38:
925:, which states that on large scales the Universe is homogeneous and isotropic. According to theory, the Universe approximately a second after its formation was a near-ideal black body in thermal equilibrium at a temperature above 10 K. The temperature decreased as the Universe expanded and the matter and radiation in it cooled. The cosmic microwave background radiation observed today is "the most perfect black body ever measured in nature". It has a nearly ideal Planck spectrum at a temperature of about 2.7 K. It departs from the perfect isotropy of true black-body radiation by an observed anisotropy that varies with angle on the sky only to about one part in 100,000.
934:
720:
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photosphere, but such changes are slow on the time scale of interest here. Assuming these circumstances can be realized, the outer layer of the star is somewhat analogous to the example of an enclosure with a small hole in it, with the hole replaced by the limited transmission into space at the outside of the photosphere. With all these assumptions in place, the star emits black-body radiation at the temperature of the photosphere.
236:
584:
249:
black surface. The hole is not quite a perfect black surfaceâin particular, if the wavelength of the incident radiation is greater than the diameter of the hole, part will be reflected. Similarly, even in perfect thermal equilibrium, the radiation inside a finite-sized cavity will not have an ideal Planck spectrum for wavelengths comparable to or larger than the size of the cavity.
636:
766:. It is called "black" because it absorbs all the light that hits the horizon, reflecting nothing, making it almost an ideal black body (radiation with a wavelength equal to or larger than the diameter of the hole may not be absorbed, so black holes are not perfect black bodies). Physicists believe that to an outside observer, black holes have a non-zero temperature and emit
56:
522:
unavailable. They are also useful in telescopes and cameras as anti-reflection surfaces to reduce stray light, and to gather information about objects in high-contrast areas (for example, observation of planets in orbit around their stars), where blackbody-like materials absorb light that comes from the wrong sources.
466:
Kirchhoff in 1860 introduced the theoretical concept of a perfect black body with a completely absorbing surface layer of infinitely small thickness, but Planck noted some severe restrictions upon this idea. Planck noted three requirements upon a black body: the body must (i) allow radiation to enter
248:
A widely used model of a black surface is a small hole in a cavity with walls that are opaque to radiation. Radiation incident on the hole will pass into the cavity, and is very unlikely to be re-emitted if the cavity is large. Lack of any re-emission, means that the hole is behaving like a perfect
500:
published an account of their cavity radiation source. Their design has been used largely unchanged for radiation measurements to the present day. It was a hole in the wall of a platinum box, divided by diaphragms, with its interior blackened with iron oxide. It was an important ingredient for the
1120:
are known, this law can be used to estimate the dimensions of the emitting object, because the total emitted power is proportional to the area of the emitting surface. In this way it was found that X-ray bursts observed by astronomers originated in neutron stars with a radius of about 10 km,
631:
that is maintained over a long period of time. Some photons escape and are emitted into space, but the energy they carry away is replaced by energy from within the star, so that the temperature of the photosphere is nearly steady. Changes in the core lead to changes in the supply of energy to the
1108:
or restructuring of the body) that occur within the body while it cools, and assumes that at each moment in time the body is characterized by a single temperature. It also ignores other possible complications, such as changes in the emissivity with temperature, and the role of other accompanying
471:
to prevent radiation from entering and bouncing back out. As a consequence, Kirchhoff's perfect black bodies that absorb all the radiation that falls on them cannot be realized in an infinitely thin surface layer, and impose conditions upon scattering of the light within the black body that are
521:
for radar invisibility. They also have application as solar energy collectors, and infrared thermal detectors. As a perfect emitter of radiation, a hot material with black body behavior would create an efficient infrared heater, particularly in space or in a vacuum where convective heating is
308:
states that if left undisturbed it will eventually reach equilibrium, although the time it takes to do so may be very long. Typically, equilibrium is reached by continual absorption and emission of radiation by material in the cavity or its walls. Radiation entering the cavity will be
260:
with the enclosure. The hole in the enclosure will allow some radiation to escape. If the hole is small, radiation passing in and out of the hole has negligible effect upon the equilibrium of the radiation inside the cavity. This escaping radiation will approximate
352:
The boundary of a body forms an interface with its surroundings, and this interface may be rough or smooth. A nonreflecting interface separating regions with different refractive indices must be rough, because the laws of reflection and refraction governed by the
655:
of stars is estimated, defined as the temperature of a black body that yields the same surface flux of energy as the star. If a star were a black body, the same effective temperature would result from any region of the spectrum. For example, comparisons in the
687:
index is +0.12. The two indices for two types of most common star sequences are compared in the figure (diagram) with the effective surface temperature of the stars if they were perfect black bodies. There is a rough correlation. For example, for a given
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nearly that of vacuum, in one case obtaining average reflectance of 0.045%. In 2009, a team of
Japanese scientists created a material called nanoblack which is close to an ideal black body, based on vertically aligned single-walled
3511:
Engineers now developing a blacker-than pitch material that will help scientists gather hard-to-obtain scientific measurements... nanotech-based material now being developed by a team of 10 technologists at the NASA
458:= 0. Planck offers a theoretical model for perfectly black bodies, which he noted do not exist in nature: besides their opaque interior, they have interfaces that are perfectly transmitting and non-reflective.
