190:
321:(pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infections), which proposes five criteria for diagnosis in children. PANDAS and the newer PANS (pediatric acute-onset neuropsychiatric syndrome) hypotheses are the focus of clinical and laboratory research, but remain unproven. There is also a broader hypothesis that links immune-system abnormalities and
333:
Some forms of OCD may be genetically linked to
Tourette's, although the genetic factors in OCD with and without tics may differ. The genetic relationship of ADHD to Tourette syndrome, however, has not been fully established. A genetic link between autism and Tourette's has not been established as of
161:
makeup may show different levels of symptom severity. The gene(s) may express as
Tourette syndrome, as a milder tic disorder (transient or chronic tics), or as obsessive compulsive symptoms with no tics at all. Only a minority of the children who inherit the gene(s) will have symptoms severe enough
46:
The exact cause of
Tourette's is unknown, but it is well established that both genetic and environmental factors are involved. The overwhelming majority of cases of Tourette's are inherited, although the exact mode of inheritance is not yet known, and no gene has been identified. Tics are believed
278:
or other non-genetic factors—while not causing
Tourette's—can affect the severity of TS in vulnerable individuals and influence the expression of the inherited genes. Pre-natal and peri-natal events increase the risk that a tic disorder or comorbid OCD will be expressed in those with the genetic
94:
studies have shown that
Tourette's is highly heritable, and 10 to 100 times more likely to be found among close family members than in the general population. The exact mode of inheritance is not known; no single gene has been identified, and hundreds of genes are likely involved.
2244:
1207:
Peterson B, Riddle MA, Cohen DJ, et al. (May 1993). "Reduced basal ganglia volumes in
Tourette's syndrome using three-dimensional reconstruction techniques from magnetic resonance images".
205:
The exact mechanism affecting the inherited vulnerability has not been established, and the precise cause of
Tourette syndrome is not known. Tics are believed to result from dysfunction in the
1611:"Clinical effectiveness and patient perspectives of different treatment strategies for tics in children and adolescents with Tourette syndrome: a systematic review and qualitative analysis"
2364:
2122:
2239:
149:
appears to have a role in the expression of the genetic vulnerability, with males more likely to express tics than females. Tourette syndrome is a condition of
313:
processes may affect the onset of tics or exacerbate them. Both OCD and tic disorders are hypothesized to arise in a subset of children as a result of a post-
2229:
2084:
1882:
Denckla MB (2006). "Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: the childhood co-morbidity that most influences the disability burden in
Tourette syndrome".
583:
Fernandez TV, State MW, Pittenger C (2018). "Tourette disorder and other tic disorders". In Daniel H. Geschwind, Henry L. Paulson, Christine Klein (eds.).
79:
74:
Non-genetic factors—while not causing
Tourette's—can influence the severity of the disorder. Some forms of Tourette's may be genetically linked to
2427:
1615:
675:
Baldermann JC, Schüller T, Huys D, et al. (2016). "Deep brain stimulation for
Tourette syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis".
365:
267:
is the main input nucleus of the basal ganglia circuit in the disorder, which is linked to the involvement of the histaminergic H3-receptor.
162:
to require medical attention. There is currently no way to predict the symptoms a child may display, even if the gene(s) are inherited.
1512:
Rapanelli M, Pittenger C (July 2016). "Histamine and histamine receptors in Tourette syndrome and other neuropsychiatric conditions".
1385:
Klawans HL, Falk DK, Nausieda PA, Weiner WJ (October 1978). "Gilles de la Tourette syndrome after long-term chlorpromazine therapy".
600:
544:
413:
1911:"Genetic and phenotypic overlap of specific obsessive-compulsive and attention-deficit/hyperactive subtypes with Tourette syndrome"
1839:
Swain JE, Scahill L, Lombroso PJ, King RA, Leckman JF (August 2007). "Tourette syndrome and tic disorders: a decade of progress".
405:
2311:
2219:
2117:
2077:
90:
The exact cause of Tourette's is unknown, but it is well established that both genetic and environmental factors are involved.
2214:
2270:
1250:
Moriarty J, Varma AR, Stevens J, et al. (August 1997). "A volumetric MRI study of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome".
1055:
96:
75:
259:(H3R), dopamine, serotonin, GABA and glutamate are involved in the etiology. After 2010, the central role of histamine (
2413:
2234:
2112:
1428:
Butler IJ, Koslow SH, Seifert WE, Caprioli RM, Singer HS (July 1979). "Biogenic amine metabolism in Tourette syndrome".
