597:, and subsequently attacked by "historians from the metropolises": "the rise of industrial capitalism in Britain led to the destruction of the slave trade and slavery itself", and "the slave trade and the sugar industry based on slavery led to the formation of capital in England which helped in financing the Industrial Revolution". On the detail of Drescher's periodisation in arguing against the first of those theses, Carrington then says that Drescher is agreeing with what Ragatz had argued in 1928, namely that decline set in at peak prosperity for the planters, but was misplacing that peak by systematic neglect of the effects of the American Revolutionary War, and the slow subsequent recovery from those.
590:(1977) argued that the United Kingdom's abolition of the slave trade in 1807 resulted not from the diminishing value of slavery for the nation, but instead from the moral outrage of the British public which could vote. Geggus in 1981 gave details of the sugar industry of the British West Indies in the 1780s, casting some doubt on the method used by Drescher for capital valuation.
699:, based on whole-Atlantic trade and (for example) the hinterland trade of British cloth destined for West Africa. He footnotes a comment "One should distinguish the issue of causality of the industrial revolution from the fact that various specific industrial investments were indeed made with profits from slave ships or slave estates, as Williams documented."
574:
for profits from the slave trade amounted to less than 1% of domestic investment in
Britain. He finds also that the "terms of trade" (how much the ship owners paid for the slave cargo) moved heavily in favour of the Africans after about 1750. Ward has argued that slavery remained profitable in the 1830s, because of innovations in agriculture.
553:, in an article written before Williams's book, had dismissed the influence of wealth generated from the West Indian plantations on the financing of the Industrial Revolution, stating that whatever substantial flow of investment from West Indian profits into industry there was had occurred after emancipation, not before. Heuman states:
69:. On the other hand detailed economic investigations of the effects of slavery on the British economy, in particular, the aftermath of abolition, and the commercial hinterland of the Atlantic trade, are a thriving research area. The historiography of the British Empire is still widely contested. Kenneth Morgan writing in the
561:, Eric Williams argued that the declining economies of the British West Indies led to the abolition of the slave trade and of slavery. More recent research has rejected this conclusion; it is now clear that the colonies of the British Caribbean profited considerably during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.
393:
Williams rejected moralised explanation and argued that abolition was driven by diminishing returns, after a century of sugarcane raising had exhausted the soil of the islands. Beyond this aspect of the decline thesis, he argued that the slave-based
Atlantic economy of the 18th century generated new
265:
covers the economic history of sugar and slavery into the 19th century and discusses the decline of
Caribbean sugar plantations from 1823 until the emancipation of the slaves in the 1830s. It also notes the British government's use of the equalisation of the sugar duties Acts in the 1840s, to reduce
573:
during any year of the
Industrial Revolution. In support of the Williams thesis, Ryden (2009) presented evidence to show that by the early 19th century there was an emerging crisis of profitability. David Richardson (1998) finds Williams's claims regarding the Industrial Revolution are exaggerated,
167:
Williams had been made aware of the potential importance of
Coupland to his academic career by Joseph Oliver Cutteridge, the ex-British Army officer who was director of education in Trinidad and Tobago. This was at the point in 1936 when Williams was given funding for his doctoral work; Cutteridge
445:
completed by sugar, begins on p. 98 with "Britain was accumulating great wealth from the triangular trade." It ends with a few pages of overview, arguing that the economic development already visible by 1783 was outgrowing the system dubbed mercantilism. The 1807 prohibition of the international
175:
The original dissertation was published in 2014. Its argument has the same basic structure of a "decline" thesis, and the negation of good intentions of abolitionists as a historical factor. David Beck Ryden identifies the three faces of decline in the first half of the 19th century as: "falling
449:
Dividing up the period c.1780 to 1832, by the end of the triangular trade in 1807, Williams wrote that "The abolitionists for a long time eschewed and repeatedly disowned any idea of emancipation." He also presented economic data to show that the triangular trade alone had generated only minor
114:, not then a college (until that year the Delegacy for Non-Collegiate Students). He obtained a first-class degree in Modern History, but found social life largely unfriendly. He made a friend of a Thai student, interacted with his tutors, and attended the Indian Majlis, a student club.
534:, who published several provocative books in 1930s Britain, considered that suggesting that the slave trade and slavery were abolished for economic and not humanitarian reasons was "contrary to the British tradition—I would never publish such a book". In 1964
48:
of 1833 as a sort of moral pivot; but also directed against a historical school that saw the imperial constitutional history as a constant advance through legislation. It uses polemical asides for some personal attacks, notably on the Oxford historian
388:
From the "Conclusion": "But historians, writing a hundred years after, have no excuse for continuing to wrap the real interests in confusion." Footnoted as: "Of this deplorable tendency
Professor Coupland of Oxford University is a notable
143:
led at Oxford, as Behm puts it, to "enthusiasm for social and moral reform in an atmosphere already permeated by 'constitutional progress' as shorthand for centuries of world-historical advance". Alfred Beit, the founder, was a friend of
525:
No major
British publisher published the book until forty years after Williams's death, although he had sought to have it published; it had been refused on grounds including that it undermined the humanitarian motivation for Britain's
64:
The applicability of the economic arguments, and specially in the form of so-called Ragatz–Williams decline theory, is a contentious matter to this day for historians, when it is used for the period around the
679:
These are all recognised as somewhat contentious, with #1 and #3 particularly so. All four are considered fundamental to the project work, and capable of being illuminated by the gathering of further data.
