
2477:
2476:
2472:
2460:
2451:
2441:
2439:
2431:
2430:
2426:
2416:
2414:
2413:on 4 March 2016
2401:
2400:
2396:
2389:
2374:
2373:
2369:
2358:
2343:
2342:
2338:
2328:
2326:
2317:
2316:
2312:
2302:
2300:
2290:
2289:
2285:
2275:
2273:
2263:
2262:
2255:
2205:
2204:
2200:
2193:
2178:
2177:
2173:
2166:
2151:
2150:
2146:
2139:
2124:
2123:
2119:
2112:
2097:
2096:
2092:
2079:
2078:
2074:
2065:
2063:
2054:
2053:
2049:
2041:
2034:
2027:
2012:
2011:
2007:
1999:
1982:
1974:
1967:
1958:
1956:
1955:on May 17, 2012
1947:
1946:
1942:
1934:
1927:
1915:
1908:
1895:
1894:
1890:
1886:, pp. 7–8.
1882:
1878:
1870:
1866:
1854:
1850:
1841:
1839:
1830:
1829:
1825:
1812:
1811:
1807:
1799:
1795:
1783:
1776:
1769:Hellenic Museum
1763:
1762:
1758:
1750:
1743:
1731:
1722:
1710:
1706:
1694:
1690:
1681:
1679:
1674:
1673:
1669:
1663:Wayback Machine
1654:
1647:
1638:
1636:
1631:
1630:
1626:
1621:
1616:
1612:Yahrzeit candle
1552:
1545:
1542:memorial candle
1538:
1529:
1526:
1517:
1514:
1505:
1502:
1493:
1490:
1481:
1478:
1469:
1462:
1453:
1450:
1441:
1414:
1397:
1391:
1389:Candle snuffers
1313:
1304:
1293:
1287:
1284:
1273:
1261:
1250:
1199:
1136:
1122:Michael Faraday
1118:
1073:Zone III – the
1048:
1004:
982:
976:
919:
910:
899:
893:
890:
879:
867:
856:
854:Characteristics
828:fire resistance
800:
794:
669:
665:
654:
649:
602:
560:
554:
527:Price's Candles
464:Price's Candles
457:
393:in Medina. The
321:ceremonial uses
219:
213:
168:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4121:
4120:
4117:
4109:
4108:
4098:
4097:
4091:
4090:
4088:
4087:
4086:
4085:
4075:
4070:
4065:
4060:
4055:
4050:
4044:
4042:
4041:Related topics
4038:
4037:
4035:
4034:
4029:
4024:
4019:
4014:
4008:
4006:
4004:
4003:
4000:
3996:
3993:
3992:
3990:
3989:
3984:
3983:
3982:
3972:
3967:
3962:
3957:
3951:
3949:
3947:
3946:
3943:
3937:
3934:
3933:
3931:
3930:
3925:
3920:
3915:
3910:
3905:
3900:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3874:
3872:
3870:
3869:
3864:
3860:
3857:
3856:
3854:
3853:
3852:
3851:
3841:
3836:
3835:
3834:
3832:retroreflector
3824:
3819:
3814:
3813:
3812:
3807:
3802:
3792:
3787:
3781:
3779:
3773:
3772:
3770:
3769:
3764:
3759:
3754:
3749:
3744:
3743:
3742:
3732:
3727:
3726:
3725:
3720:
3710:
3704:
3702:
3698:
3697:
3695:
3694:
3689:
3687:Track lighting
3684:
3679:
3678:
3677:
3667:
3662:
3660:Recessed light
3657:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3630:Gooseneck lamp
3627:
3622:
3617:
3612:
3607:
3602:
3601:
3600:
3592:
3587:
3576:
3574:
3568:
3567:
3564:
3563:
3561:
3560:
3555:
3554:
3553:
3545:
3537:
3527:
3521:
3519:
3512:High-intensity
3508:
3507:
3505:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3493:
3492:
3482:
3481:
3480:
3470:
3464:
3462:
3456:
3455:
3453:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3436:
3434:
3428:
3427:
3425:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3383:
3382:
3377:
3367:
3366:
3365:
3355:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3314:
3312:
3306:
3305:
3303:
3302:
3301:
3300:
3290:
3285:
3284:
3283:
3281:Laser headlamp
3273:
3272:
3271:
3266:
3251:
3250:
3249:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3228:
3227:
3216:
3214:
3208:
3207:
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337:Pope Sergius I
329:Easter candles
295:Ancient Greece
281:with wick of
215:Main article:
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97:electric light
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2874:British Vogue
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2846:theecohub.com
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2766:theecohub.com
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2715:on 2011-07-27
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2686:. Fordham.edu
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2407:happynews.com
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2165:9780752492391
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2157:
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2118:
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2094:
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2082:
2076:
2073:
2062:on 2013-03-18
2061:
2057:
2051:
2048:
2045:, p. 65.