153:. A source with a lower emissivity, independent of frequency, is often referred to as a gray body. Constructing black bodies with an emissivity as close to 1 as possible remains a topic of current interest.
863:
501:
progressively improved measurements that led to the discovery of Planck's law. A version described in 1901 had its interior blackened with a mixture of chromium, nickel, and cobalt oxides. See also
627:
of the star, where the emitted light is generated, is idealized as a layer within which the photons of light interact with the material in the photosphere and achieve a common temperature
188:...the supposition that bodies can be imagined which, for infinitely small thicknesses, completely absorb all incident rays, and neither reflect nor transmit any. I shall call such bodies
2774:
For the first 10 years of its life, the cooling of a neutron star is governed by the balance between heat capacity and the loss of heat by neutrino emission. ... Both the specific heat
3213:
700:
index. It is perhaps surprising that they fit a black body curve as well as they do, considering that stars have greatly different temperatures at different depths. For example, the
357:
for a smooth interface require a reflected ray when the refractive indices of the material and its surroundings differ. A few idealized types of behavior are given particular names:
317:. The time taken for thermalization is much faster with condensed matter present than with rarefied matter such as a dilute gas. At temperatures below billions of Kelvin, direct
1030:
1495:
The approach to thermal equilibrium of the radiation in the cavity can be catalyzed by adding a small piece of matter capable of radiating and absorbing at all frequencies. See
1402:
Corrections to the spectrum do arise related to boundary conditions at the walls, curvature, and topology, particularly for wavelengths comparable to the cavity dimensions; see
1263:
782:
of particles is separated by the gravity of the hole, one member being sucked into the hole, and the other being emitted. The energy distribution of emission is described by
1121:
rather than black holes as originally conjectured. An accurate estimate of size requires some knowledge of the emissivity, particularly its spectral and angular dependence.
2804:, at which time the quark matter core will become inert and the further cooling history will be dominated by neutrino emission from the nuclear matter fraction of the star.
269:
and does not depend upon the properties of the cavity or the hole, at least for wavelengths smaller than the size of the hole. See the figure in the
Introduction for the
1682:
to characterize the condition of a gas which a tendency to decrease with time as a result of collisions, unless the distribution of the molecules equilibrium. (p. 458)
2126:
A source in which photons are much more likely to interact with the material within the source than to escape is a condition for the formation of a black-body spectrum
220:
the incident radiation (no energy transmitted through the body). This is true for radiation of all wavelengths and for all angles of incidence. Hence the blackbody is
1587:
Because the interaction of the photons with each other is negligible, a small amount of matter is necessary to establish thermodynamic equilibrium of heat radiation.