568:
finds that even without subtracting the associated costs of the slave trade or reinvestment of profits, the total profits from the slave trade and of West Indian plantations amounted to less than 5% of the
342:; and a master's dissertation from that year by Wilson Williams at Howard University. Wilson Williams and Abram Harris are taken to be the sources of the work's interest in the commercial writer
82:
It was published in the United States in 1944, but major publishers refused to have it published in
Britain, on grounds including that it undermined the humanitarian motivation for Britain's
61:
by
Williams, wrote in 1987: "If one criterion of a classic is its ability to reorient our most basic way of viewing an object or a concept, Eric Williams's study supremely passes that test."
446:
slave trade, Williams argued, prevented French expansion of sugar plantations on other islands. British investment turned to Asia, where labour was plentiful and slavery was unnecessary.
482:
over the previous four decades and more, the first being associated with a largely critical review article of 1968 by Roger Anstey. The background was of consistent growth in attention.
516:(1919–1991), whose view was that "it is testimony to the essential correctness of that thesis that the attempt of a later scholarship to impugn it has been unsuccessful."
349:
The book, besides dealing with a passage of economic history, was furthermore a frontal attack on the idea that moral and humanitarian motives were key in the victory of
394:
pro-free trade and anti-slavery political interests. These interacted with the rise of evangelical antislavery and with the self-emancipation of slave rebels, from the
420:
In
Chapter 4 of the book, "The West India Interest", an outline of a timeline is given, reflecting the difference of interests of planters and the sugar merchants:
831:
493:"A revised version of the Williams thesis (of economic and class self-interest leading to abolition) seems to have much explanatory power. Rising urban interests
301:
while keeping Canada—as (in Pitman's argument) the start of manipulation of the sugar trade and its regulation, by British producers, for profit. In other words
184:
Williams left the United Kingdom for the United States in 1939. After a period of unsuccessful job applications, he had been appointed assistant professor at
1836:
37:
241:, summarising Williams's thesis in a phrase on abolition as a cutting of losses, and illustration of the workings of self-interest. Brogan had reviewed
176:
sugar planting profits"; "decline of the relative importance of the West Indian trade" in the British economy; and "a rising anti-mercantilist tide".
1809:
2231:
654:, and wrote of a schism between Anglo-American historians and those from the Caribbean on their status. The context is a series of projects run by
324:. Williams argued that slavery played a major role in developing the British economy; the high profits from slavery, he wrote, helped finance the
71:
570:
853:
357:
was essentially propelled by benevolent impulses. The centenary celebration of the 1833 Act that took place in the United Kingdom in 1933, in
233:
failed: the undermining of the humanitarian motivation for the Abolition Act 1833 was found unacceptable, culturally speaking. Publication of
2147:
2110:
2080:
1770:
1722:
1602:
1575:
1548:
1521:
1474:
1398:
1371:
1344:
1251:
1224:
1197:
1149:
1122:
1095:
1070:
1043:
1016:
953:
926:
901:
29:
383:
was the beginning of the end of slavery throughout the British Empire. This is merely poetic sentimentality translated into modern history."
434:
disrupts the existing system of British commerce (p. 96). At this point the interests of planters and merchants had become aligned (p. 92).
41:
1912:
Engerman, Stanley L. (1972). "The Slave Trade and British Capital Formation in the Eighteenth Century: A Comment on the Williams Thesis".
437:
1832: The Reform Parliament at Westminster represents the Lancashire manufacturing interest, rather than the West India Interest (p. 97).
1788:
Billy Strachan 1921-1988 RAF Officer, Communist, Civil Rights Pioneer, Legal Administrator, Internationalist and Above All Caribbean Man
350:
803:
450:
profits compared to the sugar plantations. Then from 1823 the British Caribbean sugar industry went into terminal decline, and the
522:, a leading Black civil rights activist and communist in Britain, credited the book with heavily influencing his world outlook.
974:
758:
451:
538:
published it in Britain, it went through numerous reprintings to 1991, and was published in the first UK mass-market edition by
90:
published it in Britain; it went through numerous reprintings to 1991, and was published in the first UK mass-market edition by
2236:
2010:, The English Historical Review Vol. 96, No. 379 (April 1981), pp. 285–305, at p. 287. Published by: Oxford University Press
628:
of the rising European powers. Noting that Williams provided both argument and illustration, while ignoring slavery in the
2179:
424:
1739: Planters and merchants find their interests conflicting, on the issue of free trade with continental Europe (p. 92).
247:
462:
The book was published in the United States in 1944. Early American reviews by historians ranged from enthusiasm, with
399:
32:
in 1962. It advances a number of theses on the impact of economic factors on the decline of slavery, specifically the
353:. It was also a critique of the idea common in the 1930s, and in particular advocated by Reginald Coupland, that the
2167:
226:
189:
66:
441:
Chapter 5, "British Industry and the Triangular Trade", in other words on the Atlantic slave trade as part of the
237:
happened finally in the United States, in 1944. It appeared in a British edition in 1964, with an introduction by
655:
267:
111:
2189:
508:
enjoys within the Caribbean", after noting the "persistent and penetrative criticisms". Supporters cited were
509:
2209:
539:
281:, to whom it was dedicated. The secondary sources bibliography, after commending works by Ragatz, mentioned
91:
2099:
Hall, Catherine; Draper, Nicholas; McClelland, Keith; Draper, Nick; Donington, Katie; Lang, Rachel (2014).
