1080:
goal-based. Aerobic exercise includes physical activity that increases the heart rate. Aerobic exercise is beneficial to the overall brain through mechanisms that promote neuroplasticity, or the rewiring of the brain circuitry. Goal-based exercises are often developed with the guidance of a physical therapist to use movement to improve motor task performance and enhance motor learning. While exercise has consistently been shown to be beneficial, the optimal interventional benefit is still being researched.
836:
1027:
980:
156:
24:
962:, which was used in gasoline until 1995 and paint until 1978, is known to damage the nervous system in various ways. A few studies have found that people with high levels of lead in their body had twice the risk of Parkinson's disease. Epidemiological studies on lead, however, have found little evidence for a link with Parkinson's.
1106:
gene is primarily expressed in the liver and is responsible for the enzyme cytochrome P450 2D6. A study showed that those who had a mutation of this gene and were exposed to pesticides were twice as likely to develop
Parkinson's Disease; those that had the mutation and were not exposed to pesticides
395:
containing it have been found in different groups with familial PD. Level of alpha-synuclein expression correlates with disease onset and progression, with SNCA gene triplication advancing earlier and faster than duplication. Missense mutations in SNCA are rare. On the other hand, multiplications of
483:
GBA mutations are proposed to contribute to parkinsonism through effects such as increased alpha-synuclein levels. In patients with
Parkinson's disease, the OR for carrying a GBA mutation was 5Β·43 (95% CI 3Β·89β7Β·57), confirming that mutations in this gene are a common risk factor for Parkinson's
1079:
While many environmental factors may exacerbate
Parkinson's disease, exercise is considered to be one of the main protective factors for neurodegenerative disorders, including Parkinson's disease. The types of exercise interventions that have been studied can be categorized as either aerobic or
874:
has been studied as a factor in the development of
Parkinson's disease. No definitive causal relationship has yet been established. Recent studies also reveal that individuals that sustain mild head injuries (concussions) also have an increased risk of acquiring the disease. As discussed below,
115:
Because the etiology of about 80% of PD cases is unknown, they are classified as idiopathic, whereas the other 20% are thought to be genetic. PD risk is increased by variations in the genetic mix of specific genes. Research has indicated that the risk of
Parkinson's disease (PD) is increased by
1088:
Smokers and nonsmokers with different rates of caffeine consumption were monitored for their susceptibility to PD. The results indicate that higher coffee/caffeine intake is associated with a significantly lower incidence of PD and that this effect appeared to be independent of smoking.
220:(GBA) have been found to be risk factors for sporadic PD In most cases, people with these mutations will develop PD. With the exception of LRRK2, however, they account for only a small minority of cases of PD. The most extensively studied PD-related genes are SNCA and LRRK2.
450:
may cause mitochondrial dysfunction, an element of both idiopathic and genetic PD. Of related interest are mutations in the progranulin gene that have been found to cause corticobasal degeneration seen in dementia. This could be relevant in PD cases associated with
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are three times more likely to die from neurodegenerative diseases, including
Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, than the general US population. A 2018 study found 56% increase in risk of Parkinson's disease among US military veterans suffered
917:
showing the most risk. Rural living, well-drinking, and farming were also associated with
Parkinson's, which may be partly explained by pesticide exposure. These factors are pertinent to many communities, one of them being
936:
is a risk factor, and has been identified in industrial worker case studies and has induced parkinsonism in mice. It is mainly used in the manufacture of viscose rayon, cellophane film, rubber and carbon tetrachloride.
433:
are the most common known cause of familial and sporadic PD, accounting for approximately 5% of individuals with a family history of the disease and 3% of sporadic cases. There are many different mutations described in
424:
word for tremor, because this gene was first identified in families from
England and the north of Spain. A significant number of autosomal-dominant Parkinson's disease cases are associated with mutations in the
3334:
Goodwin VA, Richards SH, Taylor RS, Taylor AH, Campbell JL (April 2008). "The effectiveness of exercise interventions for people with
Parkinson's disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis".
1177:
Braak H, Rub U, Gai WP, Del
Tredici K (2003-05-01). "Idiopathic Parkinson's disease: possible routes by which vulnerable neuronal types may be subject to neuroinvasion by an unknown pathogen".