59:
As the temperature of a black body decreases, its radiation intensity also decreases and its peak moves to longer wavelengths. Shown for comparison is the classical
1947:
3452:
2602:
2378:
587:
Diagram comparing the response curves of the red, green, and blue light receptors in human eyes against the approximate black body curves of a number of stars:
467:
but not reflect; (ii) possess a minimum thickness adequate to absorb the incident radiation and prevent its re-emission; (iii) satisfy severe limitations upon
1211:
is simply proportional to that of a black body at the same temperature, so its emissivity does not depend upon frequency (or, equivalently, wavelength). See
561:
692:
index measurement, the curves of both most common sequences of star (the main sequence and the supergiants) lie below the corresponding black-body
1130:
1207:
The emissivity of a surface in principle depends upon frequency, angle of view, and temperature. However, by definition, the radiation from a
1104:. This approach is a simplification that ignores details of the mechanisms behind heat redistribution (which may include changing composition,
84:
3435:
971:
over all frequencies provides the total energy per unit of time per unit of surface area radiated by a black body maintained at a temperature
696:
index that includes the ultraviolet spectrum, showing that both groupings of star emit less ultraviolet light than a black body with the same
3417:
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3322:
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1215:"Figure 4.3(b): Behaviors of a gray (no wavelength dependence), diffuse (no directional dependence) and opaque (no transmission) surface"
1271:
131:
It is an ideal emitter: at every frequency, it emits as much or more thermal radiative energy as any other body at the same temperature.
3535:
1480:
796:
1076:
The cooling of a body due to thermal radiation is often approximated using the StefanâBoltzmann law supplemented with a "gray body"
542:. This absorbs between 98% and 99% of the incoming light in the spectral range from the ultra-violet to the far-infrared regions.
683:
index, which becomes more negative the hotter the star and the more the UV radiation. Assuming the Sun is a type G2 V star, its
318:
2073:
Ghai, Viney; Singh, Harpreet; Agnihotri, Prabhat K. (2019). "Dandelion-Like Carbon
Nanotubes for Near-Perfect Black Surfaces".
2002:
Zu-Po Yang; et al. (2008). "Experimental observation of an extremely dark material made by a low-density nanotube array".
3530:
3079:(1882) . "Ueber das VerhĂ€ltniss zwischen dem Emissionsvermögen und dem Absorptionsvermögen der Körper fĂŒr WĂ€rme und Licht".
1040:
2055:
933:
37:
3027:
1261:
Some authors describe sources of infrared radiation with emissivity greater than approximately 0.99 as a black body. See
1100:). The rate of decrease of the temperature of the emitting body can be estimated from the power radiated and the body's
112:(that is, at a constant temperature) emits electromagnetic black-body radiation. The radiation is emitted according to
3513:
3382:
92:
2417:
2720:
At The
Frontier of Particle Physics: Handbook of QCD (On the occasion of the 75th birthday of Professor Boris Ioffe)
903:
is the mass of the black hole. These predictions have not yet been tested either observationally or experimentally.
3284:
3186:
3134:
2888:
938:
3023:"Ueber das VerhĂ€ltniss zwischen dem Emissionsvermögen und dem Absorptionsvermögen der Körper fĂŒr WĂ€rme and Licht"
962:
604:
596:
88:
976:
518:
3363:
619:
A star or planet often is modeled as a black body, and electromagnetic radiation emitted from these bodies as
3340:
3160:
2913:
2896:
2555:... no results on black hole thermodynamics have been subject to any experimental or observational tests ...
877:
64:
2714:(2001). "6.2 Coling by Neutrino Emissions (pp. 2135-2136) – The Condensed Matter Physics of QCD". In
719:
60:
3540:
3063:
2737:
922:
896:
305:
105:
is one with a "rough surface that reflects all incident rays completely and uniformly in all directions."
985:
41:
A black body radiator used in CARLO laboratory in Poland. It is an approximation of a model described by
652:
383:
169:
3427:
134:
It is a diffuse emitter: measured per unit area perpendicular to the direction, the energy is radiated
2052:
See description of work by
Richard Brown and his colleagues at the UK's National Physical Laboratory:
366:
is one that transmits none of the radiation that reaches it, although some may be reflected. That is,
321:
are usually negligible compared to interactions with matter. Photons are an example of an interacting
3409:
3248:
3104:
3036:
2393:
2178:
2011:
1956:
1647:
1559:
Robert
Karplus* and Maurice Neuman, "The Scattering of Light by Light", Phys. Rev. 83, 776â784 (1951)
767:
671:, which increases the redder the star, with the Sun having an index of +0.648 ± 0.006. Combining the
620:
262:
97:
2742:
758:
from which nothing escapes. Around a black hole there is a mathematically defined surface called an
3358:
3059:"On the relation between the radiating and absorbing powers of different bodies for light and heat"
2931:
1336:"On the relation between the radiating and absorbing powers of different bodies for light and heat"
775:
732:
257:
146:âof black-body energy levels. By definition, a black body in thermal equilibrium has an emissivity
109:
46:
31:
3469:
3239:
3230:
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2964:
2765:
2727:
2409:
2090:
2035:
888:
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708:(the region generating the light), which ranges from about 5000 K at its outer boundary with the
647:
of light nearly in thermal equilibrium, and some escape into space as near-black-body radiation.