1146:
1004:"A search for the common ground between Tic; Obsessive-compulsive and Autism Spectrum Disorders: part I, Tic disorders"
2399:
1132:
32:
1342:
Singer HS, Butler IJ, Tune LE, Seifert WE, Coyle JT (October 1982). "Dopaminergic dsyfunction in Tourette syndrome".
1960:"Lifetime prevalence, age of risk, and genetic relationships of comorbid psychiatric disorders in Tourette syndrome"
138:
In some cases, tics may not be inherited; these cases are identified as "sporadic" Tourette syndrome (also known as
39:
and at least one phonic tic, which characteristically wax and wane. Tourette's syndrome occurs along a spectrum of
2449:
2070:
2454:
2378:
2224:
288:
189:
1663:
Robertson MM (February 2011). "Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: the complexities of phenotype and treatment".
2326:
2280:
154:
125:
2059:— 53-minute video where David Pauls discusses the results of a genetic linkage study for Tourette syndrome.
307:, are also at increased risk; in premature twins, the lower birthweight twin is more likely to develop TS.
1105:
van de Wetering BJ, Heutink P (May 1993). "The genetics of the Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: a review".
932:
van de Wetering BJ, Heutink P (May 1993). "The genetics of the Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: a review".
206:
1180:
Haber SN, Wolfer D (1992). "Basal ganglia peptidergic staining in Tourette syndrome. A follow-up study".
145:
A person with Tourette syndrome has about a 50% chance of passing the gene(s) to one of their children.
2056:
284:
260:
166:
153:, meaning not everyone who inherits the genetic vulnerability will show symptoms. Tourette's also shows
150:
68:
181:. The finding of a chromosomal abnormality appears to apply to a very small minority of cases (1–2%).
629:
Dale RC (December 2017). "Tics and Tourette: a clinical, pathophysiological and etiological review".
322:
165:
Recent research suggests that a small number of Tourette syndrome cases may be caused by a defect on
91:
2260:
2350:
2036:
1864:
1537:
1453:
1410:
1367:
1324:
1275:
1232:
984:
914:
808:
750:
700:
654:
498:
1698:
Wilbur C, Bitnun A, Kronenberg S, Laxer RM, Levy DM, Logan WJ, Shouldice M, Yeh EA (May 2019).
357:
351:
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1989:
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1402:
1359:
1316:
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1224:
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1114:
1080:
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976:
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361:
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25:
317:
autoimmune process. Its potential effect is described by the controversial hypothesis called
2392:
2321:
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2020:
1979:
1971:
1930:
1922:
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1801:
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1216:
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1023:
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847:
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790:
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684:
638:
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550:
532:
482:
438:
280:
246:
238:
226:
67:. In addition to dopamine, multiple neurotransmitters, like serotonin, GABA, glutamate, and
60:
881:
111:
do. But not everyone who inherits the genetic vulnerability will show symptoms. A few rare
2406:
2316:
2265:
300:
99:
were published in 2013 and 2015 in which no finding reached a threshold for significance.
381:
237:
Research presents considerable evidence that abnormal activity of the brain chemical, or
35:
that begins in childhood or adolescence, characterized by the presence of multiple motor
721:
Cavanna AE (November 2018). "The neuropsychiatry of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: The
2285:
2153:
1984:
1959:
1935:
1910:
1816:
1789:
1724:
1699:
1637:
1581:
1556:
1028:
1003:
852:
827:
592:
555:
536:
520:
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in the basal ganglia) came into focus in the pathophysiology of Tourette syndrome. The
1489:
1472:
1295:"Tourette syndrome and other tic disorders. Diagnosis, pathophysiology, and treatment"
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1975:
1572:
1525:
1311:
1294:
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52:
2040:
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1371:
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988:
972:
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812:
754:
704:
658:
587:(Review). Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Vol. 147. Elsevier. pp. 343–54.
2420:
2193:
918:
502:
275:
234:
222:
218:
56:
40:
2008:
1868:
119:
have been found that explain only a small number of cases in single families (the
1852:
843:
738:
642:
2143:
1676:
1610:
304:
177:(tics due to reasons other than inherited Tourette's syndrome) can be caused by
104:
1088:
2275:
2198:
2168:
2158:
2138:
1926:
959:
Paschou P (July 2013). "The genetic basis of Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome".