475:
with low penetrance in sporadic cases, have now yielded many positive results. Mendelian genetics are not strictly observed in GBA mutations found in inherited parkinsonism. Incidentally, both
2899:
Bonifati V, Rizzu P, van Baren MJ, Schaap O, Breedveld GJ, Krieger E, et al. (January 2003). "Mutations in the DJ-1 gene associated with autosomal recessive early-onset parkinsonism".
1787:
Kitada T, Asakawa S, Hattori N, Matsumine H, Yamamura Y, Minoshima S, et al. (April 1998). "Mutations in the parkin gene cause autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism".
269:
42:
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has been implicated in the etiology of Parkinson's disease, but there is no strong evidence that environmental exposure to it is associated with Parkinson's.
3436:
Elbaz A, Levecque C, Clavel J, Vidal JS, Richard F, Amouyel P, et al. (March 2004). "CYP2D6 polymorphism, pesticide exposure, and Parkinson's disease".
216:
respectively have been implicated in the development of autosomal-recessive PD Furthermore, mutations in genes including those that code for SNCA, LRRK2 and
930:) have received the most attention, with several studies reporting that exposure to such pesticides is associated with a doubling of risk for Parkinson's.
2220:
Funayama M, Hasegawa K, Kowa H, Saito M, Tsuji S, Obata F (March 2002). "A new locus for Parkinson's disease (PARK8) maps to chromosome 12p11.2-q13.1".
589:
PD (Parkinson's Disease); PD with dementia;diffuse LBs disease;aggressive course; can develop cognitive dysfunction, autonomic failure, and myoclonus
1107:
were not found to be at an increased risk of developing PD; the pesticides only had a "modest effect" for those without the mutation of the gene.
691:
245:
2317:"Imputation of sequence variants for identification of genetic risks for Parkinson's disease: a meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies"
919:
188:. Genes which have been implicated in autosomal-dominant PD include PARK1 and PARK4, PARK5, PARK8, PARK11 and GIGYF2 and PARK13 which code for
2853:
Hatano Y, Li Y, Sato K, Asakawa S, Yamamura Y, Tomiyama H, et al. (September 2004). "Novel PINK1 mutations in early-onset parkinsonism".
1279:
Bhat S, Acharya UR, Hagiwara Y, Dadmehr N, Adeli H (2018). "Parkinson's disease: Cause factors, measurable indicators, and early diagnosis".
1153:
1389:"Genetic etiology of Parkinson disease associated with mutations in the SNCA, PARK2, PINK1, PARK7, and LRRK2 genes: a mutation update"
60:
2799:
Leroy E, Boyer R, Auburger G, Leube B, Ulm G, Mezey E, et al. (October 1998). "The ubiquitin pathway in Parkinson's disease".
2025:"LRP10 genetic variants in familial Parkinson's disease and dementia with Lewy bodies: a genome-wide linkage and sequencing study"
601:
169:
Traditionally, Parkinson's disease has been considered a non-genetic disorder. However, around 15% of individuals with PD have a
3490:
3207:"Chronic carbon disulfide exposure induces parkinsonian pathology via a-synuclein aggregation and necrosome complex interaction"
1648:"Molecular targets for modulating the protein translation vital to proteostasis and neuron degeneration in Parkinson's disease"
597:
2752:"Phase analysis identifies compound heterozygous deletions of the PARK2 gene in patients with early-onset Parkinson disease"
2655:
Teismann P, Schulz JB (October 2004). "Cellular pathology of Parkinson's disease: astrocytes, microglia and inflammation".
468:
905:
studies suggests that exposure to pesticides increases the risk for Parkinson's disease. One meta-analysis found a
2969:"The dardarin G 2019 S mutation is a common cause of Parkinson's disease but not other neurodegenerative diseases"
184:
Mutations in specific genes have been conclusively shown to cause PD. A large number of these genes are linked to
3485:
480:
476:
77:
2429:
Wood-Kaczmar A, Gandhi S, Wood NW (November 2006). "Understanding the molecular causes of Parkinson's disease".
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deletion is known to be associated with PD. An autosomal dominant form has been associated with mutations in the
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923:
2942:
1136:
Kouli A, Torsney KM, Kuan WL (2018-12-22). "Parkinson's Disease: Etiology, Neuropathology, and Pathogenesis".
698:
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The role of the SNCA gene is significant in PD because the alpha-synuclein protein is the main component of
263:
197:
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Noyce AJ, Bestwick JP, Silveira-Moriyama L, Hawkes CH, Giovannoni G, Lees AJ, et al. (December 2012).