577:
534:
497:
274:
270:
172:, the temperature of a black body that would emit the same total flux of electromagnetic energy.
135:
117:
2827:
2821:
1890:
3498:
2478:
2472:
1695:
1236:
313:" by this mechanism: the energy will be redistributed until the ensemble of photons achieves a
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1411:
1405:
1380:
1242:
1222:
1214:
1188:
1180:
958:
779:
745:
354:
95:. The radiation emitted by a black body in thermal equilibrium with its environment is called
2855:
2656:"Figure 1.38: Some examples for temperature dependence of emissivity for different materials"
2655:
2532:
2468:
2324:
2267:
2240:
2207:
2139:
2109:
1912:
1836:
1503:(Reprint of Oxford University Press 1978 ed.). Courier Dover Publications. p. 209.
1432:
529:
coating will make a body nearly black. An improvement on lamp-black is found in manufactured
329:, under very general conditions any interacting boson gas will approach thermal equilibrium.
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3256:
3076:
3058:
3044:
3022:
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3004:
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2019:
1974:
1964:
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If a hot emitting body is assumed to follow the StefanâBoltzmann law and its power emission
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539:
362:
181:
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3332:
3314:
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294:
80:
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3211:(1898). "Der electrisch geglĂŒhte "absolut schwarze" Körper und seine Temperaturmessung".
968:
783:
314:
113:
42:
3252:
3040:
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2182:
2015:
1960:
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has an effective temperature of 5780 K, which can be compared to the temperature of its
337:
A body's behavior with regard to thermal radiation is characterized by its transmission
101:. The name "black body" is given because it absorbs all colors of light. In contrast, a
3277:
3268:
3127:
3097:
3092:
3007:(1860b). "Ăber den Zusammenhang zwischen Emission und Absorption von Licht und WĂ€rme".
2792:
of the Fermi surface. ... The star will cool rapidly until its interior temperature is
1979:
1942:
873:
592:
235:
635:
3524:
3473:
3432:
Experimenting theory: the proofs of
Kirchhoff's radiation law before and after Planck
3399:
3302:
3178:
2935:
2711:
2413:
2405:
2094:
1828:
1662:(Reprint of 1938 Oxford University Press ed.). Dover Publications. pp. 455
1101:
759:
612:
304:
At any given time the radiation in the cavity may not be in thermal equilibrium, but
2769:
2594:
2039:
709:
239:
An approximate realization of a black body as a tiny hole in an insulated enclosure
2354:
Gravity From the Group Up: An
Introductory Guide to Gravity and General Relativity
431:
is one for which all incident radiation is reflected uniformly in all directions:
420:
are constant for all wavelengths; this term also is used to mean a body for which
277:
of the radiation, which is related to the energy of the radiation by the equation
3403:
1651:
3226:
3204:
3152:
3122:
2905:
1617:
950:
705:
668:
640:
624:
623:. The figure shows a highly schematic cross-section to illustrate the idea. The
583:
546:
493:
232:
This section describes some concepts developed in connection with black bodies.
216:
incident radiation to pass into it (no reflected energy) and internally absorbs
200:
A more modern definition drops the reference to "infinitely small thicknesses":
121:
17:
3010:
Monatsberichte der Königlich
Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin
2996:
Monatsberichte der Königlich
Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin
2751:
1340:
The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science
3465:
3372:
1943:"A black body absorber from vertically aligned single-walled carbon nanotubes"
1135:
1077:
946:
771:
751:
565:
554:
526:
514:
468:
143:
3260:
3049:
1109:
forms of energy emission, for example, emission of particles like neutrinos.
484:
of a black body refers to a real world, physical embodiment. Here are a few.
3272:
2941:
1969:
1185:
Engineering thermofluids: thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer
755:
326:
310:
157:
3390:
2581:
2086:
2031:
1988:
27:
Idealized physical body that absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation
1310:
1297:
2732:
2329:
Introduction to Stellar Astrophysics: Basic stellar observations and data
1611:
912:
502:
265:
that exhibits a distribution in energy characteristic of the temperature
953:
black bodies have 501 nm peak wavelength and 63.3 MW/m; radiant exitance
1469:
Michel Le Bellac; Fabrice Mortessagne; Ghassan George Batrouni (2004).