688:
443:
426:
310:
174:
139:
112:
100:
1166:
2163:
2148:
1019:
427:"Tourette syndrome, associated conditions and the complexities of treatment"
256:
116:
108:
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1993:
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910:
861:
804:
746:
696:
650:
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564:
494:
452:
356:(Fifth ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing. pp.
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158:
64:
48:
29:
795:
170:
131:
121:
786:
2357:
2173:
1628:
1147:"Recognition and management of Tourette's syndrome and tic disorders"
318:
146:
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59:
of the brain, involving abnormal activity of the brain chemical, or
1788:
Moretti G, Pasquini M, Mandarelli G, Tarsitani L, Biondi M (2008).
521:"Genetic susceptibility and neurotransmitters in Tourette syndrome"
2245:
Motor tic, Obsessions and compulsions, Vocal tic Evaluation Survey
188:
519:
Paschou P, Fernandez TV, Sharp F, Heiman GA, Hoekstra PJ (2013).
2066:
2007:
Robertson MM, Eapen V, Singer HS, et al. (February 2017).
773:
Efron D, Dale RC (October 2018). "Tics and Tourette syndrome".
2188:
36:
225:
models implicate failures in circuits connecting the brain's
1958:
Hirschtritt ME, Lee PC, Pauls DL, et al. (April 2015).
1790:"What every psychiatrist should know about PANDAS: a review"
1609:
Hollis C, Pennant M, Cuenca J, et al. (January 2016).
245:
is involved. Dopamine excess or supersensitivity of the
1909:
Hirschtritt ME, Darrow SM, et al. (January 2018).
283:; stress or severe nausea during pregnancy; and use of
1700:"PANDAS/PANS in childhood: Controversies and evidence"
353:
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
252:
may be an underlying mechanism of Tourette syndrome.
78:(OCD), while the relationship between Tourette's and
229:
and subcortex, and imaging techniques implicate the
2335:
2304:
2253:
2207:
2131:
2100:
1749:"Treatment of PANDAS and PANS: a systematic review"
403:Advances in Neurology, Vol. 99, Tourette Syndrome.
43:, which includes transient tics and chronic tics.
1002:Barnhill J, Bedford J, Crowley J, Soda T (2017).
2365:I Have Tourette's but Tourette's Doesn't Have Me
1658:
1656:
473:Zinner SH (November 2000). "Tourette disorder".
209:, in the cortical and subcortical regions, the
1747:Sigra S, Hesselmark E, Bejerot S (March 2018).
1145:Bagheri MM, Kerbeshian J, Burd L (April 1999).
2057:The Genetics of Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome
1133:Tourette Syndrome: Frequently Asked Questions.
716:
714:
387:(March 22, 2006). Retrieved on June 27, 2006.
107:share a TS diagnosis, while only 10 to 23% of
2078:
8:
2230:Tourette Syndrome Clinical Global Impression
875:
873:
871:
826:Bloch M, State M, Pittenger C (April 2011).
768:
766:
764:
670:
668:
578:
576:
574:
401:Walkup JT, Mink JW, Hollenback PJ, (eds).
279:vulnerability. These include paternal age;
2085:
2071:
2063:
624:
622:
620:
397:
395:
393:
382:Tourette Syndrome and Other Tic Disorders.
2240:Autism—Tics, AD/HD, and other Comorbities
1983:
1934:
1815:
1805:
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1604:
1602:
1600:
1580:
1488:
1310:
1074:
1027:
900:
851:
794:
554:
514:
512:
442:
350:American Psychiatric Association (2013).
1049:
1047:
882:"Tourette's syndrome and its borderland"
527:. International Review of Neurobiology.
468:
466:
464:
462:
80:attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder
28:(abbreviated as Tourette's or TS) is an
2428:Tic Talk: Living with Tourette Syndrome
342:
22:Causes and origins of Tourette syndrome
828:"Recent advances in Tourette syndrome"
295:during pregnancy. Babies who are born
1293:Singer HS, Walkup JT (January 1991).
142:) because a genetic link is missing.
7:
201:are implicated in Tourette syndrome.
82:(ADHD) is not yet fully understood.
1555:Bolam JP, Ellender TJ (July 2016).
1473:"Neurobiology of Tourette syndrome"
1054:Mejia NI, Jankovic J (March 2005).