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89:
73:
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Hernandez D, Paisan Ruiz C, Crawley A, Malkani R, Werner J, Gwinn-Hardy K, et al. (December 2005).
185:
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88:, and stiffness. As the condition worsens, some patients may also experience postural instability.
3287:"Exercise-enhanced neuroplasticity targeting motor and cognitive circuitry in Parkinson's disease"
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2924:
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Chen-Plotkin AS, Martinez-Lage M, Sleiman PM, Hu W, Greene R, Wood EM, et al. (April 2011).
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2005:
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224:
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Quadri M, Mandemakers W, Grochowska MM, Masius R, Geut H, Fabrizio E, et al. (July 2018).
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Nalls MA, Plagnol V, Hernandez DG, Sharma M, Sheerin UM, Saad M, et al. (February 2011).
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2150:
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1997:
1958:
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159:
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2121:"Parkinson's disease genes VPS35 and EIF4G1 interact genetically and converge on Ξ±-synuclein"
2119:
Dhungel N, Eleuteri S, Li LB, Kramer NJ, Chartron JW, Spencer B, et al. (January 2015).
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Neumann J, Bras J, Deas E, O'Sullivan SS, Parkkinen L, Lachmann RH, et al. (July 2009).
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1989:
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392:
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97:
3054:"Mild TBI and risk of Parkinson disease: A Chronic Effects of Neurotrauma Consortium Study"
2268:"Genetic and clinical features of progranulin-associated frontotemporal lobar degeneration"
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the SNCA locus account for around 2% of familial cases. Multiplications have been found in
894:
653:
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421:
300:
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189:
163:
133:
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2188:
1840:"Glucocerebrosidase mutations in clinical and pathologically proven Parkinson's disease"
1800:
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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
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Correddu D, Leung IK (June 2019). "Targeting mRNA translation in Parkinson's disease".
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exercise and caffeine consumption are known to help decrease the risks of acquisition.
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438:, however unequivocal proof of causation only exists for a small number. Mutations in
3479:
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Haugarvoll K, Wszolek ZK (December 2009). "Clinical features of LRRK2 parkinsonism".
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may play a role in maintaining supply of synaptic vesicles in presynaptic terminals;
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2009:
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1332:"Mutations in PRKN and SNCA Genes Important for the Progress of Parkinson's Disease"
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have been implicated in the development of PD. The autosomal dominant genes include
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1016:
898:
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81:
3106:"Neurodegenerative causes of death among retired National Football League players"
3158:"Meta-analysis of early nonmotor features and risk factors for Parkinson disease"
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Petzinger GM, Fisher BE, McEwen S, Beeler JA, Walsh JP, Jakowec MW (July 2013).
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340:
3389:"Environmental-genetic interactions in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease"
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2715:
2567:"Environmental-genetic interactions in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease"
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and Lewy neurites, which are proteins found in surviving dopaminergic neurons.
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1993:
1944:
1714:
1699:"The genetic architecture of mitochondrial dysfunction in Parkinson's disease"
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906:
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401:
384:
3404:
2616:"Parkinson's disease: from monogenic forms to genetic susceptibility factors"
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1564:"Parkinson's disease: from monogenic forms to genetic susceptibility factors"
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who has the disease. At least 5β15% of cases are known to occur because of a
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Kim SY, Seong MW, Jeon BS, Kim SY, Ko HS, Kim JY, et al. (July 2012).
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2001:
1977:
1962:
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Gardner RC, Byers AL, Barnes DE, Li Y, Boscardin J, Yaffe K (May 2018).
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respectively Genes such as PARK2, PARK6, PARK7 and PARK9 which code for
147:
has been studied as a factor in the development of Parkinson's disease.
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Chen Y, Cen Z, Zheng X, Pan Q, Chen X, Zhu L, et al. (June 2019).
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92:(PD) is primarily caused by the gradual degeneration of dopaminergic
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2820:
1929:"New Genes Causing Hereditary Parkinson's Disease or Parkinsonism"
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Zhou ZD, Selvaratnam T, Lee JC, Chao YX, Tan EK (February 2019).
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Nuytemans K, Theuns J, Cruts M, Van Broeckhoven C (2010-05-18).