692:
513:
278:
140:
2034:
No. 36 (June 1984), pp. 13–48, at p. 13. Centrum voor Studie en Documentatie van Latijns Amerika (CEDLA)
1967:
Richardson, David, "The British Empire and the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1660–1807", in P. J. Marshall, ed.
688:
687:
vol. II (2014) describes the rejection of Williams's thesis about the economic impact of slavery on the
527:
463:
325:
294:
160:(1966), Williams attacked the generality of Oxford historians who had dealt with the topic. He excepted
83:
45:
696:
132:. The tone of the dissertation is judged "deferential", in comparison with the 1944 published version.
1713:
Belchem, Emeritus Professor of History John; Belchem, John; Price, Richard; Evans, Richard J. (1994).
343:
338:
by C. L. R. James for its priority in giving in 1938 a statement (in English) of the major thesis of
238:
213:
153:
103:
33:
266:
protectionism for sugar from the British West Indian colonies, and promote free trade in sugar from
2226:
431:
379:"Professor Coupland contends that behind the legal judgement lay the moral judgement, and that the
362:
306:
302:
290:
286:
205:
79:
as "perhaps the most influential book written in the twentieth century on the history of slavery".
316:
In the American context, it had been argued by William Babcock Weeden (1834–1912), and in 1942 by
2175:
2132:
The Cambridge History of Capitalism: Volume 2, The Spread of Capitalism: From 1848 to the Present
2035:
2011:
1937:
1929:
1881:
1696:
1648:
1446:
1422:
1302:
1169:
733:
675:
The role of the West Indian planters changed from the leading economic edge, to behind the times.
621:
417:, by calibration to a timeline. The D.Phil. dissertation limited itself to the period 1780–1833.
395:
358:
334:
221:
209:
454:
no longer felt they needed to protect the economic interests of the West Indian sugar planters.
2143:
2106:
2076:
1791:
1766:
1760:
1718:
1598:
1592:
1571:
1544:
1538:
1517:
1511:
1470:
1464:
1394:
1388:
1367:
1361:
1340:
1247:
1241:
1220:
1214:
1193:
1145:
1118:
1091:
1066:
1039:
1033:
1012:
1006:
949:
943:
922:
897:
809:
799:
633:
475:
197:
185:
50:
2070:
1565:
1334:
1187:
1060:
2135:
2100:
1921:
1873:
1841:
1640:
1294:
979:
763:
725:
648:
Legacies of British Slave-Ownership: Colonial Slavery and the Formation of Victorian Britain
583:
565:
535:
471:
467:
442:
285:(1917) by the American historian Frank Wesley Pitman. In two 1918 reviews of Pitman's book,
271:
87:
54:
2192:"The Politician-Scholar: Eric Williams and the tangled history of capitalism and slavery",
2180:"Black Perspectives | Eric Williams' 'Capitalism and Slavery': A Blueprint for Reparations"
637:
605:
531:
372:
310:
230:
229:. An attempt by Williams to have his dissertation published in the United Kingdom through
1980:
Ward, J. R., "The British West Indies in the Age of Abolition", in P. J. Marshall, ed.,
1810:"Dr. Eric Williams' 'Capitalism and Slavery' finally published in UK eighty years later"
2204:
716:
Drescher, Seymour (May 1987). "Eric Williams: British Capitalism and British Slavery".
643:
519:
501:
380:
365:
was born, was a public event in which Coupland made these ideas explicit, supported in
354:
317:
161:
129:
125:
1216:
White World Order, Black Power Politics: The Birth of American International Relations
497:
slavery as unprofitable, backward, and a threat to liberal (and middle-class) values."
289:, the first holder of the Beit Chair at Oxford, picked out the baseline 1763—when the
2220:
1941:
1540:
From Slavery to Freedom: Comparative Studies in the Rise and Fall of Atlantic Slavery
854:"Books: Eighty-year-old study of British slave trade is back in the bestsellers list"
629:
550:
414:
149:
25:
1336:
Eric Williams and the Anticolonial Tradition: The Making of a Diasporan Intellectual
1114:
Eric Williams and the Anticolonial Tradition: The Making of a Diasporan Intellectual
832:"Eighty years late: groundbreaking work on slave economy is finally published in UK"
2185:
617:
375:. Williams made a number of pointed critical remarks in this direction, including:
201:
169:
145:
135:
One of the D.Phil. examiners was Reginald Coupland, from 1920 second holder of the
2030:'Econocide' — Myth or Reality? — The Question of West Indian Decline, 1783–1806",
991:
775:
632:, he considers the schematic ultimately "mechanical and unsatisfactory". He finds
2168:"Black Perspectives | Capitalism and Slavery: Reflections on the Williams Thesis"
2139:
1695:, Review (Fernand Braudel Center) Vol. 35, No. 2 (2012), pp. 117–133, at p. 118.
1168:, Review (Fernand Braudel Center) Vol. 35, No. 2 (2012), pp. 117–133, at p. 120.