157:—even family members with the same
1841:J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry
593:10.1016/B978-0-444-63233-3.00023-3
537:10.1016/B978-0-12-411546-0.00006-8
47:to result from dysfunction in the
14:
408:, Philadelphia, PA, 2006, p. xv.
406:Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
255:Multiple neurotransmitters, like
24:have not been fully elucidated.
2009:"Gilles de la Tourette syndrome"
1976:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.2650
1794:Clin Pract Epidemiol Ment Health
1573:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2015.08.013
1526:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2015.08.019
1312:10.1097/00005792-199101000-00002
2312:Tourette Association of America
2220:Premonitory Urge for Tics Scale
1766:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.01.001
1131:Tourette Syndrome Association.
1076:10.1590/s1516-44462005000100006
1056:"Secondary tics and tourettism"
973:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.01.016
902:10.1136/practneurol-2017-001755
97:Genome-wide association studies
2215:Yale Global Tic Severity Scale
1135:Retrieved on February 8, 2005.
1:
2271:Georges Gilles de la Tourette
2123:Societal and cultural aspects
1490:10.1016/s0733-8619(05)70318-2
76:obsessive-compulsive disorder
18:Causes of Tourette's syndrome
2414:The Secret Life of Lele Pons
1853:10.1097/chi.0b013e318068fbcc
1557:"Histamine and the striatum"
844:10.1097/WCO.0b013e328344648c
739:10.1016/j.neurol.2018.06.006
643:10.1097/MOP.0000000000000546
1677:10.12968/hmed.2011.72.2.100
425:Robertson MM (March 2000).
33:neurodevelopmental disorder
2471:
329:Relation with OCD and ADHD
2235:Tourette's Disorder Scale
2225:Shapiro TS Severity Scale
1927:10.1017/S0033291717001672
689:10.1016/j.brs.2015.11.005
880:Stern JS (August 2018).
2327:Yale Child Study Center
2281:Jean Marc Gaspard Itard
1020:10.3934/genet.2017.1.32
775:J Paediatr Child Health
444:10.1093/brain/123.3.425
103:show that 50 to 77% of
69:histamine (H3-receptor)
1807:10.1186/1745-0179-4-13
1623:(4): 1–450, vii–viii.
1471:Singer HS (May 1997).
1399:10.1212/wnl.28.10.1064
271:Non-genetic influences
207:central nervous system
202:
1753:Neurosci Biobehav Rev
1704:Paediatr Child Health
1616:Health Technol Assess
1442:10.1002/ana.410060109
1356:10.1002/ana.410120408
961:Neurosci Biobehav Rev
891:(Historical review).
585:Neurogenetics, Part I
487:10.1542/pir.21-11-372
192:
151:incomplete penetrance
2025:10.1038/nrdp.2016.97
1665:Br J Hosp Med (Lond)
1299:Medicine (Baltimore)
1264:10.1212/wnl.49.2.410
1221:10.1212/wnl.43.5.941
1157:(8): 2263–72, 2274.
727:Rev. Neurol. (Paris)
631:Curr. Opin. Pediatr.
323:immune dysregulation
92:Genetic epidemiology
2400:Motherless Brooklyn
2261:Jean-Martin Charcot
2013:Nat Rev Dis Primers
832:Curr. Opin. Neurol.
525:Int. Rev. Neurobiol
155:variable expression
2351:Front of the Class
2108:Causes and origins
1716:10.1093/pch/pxy145
1169:on March 31, 2005.
934:J. Lab. Clin. Med.
303:, or who have low
250:dopamine receptors
203:
2450:Tourette syndrome
2437:
2436:
2386:Le Petit Tourette
2296:Arthur K. Shapiro
2184:Sensory phenomena
2094:Tourette syndrome
1561:Neuropharmacology
1514:Neuropharmacology
1107:J. Lab. Clin. Med
1094:on June 28, 2007.