963:
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772:-10 point mutations including C46A, C53A, C106 & WT regions
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443:
288:
209:
125:
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instructions for making a small protein called alpha-synuclei
116:
mutations in the genes encoding leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (
17:
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Thompson SJ, Loftus LT, Ashley MD, Meller R (February 2008).
177:
in one of several specific genes, transmitted in either an
1228:
Forno LS (1996). "Neuropathology of ParkinsonΚΌs Disease".
100:
along with other monoaminergic cell groups throughout the
3104:
Lehman EJ, Hein MJ, Baron SL, Gersic CM (November 2012).
2700:"Ubiquitin-proteasome system as a modulator of cell fate"
2522:
Genomic Location: The SNCA gene is found on chromosome 4.
1330:
Oczkowska A, Kozubski W, Lianeri M, Dorszewska J (2014).
2173:"Recent advances in the genetics of Parkinson's disease"
1038:
991:
38:
1138:
Parkinson's Disease: Pathogenesis and Clinical Aspects
379:, which appear as a primary biomarker in the disease.
1146:
10.15586/codonpublications.parkinsonsdisease.2018.ch1
813:
Diffuse LBs; LNs; Β± tau inclusions; Β± amyloid plaques
1892:
Davie CA (2008). "A review of Parkinson's disease".
1887:
1885:
1883:
1230:
Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology
909:of 1.6 for ever being exposed to a pesticide, with
343:or have unknown inheritance pattern; those include
33:
may be too technical for most readers to understand
2532:
2530:
1098:Polymorphism of CYP2D6 gene and pesticide exposure
2560:
2558:
2074:"LRP10 in autosomal-dominant Parkinson's disease"
179:autosomal-dominant or autosomal-recessive pattern
80: that progresses over time and is marked by
2949:. Rehovot, Israel: Weizmann Institute of Science
2371:"The link between the GBA gene and parkinsonism"
1342:(8). Bentham Science Publishers Ltd.: 502β517.
3047:
3045:
1455:"Environmental toxins and Parkinson's disease"
709:Unknown; various abnormal protein aggregations
674:Early on set Parkinsonism; slow progression PD
3280:
3278:
3276:
3099:
3097:
1448:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1440:
1438:
1436:
1434:
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1236:(3). Oxford University Press (OUP): 259β272.
488:Genes underlying familial Parkinson's disease
192:(SNCA), UCHL1, leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (
120:), Parkinson's disease-associated deglycase (
8:
3151:
3149:
2501:
2499:
2177:Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics
1459:Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology
2364:
2362:
2360:
2171:Martin I, Dawson VL, Dawson TM (Sep 2011).
1933:Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports
1697:Larsen SB, Hanss Z, KrΓΌger R (July 2018).
1062:A 2012 study suggests that players in the
553:PD; some postural tremor; slow progression
416:gene (PARK8) encodes for a protein called
3412:
3355:
3310:
3230:
3181:
3129:
3077:
2767:
2723:
2631:
2590:
2466:"The biochemistry of Parkinson's disease"
2394:
2340:
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1976:Deng H, Wang P, Jankovic J (March 2018).
1952:
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1363:
61:Learn how and when to remove this message
45:, without removing the technical details.
2482:10.1146/annurev.biochem.74.082803.133400
1555:
1553:
1551:
1549:
1547:
1545:
1543:
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1494:Samii A, Nutt JG, Ransom BR (May 2004).
491:
204:(PRKN), PTEN-induced putative kinase 1 (
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2422:
2420:
2418:
2416:
2414:
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2259:
1128:
741:-Deletions on C-terminus Kinase domain
2894:
2892:
2848:
2846:
2745:
2743:
2369:Sidransky E, Lopez G (November 2012).
1472:10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-011613-135937
420:. The name dardarin was taken from a
43:make it understandable to non-experts
7:
3016:Parkinsonism & Related Disorders
1140:. Codon Publications. p. 3β26.
463:Mutations in GBA are known to cause
298:. Autosomal recessive genes include
2544:. U.S. National Library of Medicine
2513:. U.S. National Library of Medicine
2189:10.1146/annurev-genom-082410-101440
1978:"The genetics of Parkinson disease"
889:Rotenone Β§ Parkinson's_disease
885:Paraquat Β§ Parkinson's_disease
665:200+ possible mutations including:
596:; Β± glial inclusions; hippocampal
14:
1748:"A review of Parkinson's disease"
1348:10.2174/1389202914666131210205839
1281:Computers in Biology and Medicine
667:- Inactivating somatic mutations
582:may regulate release of dopamine
2769:10.1111/j.1399-0004.2011.01693.x
2614:Lesage S, Brice A (April 2009).