1139:
1112:
871:
192:, in Washington D.C. A close colleague there, who wrote a foreword to Williams's
156:
that forwarded Milner's ideas, and to which Coupland belonged. In his later work
1062:
The Round Table Movement and the Fall of the 'Second' British Empire (1909-1919)
625:
329:
321:
1745:
and the Growth of West Indian Political Economy", in Solow and Engerman (eds),
1141:
The Economic Aspect of the Abolition of the West Indian Slave Trade and Slavery
983:
767:
119:
The Economic Aspect of the Abolition of the West Indian Slave Trade and Slavery
2194:
1631:
Drescher (May 1987). "Eric Williams: British Capitalism and British Slavery".
1285:
Drescher (May 1987). "Eric Williams: British Capitalism and British Slavery".
298:
136:
1795:
695:
interpretation. He goes on to describe a challenge to that interpretation by
669:
Slave-produced wealth as integral to the British economy in the 18th century.
1864:
Pares, Richard (1937). "The Economic Factors in the History of the Empire".
813:
367:
251:, and accepted its general argument on the predominance of economic forces.
40:, from the second half of the 18th century. It also makes criticisms of the
2190:
https://www.thenation.com/article/society/eric-williams-capitalism-slavery/
2182:, AAIHS (African American Intellectual History Society), 22 September 2020.
1982:
The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II: The Eighteenth Century
1969:
The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II: The Eighteenth Century
1008:
A Social History of Knowledge II: From the Encyclopaedia to Knowledge (XXG)
57:, a prominent critic among historians of some of the theses put forward in
2170:, AAIHS (African American Intellectual History Society), 21 November 2015.
593:
Carrington in a reply from 1984 advocated for two "main theses" stated in
1837:"At last! Eric Williams' classic book Capitalism and Slavery republished"
1035:
Imperial History and the Global Politics of Exclusion: Britain, 1880-1940
793:
512:(1937–2018), an advocate of the decline thesis as originally stated, and
107:
2039:
1700:
1173:
1933:
1885:
1652:
1450:
1306:
737:
2015:
1445:, Vol. 28, No. 112 (December 1918), pp. 435–436. DOI: 10.2307/2223336
1426:
2008:
The British Government and the Saint Domingue Slave Revolt, 1791–1793
1762:
British Capitalism and Caribbean Slavery: The Legacy of Eric Williams
1747:
British Capitalism and Caribbean Slavery: The Legacy of Eric Williams
1497:
British capitalism and Caribbean slavery: The legacy of Eric Williams
1925:
1877:
1644:
1298:
729:
1900:
The Oxford History of the British Empire – Vol. 3: The 19th Century
582:
In a major attack on the propositions brought forward by Williams,
320:, that the slave trade was integral to the economic development of
216:, and took on a teaching load in the Political Science department.
212:. Williams was brought to Howard by Locke, supported by Bunche and
139:
at Oxford for "colonial history", founded in 1905. An emphasis on
2205:"Capitalism and Slavery revisited: the legacy of Eric Williams"
297:, and Great Britain returned to France the Caribbean island of
2134:. Vol. II. Cambridge University Press. pp. 309–310.
1898:
Heuman, Gad, "The British West Indies" in Andrew Porter, ed.,
1390:
Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World
945:
Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World
659:
168:
had contacted Coupland on his behalf, to use influence with
616:
in the terms that it took slavery to be a part of colonial
24:
is the published version of the doctoral dissertation of
504:
wrote in 2004 of "the fundamental academic respect that
640:
better on the resistance ideas of the enslaved people.
172:, the Governor. Cutteridge had then advised "caution".
427:
1764: The West India Interest in its "heyday" (p. 97).
283:
The Development of the British West Indies, 1700–1763
124:
Williams wrote his Oxford D.Phil. dissertation under
1956:
West Indian Slavery and British Abolition, 1783–1807
1189:
Eric Williams and the Making of the Modern Caribbean
1065:. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 89 note 1.
277:
The work relied on economic reasoning going back to
1790:. London: Caribbean Labour Solidarity. p. 12.
1759:Solow, Barbara Lewis; Engerman, Stanley L. (2004).
1439:
The Development of the British West Indies, 1700–63
1415:
The Development of the British West Indies, 1700–63
402:of 1831, to bring the end of slavery in the 1830s.
2130:". In Neal, Larry; Williamson, Jeffrey G. (eds.).
1995:Econocide: British Slavery in the Era of Abolition
1495:Solow, Barbara; Stanley L. Engerman, eds. (2004).
2057:BoletĂn de Estudios Latinoamericanos y del Caribe
2032:BoletĂn de Estudios Latinoamericanos y del Caribe
1243:The British Empire: Critical Readings. Principles
219:Excerpts of his thesis were published in 1939 by
1765:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 303–304.
1715:A Dictionary of Nineteenth-Century World History
1693:Eric Williams' Three Faces of West India Decline
1166:Eric Williams' Three Faces of West India Decline
948:. Oxford University Press. p. 391 note 30.
919:From Pillar to Post: The Indo-Caribbean Diaspora
487:A Dictionary of Nineteenth-Century World History
152:, and the Chair came under the influence of the
2126:Austin, Gareth (23 January 2014). "Chapter 10:
44:of the period: in particular on the use of the
1958:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009).