731:
color index of main sequence and super giant stars in what is called a
588:
568:) and flower carbon nanostructures; all absorb 99.9% of light or more.
55:
2023:
2167:"Comparing the sun with other stars along the temperature coordinate"
1599:
644:
600:
550:
165:
124:
alone (see figure at right), not by the body's shape or composition.
3447:
3234:
127:
An ideal black body in thermal equilibrium has two main properties:
2191:
2166:
2141:
Exploring Ancient Skies: A Survey of Ancient and Cultural Astronomy
1062:, the black body must absorb or internally generate this amount of
3129:
Quantum Generations: a History of Physics in the Twentieth Century
3099:
Modern Thermodynamics. From Heat Engines to Dissipative Structures
2138:
David H. Kelley; Eugene F. Milone; Anthony F. (FRW) Aveni (2011).
1607:
1467:, as stated by Adkins (1983) on page 10. For another example, see
1356:
The notion of an infinitely thin layer was dropped by Planck. See
932:
770:, radiation with a nearly perfect black-body spectrum, ultimately
718:
634:
608:
557:
387:
is one that transmits all the radiation that reaches it. That is,
322:
234:
54:
36:
2660:
Infrared Thermal Imaging: Fundamentals, Research and Applications
3494:
161:
2683:
Robert Osiander; M. Ann Garrison Darrin; John Champion (2006).
858:{\displaystyle T={\frac {\hbar c^{3}}{8\pi Gk_{\text{B}}M}}\ ,}
701:
2477:. Rosen Publishing Group, Scientific American (COR). p.
2295:"Figure 9.2: The temperature profile in the solar atmosphere"
1459:
In simple cases the approach to equilibrium is governed by a
1138:, a substance produced in 2014 and among the blackest known
2108:
Simon F. Green; Mark H. Jones; S. Jocelyn Burnell (2004).
1472:
Equilibrium and non-equilibrium statistical thermodynamics
2356:(1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 304.
2293:
B. Bertotti; Paolo Farinella; David VokrouhlickĂœ (2003).
1725:"Figure 4.3(b) Radiation properties of an opaque surface"
1700:
Physics for Scientists and Engineers, Parts 1-35; Part 39
1569:
Ludwig Bergmann; Clemens Schaefer; Heinz Niedrig (1999).
1058:
To remain in thermal equilibrium at constant temperature
3436:
MĂŒnchner Zentrum fĂŒr Wissenschafts und Technikgeschichte
2245:(3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 61.
1754:"§10.3.4 Absorptivity, reflectivity, and transmissivity"
1439:(3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 50.
1144:, black body incandescence in a given chromaticity space
723:
Effective temperature of a black body compared with the
3214:
Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft
2599:
The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty
2171:
Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
1696:"Relative intensity of reflected and transmitted light"
1270:. Electro Optical Industries, Inc. 2008. Archived from
30:"Black bodies" redirects here. Not to be confused with
639:
An idealized view of the cross-section of a star. The
180:
The idea of a black body originally was introduced by
2631:
The Person Guide to Objective Physics for the IIT-JEE
988:
799:
545:
Other examples of nearly perfect black materials are
256:
and the radiation trapped inside the enclosure is at
3083:. Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius Barth. pp. 571â598.
2576:
Proceedings of the Los Angeles Meeting, DPF 99. UCLA
2533:"The thermodynamics of black holes (pp. 1–38)"
142:
Real materials emit energy at a fractionâcalled the
3276:
3126:
3096:
2686:MEMS and Microstructures in aerospace applications
2114:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 21â22, 53.
1024:
857:
513:There is interest in blackbody-like materials for
252:Suppose the cavity is held at a fixed temperature
1379:(4th ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 7.
3448:"An account of some experiments on radiant heat"
2856:"Neutron star structure and fundamental physics"
774:. The mechanism for this emission is related to
3157:BlackâBody Theory and the Quantum Discontinuity
2467:Bernard J Carr & Steven B Giddings (2008).