1063:Braz J Psychiatry
787:10.1111/jpc.14165
367:978-0-89042-555-8
173:. Some cases of
26:Tourette syndrome
2462:
2455:Cause (medicine)
2322:Tourettes Action
2291:James F. Leckman
2208:Assessment tools
2179:Premonitory urge
2087:
2080:
2073:
2064:
2045:
2044:
2004:
1998:
1997:
1987:
1955:
1949:
1948:
1938:
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1900:
1899:
1879:
1873:
1872:
1836:
1830:
1829:
1819:
1809:
1785:
1779:
1778:
1768:
1744:
1738:
1737:
1727:
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1689:
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1660:
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1650:
1640:
1629:10.3310/hta20040
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1290:
1284:
1283:
1247:
1241:
1240:
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1198:
1197:
1177:
1171:
1170:
1165:. Archived from
1151:Am Fam Physician
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1129:
1123:
1122:
1102:
1096:
1095:
1093:
1087:. Archived from
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1060:
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1042:
1041:
1031:
999:
993:
992:
956:
950:
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929:
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709:
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672:
663:
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626:
615:
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580:
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558:
516:
507:
506:
470:
457:
456:
446:
422:
416:
399:
388:
378:
372:
371:
347:
281:forceps delivery
239:neurotransmitter
113:highly penetrant
71:, are involved.
61:neurotransmitter
2470:
2469:
2465:
2464:
2463:
2461:
2460:
2459:
2440:
2439:
2438:
2433:
2331:
2317:Tourette Canada
2300:
2266:Donald J. Cohen
2249:
2203:
2127:
2096:
2091:
2053:
2048:
2006:
2005:
2001:
1964:JAMA Psychiatry
1957:
1956:
1952:
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1838:
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1833:
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1379:
1341:
1340:
1336:
1292:
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1287:
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1126:
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1058:
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1052:
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1001:
1000:
996:
958:
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931:
930:
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884:
879:
878:
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820:
781:(10): 1148–53.
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673:
666:
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618:
603:
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510:
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423:
419:
400:
391:
379:
375:
368:
349:
348:
344:
340:
331:
301:low birthweight
273:
235:frontal cortex.
187:
185:Pathophysiology
109:fraternal twins
105:identical twins
88:
86:Genetic factors
19:
12:
11:
5:
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2372:John's Not Mad
2368:
2361:
2354:
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2339:
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2333:
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2329:
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2308:
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2302:
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2299:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2286:Samuel Johnson
2283:
2278:
2273:
2268:
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2257:
2255:
2251:
2250:
2248:
2247:
2242:
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2227:
2222:
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2209:
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2204:
2202:
2201:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2154:Echophenomenon
2151:
2146:
2141:
2135:
2133:
2129:
2128:
2126:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2104:
2102:
2098:
2097:
2092:
2090:
2089:
2082:
2075:
2067:
2061:
2060:
2052:
2051:External links
2049:
2047:
2046:
1999:
1950:
1901:
1874:
1831:
1780:
1739:
1690:
1652:
1596:
1547:
1504:
1463:
1420:
1393:(10): 1064–6.
1377:
1334:
1285:
1242:
1199:
1172:
1137:
1124:
1097:
1043:
994:
967:(6): 1026–39.
951:
924:
867:
818:
760:
710:
683:(2): 296–304.
664:
616:
601:
570:
545:
508:
481:(11): 372–83.
458:
417:
389:
373:
366:
341:
339:
336:
330:
327:
272:
269:
221:of the brain.
219:frontal cortex
186:
183:
87:
84:
57:frontal cortex
17:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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2379:Las Estrellas
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2305:Organizations
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2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2003:
2000:
1995:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1970:(4): 325–33.
1969:
1965:
1961:
1954:
1951:
1946:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1921:(2): 279–93.
1920:
1916:
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1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1878:
1875:
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1847:(8): 947–68.
1846:
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1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1694:
1691:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1671:(2): 100–07.
1670:
1666:
1659:
1657:
1653:
1648:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
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1527:
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1500:
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1483:(2): 357–79.
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1200:
1195:
1191:
1187:
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1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1141:
1138:
1134:
1128:
1125:
1120:
1116:
1113:(5): 638–45.
1112:
1108:
1101:
1098:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1077:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1057:
1050:
1048:
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1039:
1035:
1030:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
998:
995:
990:
986:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
955:
952:
947:
943:
940:(5): 638–45.
939:
935:
928:
925:
920:
916:
912:
908:
903:
898:
895:(4): 262–70.
894:
890:
883:
876:
874:
872:
868:
863:
859:
854:
849:
845:
841:
838:(2): 119–25.
837:
833:
829:
822:
819:
814:
810:
806:
802:
797:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
769:
767:
765:
761:
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
733:(9): 621–27.
732:
728:
724:
723:état de l'art
717:
715:
711:
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
671:
669:
665:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
640:
637:(6): 665–73.
