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130:(SNMs), with the added bonus of detecting other types of suspicious cargo. In other countries the emphasis is on manifest verification, tariff collection and the identification of contraband. In February 2009, approximately 80% of US incoming containers were scanned. To bring that number to 100% researchers are evaluating numerous technologies, described in the following sections.
204:, which can penetrate up to 15–18 cm of steel. The systems provide good quality images which can be used for identifying cargo and comparing it with the manifest, in an attempt to detect anomalies. It can also identify high-density regions too thick to penetrate, which would be the most likely to hide nuclear threats.
338:. This makes the technology ideal for high throughput scanning of volume material where operators are present, such as at a marine cargo terminal. In these cases, truck drivers and customs personnel do not have to leave the vehicle or exit an exclusion zone during scanning, expediting cargo throughput.
383:
They provide very little information on energy of detected photons, and as a result, they were criticized for their inability to distinguish gammas originating from nuclear sources from gammas originating from a large variety of benign cargo types that naturally emit radioactivity, including bananas,
265:
systems include: pulsed fast neutron analysis (PFNA), fast neutron analysis (FNA), and thermal neutron analysis (TNA). All three systems are based on neutron interactions with the inspected items and examining the resultant gamma rays to determine the elements being radiated. TNA uses thermal neutron
426:
Another limitation of gamma radiation detectors is that gamma photons can be easily suppressed by high-density shields made from lead or steel, preventing detection of nuclear sources. Those types of shields do not stop fission neutrons produced by
266:
capture to generate the gamma rays. FNA and PFNA use fast neutron scattering to generate the gamma rays. Additionally, PFNA uses a pulsed collimated neutron beam. With this, PFNA generates a three-dimensional elemental image of the inspected item.
226:(LINAC). Such X-ray systems can penetrate up to 30–40 cm of steel in vehicles moving with velocities up to 13 km/h. They provide higher penetration but also cost more to buy and operate. They are more suitable for the detection of
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1010:
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196:
is able to produce one column of an image. The horizontal dimension of the image is produced by moving either the truck or the scanning hardware. The cobalt-60 units use gamma
877:"Dr. Stanton D. Sloane of Decision Sciences looks at how passive detection systems can play their part in protecting the global supply chain" by Cargo Security International
887:
81:
34:
447:
based detectors to search for neutron signatures. However, a global supply shortage of He-3 has led to the search for other technologies for neutron detection.
431:
sources, however. As a result, radiation detectors usually combine gamma and neutron detectors, making shielding only effective for certain uranium sources.
401:
349:
in the United
Kingdom. An MMPDS system has also been contracted by Toshiba to determine the location and the condition of the nuclear fuel in the
587:
543:
443:, emit large quantities of neutrons, making neutron detection a useful tool to search for such contraband. Radiation Portal Monitors often use
803:
350:
534:
330:
Muon imaging was originally proposed and demonstrated by
Alvarez. The method was re-discovered and improved upon by a research team at
985:
840:
995:
494:
492:
U.S. Azerbaijan
Chamber of Commerce – SAIC'S VACIS(R) Cargo, Vehicle and Contraband Inspection Systems to Be Installed in Azerbaijan
103:) refers to non-destructive methods of inspecting and identifying goods in transportation systems. It is often used for scanning of
68:
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111:
331:
898:
640:
910:
115:
404:, called NORMs account for 99% of nuisance alarms. Some radiation, like in the case of large loads of bananas is due to
346:
104:
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50:
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at the Earth's surface is such that a single muon passes through a volume the size of a human hand per second.
227:
127:
368:, also called radiation portal monitors (RPM), are good at detecting. Systems currently used in US ports (and
616:
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1000:
456:
143:
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that occur naturally in earth and rock, and cargo types made out of them, like cat litter or porcelain.
591:
1005:
888:"Decision Sciences Awarded Atomic Weapons Establishment (AWE) Contract for Nuclear Detection System."
775:
420:
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radiography is similar to gamma-ray radiography but instead of using a radioactive source, it uses a
107:
86:
345:, are currently in use by Decision Sciences International Corporation at Freeport, Bahamas, and the
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46:
807:
166:
762:"Processing of interlaced images in 4–10 MeV dual energy customs system for material recognition"
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than gamma-ray systems. They also deliver about 1000 times higher dose of radiation to potential
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481:"100% Cargo Scanning Passes Congress" article in "FedEx Trade Networks" (Aug. 02, 72007)
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can be used to image through much thicker material than x-ray based tomography such as
219:
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118:(CSI) trying to achieve one hundred percent cargo scanning by 2012 as required by the
979:
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and its rarely occurring (0.0117%) radioactive isotope potassium-40, other is due to
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Fissile materials emit neutrons. Some nuclear materials, such as the weapons usable
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to generate three-dimensional images of volumes using information contained in the
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119:
720:. Presentation to the Northern California Chapter of the Health Physics Society
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536:
Waste, Abuse, and
Mismanagement in Department of Homeland Security Contracts
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405:
397:
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189:
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147:
841:""Muon radiography" by Brian Fishbine from Los Alamos National Laboratory"
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231:
151:
668:"ARACOR Eagle-Matched Operations and Neutron Detector Performance Tests"
666:
Jones, J. L.; Haskell, K. J.; Hoggan, J. M.; Norman, D. R. (June 2002).