1562:Lesage S, Brice A (April 2009).
1293:10.1016/j.compbiomed.2018.09.008
1242:10.1097/00005072-199603000-00001
1025:
978:
866:Exposure to pesticides, metals,
834:
670:- Frequent intragenic deletions
404:is incomplete or age-dependent.
139:Exposure to pesticides, metals,
22:
2704:Current Opinion in Pharmacology
1652:Translational Neurodegeneration
469:Genome-wide association studies
383:of the gene (in which a single
1927:Puschmann A (September 2017).
1179:Journal of Neural Transmission
810:late-onset Parkinson's Disease
1:
3303:10.1016/S1474-4422(13)70123-6
3028:10.1016/S1353-8020(09)70815-6
2470:Annual Review of Biochemistry
2387:10.1016/S1474-4422(12)70190-4
2333:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)62345-8
2042:10.1016/s1474-4422(18)30179-0
1512:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16305-8
1093:Environmental-Genetic factors
493:Genes underlying familial PD
3122:10.1212/WNL.0b013e31826daf50
3070:10.1212/WNL.0000000000005522
2985:10.1016/j.neulet.2005.07.044
2443:10.1016/j.molmed.2006.09.007
2431:Trends in Molecular Medicine
2137:10.1016/j.neuron.2014.11.027
1617:10.1016/j.drudis.2019.04.003
706:PD; late on set parkinsonism
3387:Tsuboi Y (September 2012).
2565:Tsuboi Y (September 2012).
625:Idiopathic PD; early on set
471:, which search for mutated
96:in the region known as the
3507:
3223:10.1016/j.isci.2023.107787
2716:10.1016/j.coph.2007.09.010
2284:10.1001/archneurol.2011.53
1014:
944:
882:
774:- Large deletion in L166P
769:oxidative stress response?
104:, increased activation of
3393:Experimental Neurobiology
2669:10.1007/s00441-004-0944-0
2571:Experimental Neurobiology
1994:10.1016/j.arr.2017.12.007
1945:10.1007/s11910-017-0780-8
1715:10.1007/s00441-017-2768-8
1665:10.1186/s40035-019-0145-0
1191:10.1007/s00702-002-0808-2
924:Organochlorine pesticides
843:This section needs to be
544:Unknown synaptic function
391:and triplications of the
78:neurodegenerative disease
3405:10.5607/en.2012.21.3.123
2657:Cell and Tissue Research
2620:Human Molecular Genetics
2583:10.5607/en.2012.21.3.123
1894:British Medical Bulletin
1752:British Medical Bulletin
1703:Cell and Tissue Research
1568:Human Molecular Genetics
1287:. Elsevier BV: 234β241.
1064:National Football League
778:Early onset Parkinsonism
738:-Mostly point mutations
677:variable presence of LBs
196:or dardarin) (LRRK2 and
2913:10.1126/science.1077209
2542:Genetics Home Reference
2511:Genetics Home Reference
1982:Ageing Research Reviews
699:deubiquitinating enzyme
487:
3022:(Suppl 3): S205βS208.
1069:traumatic brain injury
1035:This section is empty.
988:This section is empty.
804:unknown protein kinase
730:mitochondrial Ser-Thr
517:Clinical Presentations
400:, which indicate that
166:
108:, and the build-up of
76:(PD) is a complicated
3291:The Lancet. Neurology
2375:The Lancet. Neurology
2272:Archives of Neurology
2029:The Lancet. Neurology
1496:"Parkinson's disease"
826:Environmental factors
398:asymptomatic carriers
171:first-degree relative
158:
2973:Neuroscience Letters
1856:10.1093/brain/awp044
1605:Drug Discovery Today
1084:Caffeine consumption
3491:Parkinson's disease
3438:Annals of Neurology
3162:Annals of Neurology
3064:(20): e1771βe1779.
2855:Annals of Neurology
2813:1998Natur.395..451L
2464:Cookson MR (2005).
2222:Annals of Neurology
1850:(Pt 7): 1783β1794.
1801:1998Natur.392..605K
1506:(9423): 1783β1793.
1453:Goldman SM (2014).