1280:
1278:
1513:Race, Radicalism, and Reform: Selected Papers
474:. Ryden, writing in 2012 and relying on some
8:
2072:The Overthrow of Colonial Slavery, 1776–1848
1421:, Vol. 33, No. 131 (July 1918), pp. 406–408.
1339:. University of Virginia Press. p. 47.
1192:. Univ of North Carolina Press. p. 26.
978:(online ed.). Oxford University Press.
762:(online ed.). Oxford University Press.
666:Slavery as key to the Industrial Revolution.
610:The Overthrow of Colonial Slavery, 1776–1848
1749:, Cambridge University Press, 2004, p. 303.
1469:. Cambridge University Press. p. 246.
1466:Slavery and the Rise of the Atlantic System
967:
965:
756:Morgan, Kenneth. "Williams, Eric Eustace".
16:1944 doctoral dissertation be Eric Williams
2105:. Cambridge University Press. p. 9.
1490:
1488:
1486:
1271:. London: André Deutsch. pp. vii–ix.
1219:. Cornell University Press. p. 103.
887:
885:
1393:. Oxford University Press. p. 391.
847:
845:
650:(2014) identified four key arguments of
1741:'The Williams Effect': Eric Williams's
1088:Oxford and Empire: The Last Lost Cause?
975:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
894:Oxford and Empire: The Last Lost Cause?
825:
823:
759:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
708:
672:Economic decline by 1783, or even 1763.
72:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
2094:
2092:
1366:. Duke University Press. p. 278.
787:
785:
751:
749:
747:
478:, spoke of three waves of interest in
158:British Historians and the West Indies
972:May, Alex. "Coupland, Sir Reginald".
896:. Clarendon Press. pp. 268–269.
30:Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago
7:
1246:. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 269.
636:fuller on abolitionist thought, and
110:on an Island Scholarship. He joined
42:historiography of the British Empire
2102:Legacies of British Slave-ownership
830:Ferguson, Donna (23 January 2022).
98:Williams as an Oxford undergraduate
1363:C. L. R. James in Imperial Britain
328:. British capital was gained from
225:, the journal of the London-based
180:Howard University, and publication
38:slavery in the British West Indies
14:
2055:'Econocide' — Myth or Reality?",
620:, that was then overtaken by the
542:in 2022, becoming a best-seller.
466:, to expressed reservations from
94:in 2022, becoming a best-seller.
1669:(London: Deutsch, 1964), p. 182.
1597:. UNC Press Books. p. 211.
1117:. University of Virginia Press.
612:(1988) summarised the thesis of
2232:Non-fiction books about slavery
1835:Olende, Ken (28 January 2022).
1570:. UNC Press Books. p. 45.
1090:. Clarendon Press. p. 94.
852:Barnett, David (2 March 2022).
792:Williams, Eric Eustace (1964).
685:Cambridge History of Capitalism
332:. The bibliography also cites
1:
2075:. London: Verso. p. 26.
1499:. Cambridge University Press.
1419:The English Historical Review
1360:Høgsbjerg, Christian (2014).
683:Gareth Austin writing in the
248:The Times Literary Supplement
200:. Others on the faculty were
102:In 1931 Williams came to the
2140:10.1017/cho9781139095105.010
1144:. Rowman & Littlefield.
992:UK public library membership
776:UK public library membership
662:. The stated arguments are:
2128:Capitalism and the colonies
1914:The Business History Review
1866:The Economic History Review
1387:Davis, David Brion (2008).
1333:Pierre, Maurice St (2015).
1111:Pierre, Maurice St (2015).
942:Davis, David Brion (2008).
917:Birbalsingh, Frank (1997).
413:The points raised required
400:Jamaica Christmas Rebellion
2253:
2026:Carrington, Selwyn H. H.,
1537:Drescher, Seymour (1999).
1516:. Routledge. p. 213.
1463:Solow, Barbara L. (1993).
1437:Egerton, H. E.: Review of
1413:Egerton, H. E.: Review of
227:League of Coloured Peoples
194:The Negro in the Caribbean
190:historically black college
128:, on a topic suggested by
67:American Revolutionary War
2069:Blackburn, Robin (1988).
1543:. Springer. p. 355.
1510:Harris, Abram L. (2017).
1240:Levine, Philippa (2019).
1186:Palmer, Colin A. (2006).
1086:Symonds, Richard (1991).
1038:. Springer. p. 106.
892:Symonds, Richard (1991).
656:University College London
646:and the other authors of
274:, where it was cheaper.
255:Arguments and sources of
1682:(London: Deutsch, 1964).
1323:(London: Deutsch, 1964).
1213:Vitalis, Robert (2015).
872:"St Catherine's College"
795:Capitalism & slavery
2213:, 177, 14 January 2023.
2210:International Socialism
2059:, 36 (1984), pp. 15–19.
1786:Horsley, David (2019).
1564:Williams, Eric (2014).
1267:Williams, Eric (1964).
1138:Williams, Eric (2014).
1011:. Polity. p. 129.
658:, with Web presence at
540:Penguin Modern Classics
510:Sydney H. H. Carrington
92:Penguin Modern Classics
2237:Books about capitalism
1743:Capitalism and Slavery
1737:Beckles, Hilary McD.,
1717:. Wiley. p. 574.
1680:Capitalism and Slavery
1667:Capitalism and Slavery
1619:Capitalism and Slavery
1594:Capitalism and Slavery
1567:Capitalism and Slavery
1321:Capitalism and Slavery
1269:Capitalism and Slavery
1059:Bosco, Andrea (2017).