2044:
2039:
2037:
2033:
2028:
2022:
2018:
2017:
2009:
2006:
2002:
1997:
1995:
1993:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1972:
1970:
1966:
1954:
1950:
1944:
1941:
1937:
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1827:
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1815:
1809:
1806:
1803:, p. 18.
1802:
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1598:
1597:Trick candles
1595:
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1578:
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1573:
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1568:
1565:
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1562:Candle warmer
1560:
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1557:Candle-making
1555:
1554:
1549:
1544:(soul candle)
1543:
1536:
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1524:
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1495:
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1476:
1471:
1468:being carried
1467:
1460:
1455:
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1433:altar candles
1426:
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1270:
1265:This section
1263:
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1227:
1223:
1219:
1216:
1212:
1211:
1210:
1209:, including:
1208:
1204:
1196:
1194:
1192:
1187:
1184:
1181:Candles emit
1179:
1177:
1173:
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1163:
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1133:
1131:
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1113:
1111:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1090:luminous zone
1087:
1083:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1069:
1065:
1061:
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1059:
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1045:
1043:
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877:
876:
871:This section
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733:
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725:
721:
717:
712:
710:
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
677:
670:
658:
651:
646:
644:
642:
641:Advent wreath
638:
637:
636:Advent candle
631:
628:
626:
625:candle clocks
622:
618:
611:
606:
599:
597:
595:
591:
586:
584:
579:
577:
569:
568:Visoki DeÄŤani
564:
559:
551:
549:
547:
543:
539:
534:
532:
528:
523:
521:
517:
512:
508:
504:
500:
495:
493:
489:
484:
482:
479:separate out
478:
474:
465:
461:
454:
452:
450:
446:
442:
438:
433:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
410:
408:
404:
403:al-Mutawakkil
400:
396:
392:
388:
387:Tamim al-Dari
384:
380:
376:
371:
369:
364:
360:
357:
353:
349:
344:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
325:candela cerea
322:
315:
311:
306:
302:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
267:
265:
261:
257:
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98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
57:
49:
41:
37:
33:
19:
3928:Strobe light
3923:Plasma globe
3898:Crackle tube
3888:Bubble light
3849:trafficators
3844:Turn signals
3670:Street light
3625:Gas lighting
3558:Sodium vapor
3530:Metal-halide
3432:Electric arc
3332:
3184:Incandescent
3153:Edison screw
2987:
2960:
2947:. Retrieved
2921:
2900:
2892:Bibliography
2878:. Retrieved
2876:. 2020-05-12
2873:
2850:. Retrieved
2848:. 2021-04-08
2845:
2822:. Retrieved
2820:. 2022-09-27
2817:
2794:. Retrieved
2790:
2781:
2770:. Retrieved
2768:. 2021-04-08
2765:
2756:
2743:
2717:. Retrieved
2713:the original
2699:
2688:. Retrieved
2678:
2667:. Retrieved
2660:the original
2647:
2643:
2630:
2618:
2601:
2595:
2583:. Retrieved
2579:the original
2566:
2557:
2530:
2526:
2513:
2501:. Retrieved
2497:
2488:
2479:
2473:
2442:25 September
2440:. Retrieved
2436:
2427:
2417:25 September
2415:. Retrieved
2411:the original
2406:
2397:
2378:Christianity
2377:
2370:
2362:the original
2346:
2339:
2327:. Retrieved
2323:
2313:
2301:. Retrieved
2297:The Guardian
2296:
2286:
2274:. Retrieved
2270:The Guardian
2269:
2215:
2211:
2201:
2181:
2174:
2154:
2147:
2127:
2120:
2100:
2093:
2085:Graces Guide
2084:
2075:
2064:. Retrieved
2060:the original
2050:
2043:LeFever 2007
2015:
2008:
1978:, p. 9.
1957:. Retrieved
1953:the original
1943:
1938:, p. 8.
1900:
1891:
1879:
1867:
1851:
1840:. Retrieved
1835:
1826:
1817:
1808:
1796:
1768:
1759:
1754:, p. 7.