661:E3 ubiquitin ligase
494:
229:autosomal recessive
90:Parkinson's disease
74:Parkinson's disease
3336:Movement Disorders
3255:"Carbon Disulfide"
2633:10.1093/hmg/ddp012
2078:Movement Disorders
1906:10.1093/bmb/ldn013
1765:10.1093/bmb/ldn013
1581:10.1093/hmg/ddp012
1405:10.1002/humu.21277
807:G2019S most common
703:Missense: Ile93Met
607:Mid 20s β 30s
492:
429:gene Mutations in
381:Missense mutations
225:autosomal dominant
218:glucocerebrosidase
167:
3450:10.1002/ana.20051
3348:10.1002/mds.21922
3174:10.1002/ana.23687
3116:(19): 1970β1974.
2907:(5604): 256β259.
2867:10.1002/ana.20251
2807:(6701): 451β452.
2756:Clinical Genetics
2327:(9766): 641β649.
2234:10.1002/ana.10113
2090:10.1002/mds.27693
1795:(6676): 605β608.
1746:Davie CA (2008).
1155:978-0-9944381-6-4
1117:Trichloroethylene
1055:
1054:
1008:
1007:
864:
863:
823:
822:
561:Mid 20s β 30
465:Gaucher's disease
387:is changed), and
339:. Some genes are
71:
70:
63:
3498:
3486:Cause (medicine)
3470:
3469:
3433:
3427:
3426:
3416:
3384:
3378:
3377:
3359:
3331:
3325:
3324:
3314:
3282:
3271:
3270:
3268:
3266:
3251:
3245:
3244:
3234:
3202:
3196:
3195:
3185:
3153:
3144:
3143:
3133:
3101:
3092:
3091:
3081:
3049:
3040:
3039:
3011:
3005:
3004:
2964:
2958:
2957:
2955:
2954:
2939:
2933:
2932:
2896:
2887:
2886:
2850:
2841:
2840:
2796:
2790:
2789:
2771:
2747:
2738:
2737:
2727:
2695:
2689:
2688:
2652:
2646:
2645:
2635:
2611:
2605:
2604:
2594:
2562:
2553:
2552:
2550:
2549:
2534:
2525:
2524:
2519:
2518:
2503:
2494:
2493:
2461:
2455:
2454:
2426:
2409:
2408:
2398:
2366:
2355:
2354:
2344:
2312:
2306:
2305:
2295:
2263:
2254:
2253:
2217:
2211:
2210:
2200:
2168:
2159:
2158:
2148:
2116:
2110:
2109:
2069:
2063:
2062:
2044:
2020:
2014:
2013:
1973:
1967:
1966:
1956:
1924:
1918:
1917:
1889:
1878:
1877:
1867:
1835:
1829:
1828:
1784:
1778:
1777:
1767:
1743:
1737:
1736:
1726:
1694:
1688:
1687:
1677:
1667:
1643:
1637:
1636:
1611:(6): 1295β1303.
1600:
1594:
1593:
1583:
1559:
1532:
1531:
1491:
1485:
1484:
1474:
1450:
1427:
1426:
1416:
1384:
1378:
1377:
1367:
1336:Current Genomics
1327:
1321:
1320:
1276:
1270:
1269:
1225:
1219:
1218:
1174:
1168:
1167:
1133:
1050:
1047:
1037:You can help by
1029:
1021:
1003:
1000:
990:You can help by
982:
974:
934:Carbon disulfide
859:
856:
850:
838:
837:
830:
629:and diffuse LBs
495:
481:loss-of-function
477:gain-of-function
98:substantia nigra
66:
59:
55:
52:
46:
26:
25:
18:
3506:
3505:
3501:
3500:
3499:
3497:
3496:
3495:
3476:
3475:
3474:
3473:
3435:
3434:
3430:
3386:
3385:
3381:
3333:
3332:
3328:
3284:
3283:
3274:
3264:
3262:
3253:
3252:
3248:
3204:
3203:
3199:
3155:
3154:
3147:
3103:
3102:
3095:
3051:
3050:
3043:
3013:
3012:
3008:
2966:
2965:
2961:
2952:
2950:
2941:
2940:
2936:
2898:
2897:
2890:
2852:
2851:
2844:
2798:
2797:
2793:
2749:
2748:
2741:
2697:
2696:
2692:
2654:
2653:
2649:
2626:(R1): R48βR59.