984:10.1093/ref:odnb/32585
798:. London: A. Deutsch.
768:10.1093/ref:odnb/65183
652:Capitalism and Slavery
614:Capitalism and Slavery
595:Capitalism and Slavery
578:Abolitionist sentiment
559:Capitalism and Slavery
506:Capitalism and Slavery
499:
489:, Tadman stated that:
480:Capitalism and Slavery
408:Capitalism and Slavery
340:Capitalism and Slavery
263:Capitalism and Slavery
257:Capitalism and Slavery
243:Capitalism and Slavery
235:Capitalism and Slavery
141:constitutional history
112:St Catherine's Society
77:Capitalism and Slavery
59:Capitalism and Slavery
21:Capitalism and Slavery
2203:Christian Høgsbjerg,
1032:Behm, Amanda (2017).
1005:Burke, Peter (2012).
921:. TSAR. p. 131.
689:Industrial Revolution
528:Slavery Abolition Act
491:
464:Henry Steele Commager
326:Industrial Revolution
84:Slavery Abolition Act
46:Slavery Abolition Act
1814:The Caribbean Camera
1443:The Economic Journal
514:Gordon Kenneth Lewis
398:of 1792–1804 to the
351:British abolitionism
344:Malachy Postlethwayt
279:Lowell Joseph Ragatz
239:Denis William Brogan
214:Abram Lincoln Harris
154:Round Table movement
104:University of Oxford
34:Atlantic slave trade
28:, who was the first
2166:Guy Emerson Mount,
1993:Drescher, Seymour,
1984:(1998), pp. 415–39.
1971:(1998), pp. 440–64.
1954:Ryden, David Beck,
1691:Ryden, David Beck,
1164:Ryden, David Beck,
530:of 1833. Publisher
485:Writing in 1994 in
432:American Revolution
363:William Wilberforce
307:West India Interest
305:was created by the
303:artificial scarcity
287:Hugh Edward Egerton
206:E. Franklin Frazier
2176:Verene A. Shepherd
1633:History and Theory
1287:History and Theory
718:History and Theory
622:colonial expansion
601:Later developments
452:British parliament
396:Haitian Revolution
359:Kingston upon Hull
335:The Black Jacobins
210:Charles S. Johnson
2198:, 5 October 2021.
2149:978-1-316-02571-0
2112:978-1-107-04005-2
2082:978-0-86091-901-8
1816:. 28 January 2022
1772:978-0-521-53320-1
1724:978-0-631-18352-5
1604:978-1-4696-1949-1
1591:Williams (2014).
1577:978-1-4696-1949-1
1550:978-1-349-14876-9
1523:978-1-351-31742-9
1476:978-0-521-45737-8
1441:by F. W. Pitman,
1417:by F. W. Pitman,
1400:978-0-19-533944-4
1373:978-0-8223-7696-5
1346:978-0-8139-3685-7
1253:978-1-4742-6534-8
1226:978-1-5017-0187-0
1199:978-0-8078-2987-5
1151:978-1-4422-3140-5
1124:978-0-8139-3685-7
1097:978-0-19-820300-1
1072:978-1-4438-6999-7
1045:978-1-137-54850-4
1018:978-0-7456-5042-5
990:(Subscription or
955:978-0-19-533944-4
928:978-0-920661-66-6
903:978-0-19-820300-1
774:(Subscription or
697:Joseph E. Inikori
660:www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs
634:David Brion Davis
476:citation analysis
406:Periodisation of
198:Alain LeRoy Locke
186:Howard University
86:of 1833. In 1964
51:Reginald Coupland
2244:
2154:
2153:
2123:
2117:
2116:
2096:
2087:
2086:
2066:
2060:
2054:
2049:
2043:
2029:
2024:
2018:
2004:
1998:
1991:
1985:
1978:
1972:
1965:
1959:
1952:
1946:
1945:
1909:
1903:
1896:
1890:
1889:
1861:
1855:
1854:
1852:
1850:
1842:Socialist Worker
1832:
1826:
1825:
1823:
1821:
1806:
1800:
1799:
1783:
1777:
1776:
1756:
1750:
1740:
1735:
1729:
1728:
1710:
1704:
1689:
1683:
1676:
1670:
1663:
1657:
1656:
1628:
1622:
1615:
1609:
1608:
1588:
1582:
1581:
1561:
1555:
1554:
1534:
1528:
1527:
1507:
1501:
1500:
1492:
1481:
1480:
1460:
1454:
1435:
1429:
1411:
1405:
1404:
1384:
1378:
1377:
1357:
1351:
1350:
1330:
1324:
1317:
1311:
1310:
1282:
1273:
1272:
1264:
1258:
1257:
1237:
1231:
1230:
1210:
1204:
1203:
1183:
1177:
1162:
1156:
1155:
1135:
1129:
1128:
1108:
1102:
1101:
1083:
1077:
1076:
1056:
1050:
1049:
1029:
1023:
1022:
1002:
996:
995:
987:
969:
960:
959:
939:
933:
932:
914:
908:
907:
889:
880:
879:
876:oac.web.ox.ac.uk
868:
862:
861:
849:
840:
839:
827:
818:
817:
789:
780:
779:
771:
753:
742:
741:
713:
584:Seymour Drescher
566:Stanley Engerman
546:Economic factors
472:Frank Tannenbaum
468:Elizabeth Donnan
443:triangular trade
309:, an example of