1707:
1691:
1680:. Retrieved
1670:
1637:. Retrieved
1627:
1607:Unity candle
1430:
1415:
1406:
1384:Wick-trimmer
1371:
1355:
1342:
1336:
1332:
1329:candlesticks
1326:
1294:
1288:January 2021
1285:
1274:Please help
1269:verification
1266:
1240:states only)
1200:
1188:
1180:
1164:
1160:
1151:
1144:
1137:
1125:
1119:
1107:
1101:
1097:
1089:
1085:
1074:
1067:
1057:
1046:Candle flame
1032:
1005:
983:
965:
951:
947:radiant flux
928:
900:
894:January 2021
891:
880:Please help
875:verification
872:
832:
809:
763:
756:
713:
705:paraffin wax
682:
634:
632:
629:
621:Song dynasty
614:
610:candle clock
587:
580:
573:
535:
524:
520:stearic acid
511:West Lothian
503:paraffin wax
496:
485:
469:
434:
411:
372:
365:
361:
345:
324:
318:
268:
237:
207:'to shine'.
192:, both from
185:Anglo-Norman
169:
136:
112:candlesticks
108:paraffin wax
101:
71:embedded in
64:
62:
36:
4073:Signal lamp
4027:Stroboscope
3903:DJ lighting
3839:Stop lights
3810:sealed beam
3762:Searchlight
3502:Xenon flash
3445:Klieg light
3293:Solid-state
3254:Fluorescent
3212:Luminescent
2503:24 February
1917:Forbes 1966
1856:Forbes 1966
1785:Forbes 1966
1733:Forbes 1966
1712:Forbes 1966
1696:Forbes 1966
1577:Julleuchter
1333:candelabrum
1248:Accessories
1234:New England
1203:regulations
974:Temperature
967:candlepower
835:capillarity
798:Candle wick
759:candle wick
752:soybean wax
740:plant waxes
738:), or some
736:mineral oil
697:Sperm whale
499:James Young
441:sperm whale
416:capital of
399:Al-Walid II
341:Papal bulls
299:Qin dynasty
258:and middle
244:Paleolithic
229:candelabrum
181:Old English
120:chandeliers
116:candelabras
4017:Grow light
4012:Germicidal
4002:Scientific
3999:Industrial
3955:Floodlight
3941:Theatrical
3883:Blacklight
3878:Aroma lamp
3867:Decorative
3777:Automotive
3767:Solar lamp
3730:Glow stick
3713:Flashlight
3645:Nightlight
3640:Light tube
3615:Chandelier
3572:Stationary
3514:discharge
3440:Carbon arc
3310:Combustion
3176:generation
3174:Methods of
2880:2022-11-13
2852:2022-11-13
2824:2022-11-13
2796:2022-11-13
2772:2022-11-07
2719:2013-01-27
2690:2012-12-25
2669:2015-02-10
2610:1811/55436
2533:(4): 277.
2303:4 February
2276:4 February
2066:2015-07-06
1959:2012-05-19
1919:, p.
1858:, p.
1842:2023-02-02
1787:, p.
1735:, p.
1714:, p.
1698:, p.
1682:2012-05-19
1639:2012-05-19
1633:"Chandler"
1619:References
1567:Candelabra
1343:chandelier
1338:chandelier
1226:California
1197:Regulation
1174:or a zinc
1098:outer zone
1002:Combustion
980:Combustion
978:See also:
788:is added.
711:refining.
693:spermaceti
647:Components
608:A type of
600:Other uses
556:See also:
492:Manchester
455:Modern era
437:spermaceti
256:Babylonian
252:Bronze Age
4083:Reflected
4063:Light art
3975:Spotlight
3960:Footlight
3945:Cinematic
3913:Lava lamp
3675:in the US
3580:Reflector
3497:Xenon arc
3478:Neon lamp
3407:Rushlight
3387:Limelight
3136:Hong Kong
2964:. Brill.
2535:CiteSeerX
2248:121714669
2240:0029-5639
1976:Baur 1996
1936:Baur 1996
1884:Baur 1996
1872:Baur 1996
1801:Baur 1996
1752:Baur 1996
1587:Rushlight
1363:tea light
1321:girandole
1162:remains.