2613:
2612:
2608:
2564:
2563:
2556:
2547:
2545:
2536:
2535:
2528:
2516:
2514:
2505:
2504:
2497:
2463:
2462:
2458:
2437:(11): 521β528.
2428:
2427:
2412:
2381:(11): 986β998.
2368:
2367:
2358:
2314:
2313:
2309:
2265:
2264:
2257:
2219:
2218:
2214:
2183:(10): 301β325.
2170:
2169:
2162:
2118:
2117:
2113:
2071:
2070:
2066:
2022:
2021:
2017:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1926:
1925:
1921:
1891:
1890:
1881:
1837:
1836:
1832:
1786:
1785:
1781:
1745:
1744:
1740:
1696:
1695:
1691:
1645:
1644:
1640:
1602:
1601:
1597:
1574:(R1): R48βR59.
1561:
1560:
1535:
1493:
1492:
1488:
1452:
1451:
1430:
1386:
1385:
1381:
1329:
1328:
1324:
1278:
1277:
1273:
1227:
1226:
1222:
1176:
1175:
1171:
1156:
1135:
1134:
1130:
1125:
1113:
1100:
1095:
1086:
1077:
1060:
1051:
1045:
1042:
1030:
1019:
1013:
1004:
998:
995:
983:
972:
957:
943:
926:(which include
895:epidemiological
891:
881:
860:
854:
851:
848:
839:
835:
828:
632:LBs and LNs; Β±
622:A53T, A30P E46K
490:
461:
410:
373:
190:alpha-synuclein
164:Parkin (ligase)
153:
151:Genetic factors
134:alpha-synuclein
67:
56:
50:
47:
39:help improve it
36:
27:
23:
12:
11:
5:
3504:
3502:
3494:
3493:
3488:
3478:
3477:
3472:
3471:
3444:(3): 430β434.
3428:
3399:(3): 123β128.
3379:
3342:(5): 631β640.
3326:
3297:(7): 716β726.
3272:
3246:
3197:
3168:(6): 893β901.
3145:
3093:
3041:
3006:
2979:(3): 137β139.
2959:
2934:
2888:
2861:(3): 424β427.
2842:
2791:
2739:
2690:
2663:(1): 149β161.
2647:
2606:
2577:(3): 123β128.
2554:
2526:
2495:
2456:
2410:
2356:
2307:
2278:(4): 488β497.
2255:
2228:(3): 296β301.
2212:
2160:
2111:
2084:(6): 912β916.
2064:
2035:(7): 597β608.
2015:
1968:
1919:
1879:
1830:
1779:
1758:(1): 109β127.
1738:
1689:
1638:
1595:
1533:
1486:
1428:
1399:(7): 763β780.
1393:Human Mutation
1379:
1322:
1271:
1220:
1185:(5): 517β536.
1169:
1154:
1127:
1126:
1124:
1121:
1120:
1119:
1112:
1109:
1099:
1096:
1094:
1091:
1085:
1082:
1076:
1073:
1059:
1056:
1053:
1052:
1033:
1031:
1024:
1012:
1009:
1006:
1005:
986:
984:
977:
971:
968:
947:Lead poisoning
942:
939:
922:populations.
893:Evidence from
880:
877:
862:
861:
842:
840:
833:
827:
824:
821:
820:
817:
814:
811:
808:
805:
802:
799:
793:
789:
788:
785:
782:
779:
776:
770:
767:
765:
760:
756:
755:
752:
749:
746:
743:
736:40+ mutations
734:
728:
726:
721:
717:
716:
713:
710:
707:
704:
701:
696:
694:
689:
685:
684:
681:
680:Juvenile to 40
678:
675:
672:
663:
658:
656:
651:
647:
646:
644:
641:
634:tau inclusions
630:
623:
620:
618:
616:
614:
611:
610:
608:
605:
590:
587:
584:
575:
572:
569:
566:
565:
562:
559:
554:
548:
545:
542:
539:
532:
528:
527:
524:
521:
520:Neuropathology
518:
515:
512:
509:
504:
501:
489:
486:
460:
457:
409:
406:
372:
369:
232:gene mutations
152:
149:
69:
68:
30:
28:
21:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3503:
3492:
3489:
3487:
3484:
3483:
3481:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3432:
3429:
3424:
3420:
3415:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3383:
3380:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3330:
3327:
3322:
3318:
3313:
3308:
3304:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3281:
3279:
3277:
3273:
3260:
3256:
3250:
3247:
3242:
3238:
3233:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3208:
3205:Zu L (2023).