291:Seven Years' War
55:Seymour Drescher
2252:
2251:
2247:
2246:
2245:
2243:
2242:
2241:
2217:
2216:
2163:
2161:Further reading
2158:
2157:
2150:
2125:
2124:
2120:
2113:
2098:
2097:
2090:
2083:
2068:
2067:
2063:
2052:
2050:
2046:
2027:
2025:
2021:
2006:Geggus, David,
2005:
2001:
1992:
1988:
1979:
1975:
1966:
1962:
1953:
1949:
1926:10.2307/3113341
1911:
1910:
1906:
1897:
1893:
1878:10.2307/2590147
1863:
1862:
1858:
1848:
1846:
1834:
1833:
1829:
1819:
1817:
1808:
1807:
1803:
1785:
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1773:
1758:
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1738:
1736:
1732:
1725:
1712:
1711:
1707:
1690:
1686:
1677:
1673:
1664:
1660:
1645:10.2307/2505121
1630:
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1605:
1590:
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1563:
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1558:
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1536:
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1477:
1462:
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1436:
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1412:
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1401:
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1327:
1318:
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1299:10.2307/2505121
1284:
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1234:
1227:
1212:
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1185:
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1163:
1159:
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1137:
1136:
1132:
1125:
1110:
1109:
1105:
1098:
1085:
1084:
1080:
1073:
1058:
1057:
1053:
1046:
1031:
1030:
1026:
1019:
1004:
1003:
999:
989:
971:
970:
963:
956:
941:
940:
936:
929:
916:
915:
911:
904:
891:
890:
883:
870:
869:
865:
851:
850:
843:
829:
828:
821:
806:
791:
790:
783:
773:
755:
754:
745:
730:10.2307/2505121
715:
714:
710:
705:
638:Eugene Genovese
606:Robin Blackburn
603:
580:
571:British economy
548:
532:Fredric Warburg
460:
411:
373:G. M. Trevelyan
311:client politics
260:
231:Fredric Warburg
182:
122:
100:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2250:
2248:
2240:
2239:
2234:
2229:
2219:
2218:
2215:
2214:
2200:
2199:
2183:
2172:
2171:
2162:
2159:
2156:
2155:
2148:
2118:
2111:
2088:
2081:
2061:
2044:
2019:
1999:
1986:
1973:
1960:
1947:
1920:(4): 430–443.
1904:
1891:
1872:(2): 119–144.
1856:
1827:
1801:
1778:
1771:
1751:
1730:
1723:
1705:
1684:
1671:
1658:
1623:
1610:
1603:
1583:
1576:
1556:
1549:
1529:
1522:
1502:
1482:
1475:
1455:
1430:
1406:
1399:
1379:
1372:
1352:
1345:
1325:
1312:
1293:(2): 184–185.
1274:
1259:
1252:
1232:
1225:
1205:
1198:
1178:
1157:
1150:
1130:
1123:
1103:
1096:
1078:
1071:
1051:
1044:
1024:
1017:
997:
961:
954:
934:
927:
909:
902:
881:
863:
841:
819:
804:
781:
743:
724:(2): 180–196.
707:
706:
704:
701:
677:
676:
673:
670:
667:
644:Catherine Hall
602:
599:
579:
576:
563:
562:
547:
544:
520:Billy Strachan
502:Hilary Beckles
459:
456:
439:
438:
435:
428:
425:
410:
404:
391:
390:
385:
384:
381:Somersett case
355:British Empire
318:Lorenzo Greene
295:Peace of Paris
259:
253:
181:
178:
162:Sydney Olivier
130:C. L. R. James
126:Vincent Harlow
121:
116:
99:
96:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2249:
2238:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2224:
2222:
2212:
2211:
2206:
2202:
2201:
2197:
2196:
2191:
2187:
2184:
2181:
2177:
2174:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2164:
2160:
2151:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2122:
2119:
2114:
2108:
2104:
2103:
2095:
2093:
2089:
2084:
2078:
2074:
2073:
2065:
2062:
2058:
2048:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2023:
2020:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2003:
2000:
1996:
1990:
1987:
1983:
1977:
1974:
1970:
1964:
1961:
1957:
1951:
1948:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1908:
1905:
1902:(1999) 3:470.