636:
632:
625:
623:
621:
617:
612:
608:
604:
602:9780444632333
598:
594:
590:
586:
579:
577:
575:
571:
566:
562:
557:
552:
548:
546:9780124115460
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
515:
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504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
469:
467:
465:
463:
459:
454:
450:
445:
440:
437:(3): 425–62.
436:
432:
428:
421:
418:
415:
414:0-7817-9970-8
411:
407:
404:
398:
396:
394:
390:
386:
383:
377:
374:
369:
363:
359:
355:
354:
346:
343:
337:
335:
328:
326:
324:
320:
316:
315:streptococcal
312:
308:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
277:
270:
268:
266:
262:
258:
253:
251:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
231:basal ganglia
228:
224:
223:Neuroanatomic
220:
216:
215:basal ganglia
212:
208:
200:
196:
195:basal ganglia
191:
184:
182:
180:
176:
172:
168:
167:chromosome 13
163:
160:
156:
152:
148:
143:
141:
136:
134:
133:
128:
127:
123:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
93:
85:
83:
81:
77:
72:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
53:basal ganglia
50:
44:
42:
41:tic disorders
38:
34:
31:
27:
23:
16:
2426:
2421:The Tic Code
2419:
2412:
2405:
2398:
2391:
2377:
2370:
2363:
2356:
2349:
2342:
2194:Tic disorder
2107:
2016:
2012:
2002:
1967:
1963:
1953:
1918:
1914:
1904:
1887:
1883:
1877:
1844:
1840:
1834:
1797:
1793:
1783:
1756:
1752:
1742:
1710:(2): 85–91.
1707:
1703:
1693:
1668:
1664:
1620:
1614:
1564:
1560:
1550:
1517:
1513:
1507:
1480:
1476:
1466:
1433:
1429:
1423:
1390:
1386:
1380:
1350:(4): 361–6.
1347:
1343:
1337:
1305:(1): 15–32.
1302:
1298:
1288:
1258:(2): 410–5.
1255:
1251:
1245:
1215:(5): 941–9.
1212:
1208:
1202:
1185:
1181:
1175:
1167:the original
1154:
1150:
1140:
1127:
1110:
1106:
1100:
1089:the original
1066:
1062:
1014:(1): 32–46.
1011:
1007:
997:
964:
960:
954:
937:
933:
927:
892:
889:Pract Neurol
888:
835:
831:
821:
796:11343/284621
778:
774:
730:
726:
722:
680:
677:Brain Stimul
676:
634:
630:
584:
528:
524:
478:
474:
434:
430:
420:
402:
384:
376:
352:
345:
332:
309:
305:Apgar scores
287:, caffeine,
276:Psychosocial
274:
254:
247:postsynaptic
204:
164:
144:
137:
130:
120:
101:Twin studies
89:
73:
45:
21:
20:
15:
2144:Copropraxia
1915:Psychol Med
1477:Neurol Clin
1436:(1): 37–9.
1430:Ann. Neurol
1344:Ann. Neurol
1069:(1): 11–7.
475:Pediatr Rev
380:Black, KJ.
261:H3-receptor
2444:Categories
2276:Tim Howard
2199:Tourettism
2169:Palipraxia
2159:Echopraxia
2139:Coprolalia
2118:Management
2015:(Review).
1886:(Review).
1884:Adv Neurol
1843:(Review).
1188:: 145–50.
1182:Adv Neurol
1153:(Review).
1010:(Review).
1008:AIMS Genet
963:(Review).
936:(Review).
834:(Review).
777:(Review).
729:(Review).
679:(Review).
633:(Review).
531:: 155–77.
477:(Review).
311:Autoimmune
175:tourettism
140:tourettism
2164:Palilalia
2149:Echolalia
2019:: 16097.
1890:: 17–21.
1800:(1): 13.
1759:: 51–65.
1567:: 74–84.
1520:: 85–90.
1387:Neurology
1252:Neurology
1209:Neurology
385:eMedicine
325:with TS.