3201:
3198:
3193:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3152:
3150:
3146:
3141:
3137:
3132:
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3119:
3115:
3111:
3107:
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3098:
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3017:
3010:
3007:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2963:
2960:
2948:
2944:
2938:
2935:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2895:
2893:
2889:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2849:
2847:
2843:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2821:10.1038/26652
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2795:
2792:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2770:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2746:
2744:
2740:
2735:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2694:
2691:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2651:
2648:
2643:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2625:
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2617:
2610:
2607:
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2598:
2593:
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2576:
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2561:
2559:
2555:
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2539:
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2527:
2523:
2512:
2508:
2502:
2500:
2496:
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2411:
2406:
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2397:
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2361:
2357:
2352:
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2326:
2322:
2318:
2311:
2308:
2303:
2299:
2294:
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2277:
2273:
2269:
2262:
2260:
2256:
2251:
2247:
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2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2216:
2213:
2208:
2204:
2199:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2167:
2165:
2161:
2156:
2152:
2147:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2115:
2112:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
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2079:
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2068:
2065:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2043:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2019:
2016:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1972:
1969:
1964:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1923:
1920:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1888:
1886:
1884:
1880:
1875:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1834:
1831:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1809:10.1038/33416
1806:
1802:
1798:
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1783:
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1497:
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1129:
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1108:
1105:
1097:
1092:
1090:
1083:
1081:
1074:
1072:
1070:
1065:
1058:Head injuries
1057:
1049:
1046:November 2023
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1023:
1022:
1018:
1011:Air pollution
1010:
1002:
999:November 2023
993:
989:
985:
981:
976:
975:
969:
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965:
961:
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948:
940:
938:
935:
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929:
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921:
916:
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904:
900:
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890:
886:
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876:
873:
869:
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855:November 2023
846:
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631:
628:
624:
621:
619:
617:
615:
613:
612:
609:
606:
603:
599:
595:
594:Lewy neurites
591:
588:
586:Triplications
585:
583:
580:
576:
573:
570:
568:
567:
563:
560:
558:
555:
552:
549:
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669:
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627:parkinsonism
581:
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526:Inheritance
523:Age at onset
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132:, or SNCA (
110:Lewy bodies
3480:Categories
2953:2016-08-16
2548:2016-08-16
2517:2016-08-16
1123:References
1015:See also:
945:See also:
911:herbicides
907:risk ratio
883:See also:
879:Pesticides
787:Recessive
754:Recessive
683:Recessive
551:Idiopathic
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385:nucleotide
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951:Manganism
872:toxicants
819:Dominant
715:Dominant
564:Dominant
514:Mutations
484:disease.
371:SNCA gene
227:and nine
145:toxicants
106:microglia
102:brainstem
3466:19772933
3458:14991823
3423:23055790
3366:18181210
3321:23769598
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2677:15338271
2642:19297401
2601:23055790
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2302:21482928
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2207:21639795
2155:25533483
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2059:47009438
2051:29887161
2010:28246244
2002:29288112
1963:28733970
1914:18398010
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1317:52825532
1309:30253869
1215:26635560
1207:12721813
1164:30702842
1111:See also
1075:Exercise
903:in vitro
868:solvents
592:LBs and
511:Function
459:GBA gene
453:dementia
418:dardarin
341:X-linked
175:mutation
141:solvents
3414:3454809
3374:3808899
3312:3690528
3183:3556649
3131:4098841
3079:5957305
2943:"LRRK2"
2901:Science
2829:9774100
2809:Bibcode
2725:2265078
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2396:4141416
2342:3696507
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2198:4120236
2146:4289081
1954:5522513
1865:2702833
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1817:9560156
1797:Bibcode
1724:6015629
1675:6360798
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1365:3924246
1266:6289469
1258:8786384
970:Solvent
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781:Unknown
748:Unknown
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2507:"SNCA"
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422:Basque
367:gene.
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351:PARK12
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319:PLA2G6
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283:CHCHD2
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3370:S2CID
3265:3 Dec
2997:S2CID
2925:S2CID
2879:S2CID
2833:S2CID
2782:S2CID
2681:S2CID
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1821:S2CID
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507:Locus
503:Gene
440:PINK1
436:LRRK2
431:LRRK2
427:LRRK2
414:LRRK2
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364:LRP10
359:22q11
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