1901:
1895:
1892:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1860:
1857:
1844:
1843:
1838:
1831:
1828:
1815:
1811:
1805:
1802:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1782:
1779:
1774:
1768:
1764:
1763:
1755:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1734:
1731:
1726:
1720:
1716:
1709:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1688:
1685:
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1675:
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1668:
1662:
1659:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1627:
1624:
1620:
1614:
1611:
1606:
1600:
1596:
1595:
1587:
1584:
1579:
1573:
1569:
1568:
1560:
1557:
1552:
1546:
1542:
1541:
1533:
1530:
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1519:
1515:
1514:
1506:
1503:
1498:
1491:
1489:
1487:
1483:
1478:
1472:
1468:
1467:
1459:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1434:
1431:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1410:
1407:
1402:
1396:
1392:
1391:
1383:
1380:
1375:
1369:
1365:
1364:
1356:
1353:
1348:
1342:
1338:
1337:
1329:
1326:
1322:
1316:
1313:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1281:
1279:
1275:
1270:
1263:
1260:
1255:
1249:
1245:
1244:
1236:
1233:
1228:
1222:
1218:
1217:
1209:
1206:
1201:
1195:
1191:
1190:
1182:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1161:
1158:
1153:
1147:
1143:
1142:
1134:
1131:
1126:
1120:
1116:
1115:
1107:
1104:
1099:
1093:
1089:
1082:
1079:
1074:
1068:
1064:
1063:
1055:
1052:
1047:
1041:
1037:
1036:
1028:
1025:
1020:
1014:
1010:
1009:
1001:
998:
993:
985:
981:
977:
976:
968:
966:
962:
957:
951:
947:
946:
938:
935:
930:
924:
920:
913:
910:
905:
899:
895:
888:
886:
882:
877:
873:
867:
864:
859:
855:
848:
846:
842:
837:
833:
826:
824:
820:
815:
811:
807:
805:0-233-95676-X
801:
797:
796:
788:
786:
782:
777:
769:
765:
761:
760:
752:
750:
748:
744:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
719:
712:
709:
702:
700:
698:
694:
690:
686:
681:
674:
671:
668:
665:
664:
663:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
639:
635:
631:
630:United States
627:
624:and domestic
623:
619:
615:
611:
607:
600:
598:
596:
591:
589:
585:
577:
575:
572:
567:
560:
556:
555:
554:
552:
551:Richard Pares
545:
543:
541:
537:
536:André Deutsch
533:
529:
523:
521:
517:
515:
511:
507:
503:
498:
496:
490:
488:
483:
481:
477:
473:
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465:
457:
455:
453:
447:
444:
436:
433:
429:
426:
423:
422:
421:
418:
416:
415:periodisation
409:
405:
403:
401:
397:
387:
386:
382:
378:
377:
376:
374:
370:
369:
364:
360:
356:
352:
347:
345:
341:
337:
336:
331:
327:
323:
319:
314:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
293:ended in the
292:
288:
284:
280:
275:
273:
269:
264:
258:
254:
252:
250:
249:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
223:
217:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
179:
177:
173:
171:
165:
163:
159:
155:
151:
150:Alfred Milner
147:
142:
138:
133:
131:
127:
120:
117:
115:
113:
109:
105:
97:
95:
93:
89:
88:André Deutsch
85:
80:
78:
74:
73:
68:
62:
60:
56:
52:
47:
43:
39:
35:
31:
27:
26:Eric Williams
23:
22:
2208:
2193:
2186:Gerald Horne
2131:
2127:
2121:
2101:
2071:
2064:
2056:
2051:Carrington,
2047:
2031:
2022:
2007:
2002:
1994:
1989:
1981:
1976:
1968:
1963:
1955:
1950:
1917:
1913:
1907:
1899:
1894:
1869:
1865:
1859:
1847:. Retrieved
1840:
1830:
1818:. Retrieved
1813:
1804:
1787:
1781:
1761:
1754:
1746:
1742:
1733:
1714:
1708:
1692:
1687:
1679:
1674:
1666:
1661:
1636:
1632:
1626:
1618:
1613:
1593:
1586:
1566:
1559:
1539:
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1512:
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1496:
1465:
1458:
1442:
1438:
1433:
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1320:
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1054:
1034:
1027:
1007:
1000:
973:
944:
937:
918:
912:
893:
875:
866:
858:The Guardian
857:
836:The Observer
835:
794:
757:
721:
717:
711:
684:
682:
678:
651:
647:
642:
618:mercantilism
613:
609:
604:
594:
592:
587:
581:
564:
558:
549:
524:
518:
505:
500:
494:
492:
486:
484:
479:
461:
448:
440:
430:c.1780: The
419:
412:
407:
392:
366:
348:
339:
333:
315:
282:
276:
262:
261:
256:
246:
242:
234:
220:
218:
202:Ralph Bunche
196:(1942), was
193:
183:
174:
170:Claud Hollis
166:
157:
146:Cecil Rhodes
134:
123:
118:
101:
81:
76:
70:
63:
58:
20:
19:
18:
693:revisionist
626:wage labour
330:unpaid work
322:New England
2227:1944 books
2221:Categories
2195:The Nation
1678:Williams,
1665:Williams,
1639:(2): 183.
1617:Williams,
1319:Williams,
994:required.)
778:required.)
299:Guadeloupe
137:Beit Chair
75:evaluates
1942:154620412
1796:2055-7035
588:Econocide
495:perceived
458:Reception
389:example."
368:The Times
2040:25675211
1849:23 March
1820:23 March
1701:43551697
1174:43551697
814:15723803
361:, where
222:The Keys
108:Trinidad
1997:(1977).
1934:3113341
1886:2590147
1653:2505121
1451:2223336
1307:2505121
738:2505121
2146:
2109:
2079:
2038:
2016:568291
2014:
1940:
1932:
1884:
1845:(2790)
1794:
1769:
1721:
1699:
1651:
1601:
1574:
1547:
1520:
1473:
1449:
1427:551034
1425:
1397:
1370:
1343:
1305:
1250:
1223:
1196:
1172:
1148:
1121:
1094:
1069:
1042:
1015:
988:
952:
925:
900:
812:
802:
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