297:premature
257:histamine
117:mutations
30:inherited
2344:75 Watts
2041:38518566
2033:28150698
1994:25671412
1945:28651666
1896:16536349
1861:17667475
1826:18495013
1775:29309797
1734:30996598
1685:21378617
1647:26786936
1591:26275849
1542:20574808
1534:26282120
1458:12142634
1415:38781188
1372:71299547
1329:22623671
1280:26958522
1237:11641251
1163:10221310
1085:15867978
1038:31435502
989:10515751
981:23333760
911:29636375
862:21386676
813:52934981
805:30294996
755:51966823
747:30098800
705:22929403
697:26827109
659:13654194
651:28915150
611:29325623
565:24295621
495:11077021
453:10686169
293:cannabis
265:striatum
243:dopamine
211:thalamus
199:thalamus
179:mutation
169:of gene
135:genes).
115:genetic
65:dopamine
49:thalamus
2407:Quit It
2113:History
1985:4446055
1936:7909616
1817:2413218
1725:6462125
1638:4781241
1582:4917894
1499:9115467
1364:6184010
1321:1988764
1272:9270569
1229:8492950
1194:1414617
1119:8478592
1029:6690237
946:8478592
919:4709096
853:4065550
556:4471172
503:7774922
289:alcohol
285:tobacco
171:SLITRK1
159:genetic
132:CNTNAP2
122:SLITRK1
2358:Hichki
2254:People
2174:PANDAS
2039:
2031:
1992:
1982:
1943:
1933:
1894:
1869:343916
1867:
1859:
1824:
1814:
1773:
1732:
1722:
1683:
1645:
1635:
1589:
1579:
1540:
1532:
1497:
1456:
1450:292354
1448:
1413:
1407:284201
1405:
1370:
1362:
1327:
1319:
1278:
1270:
1235:
1227:
1192:
1161:
1117:
1083:
1036:
1026:
987:
979:
944:
917:
909:
860:
850:
811:
803:
753:
745:
703:
695:
657:
649:
609:
599:
563:
553:
543:
501:
493:
451:
412:
364:
334:2017.
319:PANDAS
291:, and
227:cortex
217:, and
147:Gender
129:, and
55:, and
2336:Media
2132:Terms
2037:S2CID
1865:S2CID
1538:S2CID
1454:S2CID
1411:S2CID
1368:S2CID
1325:S2CID
1276:S2CID
1233:S2CID
1092:(PDF)
1059:(PDF)
985:S2CID
915:S2CID
885:(PDF)
809:S2CID
751:S2CID
701:S2CID
655:S2CID
499:S2CID
431:Brain
358:81–85
338:Notes
299:with
2393:Maze
2101:Main
2029:PMID
1990:PMID
1941:PMID
1892:PMID
1857:PMID
1822:PMID
1771:PMID
1730:PMID
1681:PMID
1643:PMID
1587:PMID
1530:PMID
1495:PMID
1446:PMID
1403:PMID
1360:PMID
1317:PMID
1268:PMID
1225:PMID
1190:PMID
1159:PMID
1115:PMID
1081:PMID
1034:PMID
977:PMID
942:PMID
907:PMID
858:PMID
801:PMID
743:PMID
693:PMID
647:PMID
607:PMID
597:ISBN
561:PMID
541:ISBN
491:PMID
449:PMID
410:ISBN
362:ISBN
233:and
197:and
193:The
37:tics
2189:Tic
2021:doi
1980:PMC
1972:doi
1931:PMC
1923:doi
1849:doi
1812:PMC
1802:doi
1761:doi
1720:PMC
1712:doi
1673:doi
1633:PMC
1625:doi
1577:PMC
1569:doi
1565:106
1522:doi
1518:106
1485:doi
1438:doi
1395:doi
1352:doi
1307:doi
1260:doi
1217:doi
1111:121
1071:doi
1024:PMC
1016:doi
969:doi
938:121
897:doi
848:PMC
840:doi
791:hdl
783:doi
735:doi
731:174
725:".
685:doi
639:doi
589:doi
551:PMC
533:doi
529:112
483:doi
439:doi
435:123
126:HDC
2446::
2035:.
2027:.
2011:.
1988:.
1978:.
1968:72
1966:.
1962:.
1939:.
1929:.
1919:48
1917:.
1913:.
1888:99
1863:.
1855:.
1845:46
1820:.
1810:.
1796:.
1792:.
1769:.
1757:86
1755:.
1751:.
1728:.
1718:.
1708:24
1706:.
1702:.
1679:.
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1667:.
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1641:.
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1301:.
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1184:.
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1032:.
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1006:.
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830:.
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779:54
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635:29
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605:.
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559:.
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2043:.
2023::
2017:3
1996:.
1974::
1947:.
1925::
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1851::
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1763::
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370:.
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