1110:tealights
1079:Pyrolysis
1075:dark zone
1068:blue zone
1016:vaporizes
840:chemicals
820:vaporizes
709:petroleum
594:lockdowns
570:monastery
445:colza oil
426:bathhouse
348:rushlight
333:Candlemas
314:Jerusalem
248:Neolithic
240:oil lamps
183:and from
166:Etymology
139:vaporizes
85:fragrance
4100:Category
3795:Headlamp
3735:Headlamp
3723:Tactical
3701:Portable
3682:Torchère
3363:Petromax
3358:Kerosene
3328:Campfire
3298:LED lamp
3094:Concepts
3087:Lighting
3032:Archived
2940:Archived
2728:cite web
2585:April 8,
2001:Beg 1997
1836:Art News
1676:"Candle"
1659:Archived
1572:Eulachon
1550:See also
1238:New York
1036:snuffers
933:, for a
824:combusts
748:bayberry
744:carnauba
538:kerosene
507:Bathgate
488:pewterer
449:rapeseed
273:tomb at
271:Etruscan
226:Etruscan
156:snuffers
132:chandler
124:lanterns
4106:Candles
4078:Sources
4032:Tanning
3918:Marquee
3863:Display
3747:Lantern
3740:outdoor
3692:Troffer
3535:ceramic
3392:Luchina
3370:Lantern
3263:compact
3261: (
3197:Halogen
3192:Regular
3016:of the
3008:Candles
2949:13 June
2220:Bibcode
1921:138–139
1439:Gallery
1374:bobèche
1367:votives
1228:only),
1134:Hazards
1120:One of
1012:lighter
958:candela
943:candela
784:-based
782:aniline
770:melting
732:polymer
720:beeswax
701:stearin
689:beeswax
481:stearin
430:porters
422:barbers
418:Isfahan
414:Safavid
407:dirhams
397:caliph
395:Umayyad
379:Fatimid
375:Abbasid
368:Dresden
356:Beeswax
275:Orvieto
234:550 B.C
211:History
204:candēre
201:, from
198:candēla
189:candele
179:, from
128:sconces
104:beeswax
18:Candles
3800:hidden
3665:Sconce
3490:Sulfur
3485:Plasma
3417:Tilley
3412:Safety
3375:Fanous
3338:Carcel
3333:Candle
3323:Argand
3202:Nernst
3131:Hawaii
2968:
2932:
2908:
2537:
2385:
2354:
2329:24 May
2246:
2238:
2189:
2162:
2135:
2108:
2023:
1602:Trudon
1207:safety
1086:middle
1020:oxygen
960:. The
931:lumens
685:tallow
516:tallow
352:tallow
291:tallow
287:Romans
260:Minoan
176:candel
143:oxygen
77:tallow
65:candle
4058:Laser
3970:Scoop
3597:(PAR)
3550:(HQI)
3542:(HMI)
3516:(HID)
3422:Torch
3380:Paper
3348:Flare
3116:Glare
2984:(PDF)
2943:(PDF)
2926:(PDF)
2709:(PDF)
2663:(PDF)
2640:(PDF)
2523:(PDF)
2244:S2CID
1230:CONEG
1215:REACH
1176:alloy
1024:flame
1008:match
917:Light
750:, or
542:lamps
490:from
383:Tunis
283:oakum
279:taper
194:Latin
147:flame
114:, or
81:light
3965:Gobo
3473:Neon
3343:Diya
3018:U.S.
2966:ISBN
2951:2022
2930:ISBN
2906:ISBN
2734:link
2587:2015
2573:and
2505:2021
2444:2014
2419:2014
2383:ISBN
2352:ISBN
2331:2021
2305:2021
2278:2021
2236:ISSN
2187:ISBN
2160:ISBN
2133:ISBN
2106:ISBN
2021:ISBN
1236:and
1172:zinc
1167:lead
1147:soot
1102:veil
1040:fire
991:soot
952:The
846:and
822:and
816:fuel
792:Wick
734:and
617:time
540:and
475:and
447:and
377:and
160:fire
126:and
93:time
89:heat
69:wick
3402:Oil
3353:Gas
2652:doi
2606:hdl
2571:PBS
2545:doi
2463:doi
2324:WWD
2228:doi
2216:139
1860:141
1789:140
1737:134
1716:126
1700:127
1278:by
1100:or
1088:or
1010:or
884:by
786:dye
780:or
754:).
728:gel
726:),
652:Wax
552:Use
509:in
312:in
73:wax
4102::
2986:.
2938:.
2872:.
2861:^
2844:.
2833:^
2816:.
2805:^
2789:.
2764:.
2730:}}
2726:{{
2648:33
2646:.
2642:.
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2435:.
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2234:.
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2210:.
2083:.
2035:^
1983:^
1968:^
1928:^
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1834:.
1816:.
1777:^
1767:.
1744:^
1723:^
1648:^
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1464:A
1435:.
1372:A
962:SI
850:.
776:,
746:,
718:,
668:64
664:31
643:.
627:.
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122:,
118:,
63:A
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