1948:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1826:An extensive historical discussion is found in
712:to about 9500 K at its inner boundary with the
202:
186:
3453:Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
2595:"2022 CODATA Value: StefanâBoltzmann constant"
1877:
1815:
1404:Roger Dale Van Zee; J. Patrick Looney (2002).
716:approximately 500 km (310 mi) deep.
222:a perfect absorber for all incident radiation.
2993:(1860a). "Ăber die Fraunhofer'schen Linien".
2958:FrĂŒhgeschichte der Quantentheorie (1899â1913)
2535:. In Andrés Gomberoff; Donald Marolf (eds.).
2438:. In Andrés Gomberoff; Donald Marolf (eds.).
1264:"What is a Blackbody and Infrared Radiation?"
1238:Encyclopedia of optical engineering, Volume 3
8:
3311:The Historical Development of Quantum Theory
2474:Beyond Extreme Physics: Cutting-edge science
1838:The historical development of quantum theory
424:is temperature- and wavelength-independent.
3235:"Der elektrisch geglĂŒhte "schwarze" Körper"
2056:"Mini craters key to 'blackest ever black'"
1760:. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. pp. 385â386.
1463:. In others, the system may 'hang up' in a
2502:Valeri P. Frolov; Andrei Zelnikov (2011).
2331:. Cambridge University Press. p. 26.
1804:
1547:
168:is sometimes characterized in terms of an
3048:
2741:
2731:
2190:
1978:
1968:
1936:
1934:
1702:(4th ed.). Macmillan. p. 1044.
1626:. Cambridge University Press. p. 4.
1475:. Cambridge University Press. p. 8.
1376:Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer; Volume 1
1309:
1010:
992:
987:
949:temperature – red arrows show that
837:
816:
806:
798:
562:vertically aligned carbon nanotube arrays
2910:Atmospheric Radiation: Theoretical Basis
2633:. Pearson Education India. p. 610.
2510:. Oxford University Press. p. 321.
2272:(3rd ed.). BirkhÀuser. p. 23.
1500:Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics
1373:Siegel, Robert; Howell, John R. (2002).
1368:
1366:
582:
576:For more about the UBV color index, see
333:Transmission, absorption, and reflection
3381:. Masius, M. (transl.) (2nd ed.).
3361:(1930). "Thermodynamics of the Stars".
2969:Early History of Planck's Radiation Law
2816:Walter Lewin; Warren Goldstein (2011).
2216:Introduction to astronomical photometry
1660:The principles of statistical mechanics
1159:
809:
204:An ideal body is now defined, called a
3337:Foundations of Radiation Hydrodynamics
2144:(2nd ed.). Springer. p. 52.
1865:
1792:
1780:
1758:Fundamentals of heat and mass transfer
1535:
1523:
1357:
1291:
1289:
1166:
921:The Big Bang theory is based upon the
664:(visible) range lead to the so-called
2662:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 45.
2541:Springer Science & Business Media
2444:Springer Science & Business Media
1678:...we can define a suitable quantity
1433:"§4.1 The function of the second law"
1398:
1396:
917:Cosmic microwave background radiation
907:Cosmic microwave background radiation
7:
3489:Keesey, Lori J. (12 December 2010).
3279:Optical Coherence and Quantum Optics
2111:An introduction to the sun and stars
1656:with time as a result of collisions"
1131:Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation
533:. Nano-porous materials can achieve
461:
3405:Radiative Processes in Astrophysics
2436:"The thermodynamics of black holes"
1025:{\displaystyle P/A=\sigma T^{4}\ ,}
549:, prepared by chemically etching a
2508:Introduction to Black Hole Physics
1575:. Walter de Gruyter. p. 595.
25:
1497:Peter Theodore Landsberg (1990).
2788:are dominated by physics within
2654:M Vollmer; K-P MÔllmann (2011).
2623:A simple example is provided by
2469:"Chapter 6: Quantum black holes"
2269:Astrophysical formulae, Volume 1
462:Kirchhoff's perfect black bodies
306:the second law of thermodynamics
2960:, Physik Verlag, Mosbach/Baden.
2826:. Simon and Schuster. pp.
2781:and the neutrino emission rate
2379:"Thermodynamics of black holes"
1941:K. Mizuno; et al. (2009).
1598:The fundamental bosons are the
1410:. Academic Press. p. 202.
2165:David F Gray (February 1995).
2054:Mick Hamer (6 February 2003).