334:, muon tomography is completely passive, exploiting naturally occurring
413:
389:
197:
617:"Technical Specifications of Mobile Rapiscan GaRDS Inspection System"
409:
312:
162:
Gamma-ray image of a truck showing goods inside a shipping container
304:
212:
165:
157:
142:
80:
911:"Overview of Exploranium's AT-980 Radiation Portal Monitor (RPM)"
419:
Radiation originating from earth is also a major contributor to
324:
311:
of the muons. Since muons are much more deeply penetrating than
287:
899:"Cosmic Rays to pinpoint Fukushima cores" by World Nuclear News
17:
937:"Manual for Ludlum Model 3500-1000 Radiation Detector System"
571:
222:
spectrum with energy in the 5–10 MeV range created by a
588:"Technical Specifications of Mobile VACIS Inspection System"
574:
CONTAIN – Container
Security Advanced Information Networking
866:"Muons for Peace" by Mark Wolverton in Scientific American
673:. Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory
341:
Multi-mode passive detection systems (MMPDS), based upon
715:"Protecting our Borders while Ensuring Radiation Safety"
380:
and can be used on vehicles moving up to 16 km/h.
42:
767:
Physical Review
Special Topics: Accelerators and Beams
188:
as a radioactive source and a vertical tower of gamma
126:. In the US the main purpose of scanning is to detect
806:. Boulby Underground Science Facility. Archived from
804:"Muon Tomography – Deep Carbon, MuScan, Muon-Tides"
962:"Shortage Slows a Program to Detect Nuclear Bombs"
361:Radiological materials emit gamma photons, which
512:"U.S. to Install New Nuclear Detectors at Ports"
180:systems capable of scanning trucks usually use
170:A truck entering a gamma-ray radiography system
1011:United States Department of Homeland Security
31:The examples and perspective in this article
8:
641:"Overview of VACIS P7500 Inspection System"
546:. July 2006. pp. 12–13. Archived from
150:image of a shipping container showing two
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402:naturally occurring radioactive materials
69:Learn how and when to remove this message
278:
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760:Ogorodnikov, S.; Petrunin, V. (2002).
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544:United States House of Representatives
110:. In the US, it is spearheaded by the
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351:Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant
7:
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713:Dan A. Strellis (4 November 2004).
510:Vartabedian, Ralph (15 July 2006).
14:
718:(PDF of Powerpoint Presentation)
372:) use several (usually 4) large
22:
112:Department of Homeland Security
332:Los Alamos National Laboratory
242:Dual-energy X-ray radiography
1:
960:Wald, M. (22 November 2009).
246:Backscatter X-ray radiography
238:Dual-energy X-ray radiography
200:with a mean energy 1.25
116:Container Security Initiative
789:10.1103/PhysRevSTAB.5.104701
347:Atomic Weapons Establishment
435:Neutron radiation detectors
270:Passive radiation detectors
224:linear particle accelerator
45:, discuss the issue on the
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572:http://containproject.com/
257:Neutron activation systems
986:Special nuclear materials
829:"Secrets of the pyramids"
357:Gamma radiation detectors
300:is a technique that uses
290:production mechanisms in
228:special nuclear materials
128:special nuclear materials
996:Electromagnetic spectrum
97:non-intrusive inspection
122:and recommended by the
741:Cite journal requires
694:Cite journal requires
497:9 October 2007 at the
457:Industrial radiography
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139:Gamma-ray radiography
84:
594:on 27 September 2007
421:background radiation
51:create a new article
43:improve this article
33:may not represent a
847:on 20 December 2013
780:2002PhRvS...5j4701O
366:radiation detectors
108:shipping containers
87:shipping containers
966:The New York Times
810:on 15 October 2013
462:Gamma spectroscopy
309:Coulomb scattering
295:
292:Earth's atmosphere
286:image identifying
263:neutron activation
172:
164:
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105:intermodal freight
90:
991:Freight transport
917:on 9 October 2007
647:on 9 October 2007
553:on 30 August 2007
516:Los Angeles Times
251:Backscatter X-ray
208:X-ray radiography
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53:, as appropriate.
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298:Muon tomography
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59:December 2010
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943:. Retrieved
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851:18 September
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812:. Retrieved
808:the original
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734:cite journal
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645:the original
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261:Examples of
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253:radiography
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194:gamma camera
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1006:Radiography
945:1 September
921:1 September
724:1 September
677:1 September
651:1 September
625:1 September
598:1 September
370:steel mills
323:. The muon
321:CT scanning
217:high-energy
186:caesium-137
178:radiography
134:Radiography
120:US Congress
85:Intermodal
980:Categories
468:References
386:cat litter
376:panels as
317:tomography
302:cosmic ray
429:plutonium
406:potassium
398:stoneware
394:porcelain
232:stowaways
190:detectors
182:cobalt-60
175:Gamma-ray
152:stowaways
148:Gamma-ray
47:talk page
495:Archived
451:See also
445:Helium-3
114:and its
41:You may
776:Bibcode
414:uranium
390:granite
315:, muon
198:photons
192:. This
1016:X-rays
410:radium
313:X-rays
940:(PDF)
671:(PDF)
620:(PDF)
551:(PDF)
540:(PDF)
363:gamma
305:muons
213:X-ray
49:, or
947:2007
923:2007
853:2007
816:2013
747:help
726:2007
700:help
679:2007
653:2007
627:2007
600:2007
559:2007
325:flux
288:muon
784:doi
412:or
374:PVT
202:MeV
184:or
101:NII
95:or
982::
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782:.
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