1891:"Materials keep a low profile"
1407:Cavity-enhanced spectroscopies
1324:Translated by F. Guthrie from
525:It has long been known that a
1:
3335:; Weibel-Mihalas, B. (1984).
3055:Translated by Guthrie, F. as
3028:Annalen der Physik und Chemie
2937:The Genesis of Quantum Theory
2860:Astrophysics update, Volume 2
2299:New Views of the Solar System
1572:Optics of waves and particles
325:gas, and as described by the
91:, regardless of frequency or
3378:The Theory of Heat Radiation
2239:Lawrence Hugh Aller (1991).
1431:Clement John Adkins (1983).
3514:Goddard Space Flight Center
3383:P. Blakiston's Son & Co
3183:The Quantum Theory of Light
2537:Lectures on Quantum Gravity
2440:Lectures on quantum gravity
1731:. Wiley-IEEE. p. 381.
1729:Principles of heat transfer
1602:, the vector bosons of the
1241:. CRC Press. p. 2303.
1235:Ronald G. Driggers (2003).
1221:. Wiley-IEEE. p. 381.
1219:Principles of heat transfer
138:, independent of direction.
3562:
3285:Cambridge University Press
3187:Cambridge University Press
3135:Princeton University Press
2862:. BirkhÀuser. p. 41.
2858:. In John W. Mason (ed.).
2752:10.1142/9789812810458_0043
2722:. Vol. 3. Singapore:
2689:. CRC Press. p. 187.
2406:10.1088/0034-4885/41/8/004
2075:ACS Applied Nano Materials
1878:Lummer & Kurlbaum 1901
1816:Lummer & Kurlbaum 1898
1623:Bose-Einstein condensation
1437:Equilibrium thermodynamics
1334:G. Kirchhoff (July 1860).
1181:"§2.1 Blackbody radiation"
956:
910:
743:
575:
319:photonâphoton interactions
120:that is determined by the
29:
3536:Electromagnetic radiation
3466:10.1017/S0080456800031288
2625:Srivastava M. K. (2011).
2569:"Anisotropies in the CMB"
2301:. Springer. p. 248.
2242:Atoms, stars, and nebulae
1360:, p. 10, footnote 2.
1187:. Springer. p. 568.
1041:StefanâBoltzmann constant
963:Radiosity (heat transfer)
519:radar-absorbent materials
89:electromagnetic radiation
3364:Handbuch der Astrophysik
3261:10.1002/andp.19013100809
3050:10.1002/andp.18601850205
2940:. Nash, C.W. (transl.).
2352:Schutz, Bernard (2004).
2323:E. Böhm-Vitense (1989).
2266:Kenneth R. Lang (2006).
2218:. Springer. p. 82.
1841:. Springer. pp. 39
1723:Massoud Kaviany (2002).
1213:Massoud Kaviany (2002).
1179:Mahmoud Massoud (2005).
939:peak emission wavelength
605:white main-sequence star
116:, meaning that it has a
3341:Oxford University Press
3313:. Vol. 1, part 1.
3161:Oxford University Press
3081:Gessamelte Abhandlungen
2914:Oxford University Press
2897:Oxford University Press
2823:For the love of physics
1970:10.1073/pnas.0900155106
1694:Paul A. Tipler (1999).
1620:; S. Stringari (1996).
1268:Education/Reference tab
878:reduced Planck constant
65:ultraviolet catastrophe
3064:Philosophical Magazine
3057:Kirchhoff, G. (1860).
2854:TE Strohmayer (2006).
2726:. pp. 2061â2151.
2627:"Cooling by radiation"
2531:Robert M Wald (2005).
2434:Robert M Wald (2005).
2087:10.1021/acsanm.9b01950
1911:Bradley Quinn (2010).
1889:CF Lewis (June 1988).
1548:Mandel & Wolf 1995
1026:
975:, and is known as the
954:
923:cosmological principle
897:gravitational constant
859:
736:
675:(ultraviolet) and the
648:
616:
472:difficult to satisfy.
240:
225:
198:
68:
50:
3531:Astrophysics concepts
3410:John Wiley & Sons
3105:John Wiley & Sons
2321:Figure modeled after
1311:10.1038/nnano.2008.29
1302:Nature Nanotechnology
1296:Chun, Ai Lin (2008).
1027:
936:
860:
722:
679:indices leads to the
653:effective temperature
651:Using this model the
638:
586:
273:as a function of the
238:
170:effective temperature
160:, the radiation from
58:
40:
3491:"Blacker than black"
3367:. 3, part 1: 63â255.
1917:. Berg. p. 68.
1795:, pp. 9â10, §10
1752:BA Venkanna (2010).
1648:Richard Chace Tolman
1298:"Blacker than black"
1069:over the given area
986:
977:StefanâBoltzmann law
797:
768:black-body radiation
621:black-body radiation
509:Near-black materials
263:black-body radiation
192:, or, more briefly,
184:in 1860 as follows:
98:black-body radiation
3253:1901AnP...310..829L
3041:1860AnP...185..275K
2710:Krishna Rajagopal;
2398:1978RPPh...41.1313D
2377:PCW Davies (1978).
2183:1995PASP..107..120G
2016:2008NanoL...8..446Y
1961:2009PNAS..106.6044M
967:The integration of
786:with a temperature
776:vacuum fluctuations
733:color-color diagram
611:(a blue star), and
315:Planck distribution
258:thermal equilibrium
110:thermal equilibrium
47:spectral irradiance
32:Black Bodies (film)
3240:Annalen der Physik
3185:(third ed.).
2973:Taylor and Francis
2893:Radiative Transfer
2716:Mikhail A. Shifman
2567:White, M. (1999).
1833:Rechenberg, Helmut
1332:, 275-301 (1860):
1326:Annalen der Physik
1022:
955:
937:Log-log graphs of
889:Boltzmann constant
855:
764:point of no return
737:
649:
617:
578:Photometric system
572:Stars and planets
535:refractive indices
498:Ferdinand Kurlbaum
488:Cavity with a hole
446:For a black body,
244:Cavity with a hole
241:
93:angle of incidence
69:
61:RayleighâJeans law
51:
3419:978-0-471-82759-7
3350:978-0-19-503437-0
3324:978-0-387-90642-3
3294:978-0-521-41711-2
3196:978-0-19-850177-0
3170:978-0-19-502383-1
3144:978-0-691-01206-3
3114:978-0-471-97393-5
2982:978-0-85066-063-0
2956:a translation of
2951:978-0-262-08047-7
2923:978-0-19-510291-8
2889:Chandrasekhar, S.
2869:978-3-540-30312-1
2840:978-1-4391-0827-7
2818:"X-ray bursters!"
2761:978-981-02-4969-4
2696:978-0-8247-2637-9
2669:978-3-527-63087-5
2640:978-81-317-5513-6
2550:978-0-387-23995-8
2517:978-0-19-969229-3
2488:978-1-4042-1402-6
2453:978-0-387-23995-8
2446:. pp. 1â38.
2363:978-0-521-45506-0
2338:978-0-521-34869-0
2308:978-1-4020-1428-4
2279:978-3-540-29692-8
2252:978-0-521-31040-6
2225:978-90-277-0428-3
2151:978-1-4419-7623-9
2121:978-0-521-54622-5
2081:(12): 7951â7956.
2024:10.1021/nl072369t
1955:(15): 6044â6077.
1924:978-1-84520-807-3
1852:978-0-387-95174-4
1767:978-81-203-4031-2
1738:978-0-471-43463-4
1709:978-0-7167-3821-3
1673:978-0-486-63896-6
1652:"§103: Change of
1633:978-0-521-58990-1
1582:978-3-11-014318-8
1526:, p. 44, §52
1510:978-0-486-66493-4
1446:978-0-521-27456-2
1417:978-0-12-475987-9
1386:978-1-56032-839-1
1248:978-0-8247-4252-2
1228:978-0-471-43463-4
1194:978-3-540-22292-7
1106:phase transitions
1018:
959:Radiative cooling
929:Radiative cooling
851:
847:
840:
746:Hawking radiation
355:Fresnel equations
345:, and reflection
16:(Redirected from
3553:
3517:
3508:
3506:
3497:. Archived from
3477:
3439:
3428:Schirrmacher, A.
3423:
3398:Rybicki, G. B.;
3394:
3368:
3354:
3328:
3298:
3282:
3264:
3222:
3200:
3174:
3148:
3132:
3118:
3102:
3084:
3072:
3054:
3052:
3014:
3000:
2986:
2955:
2927:
2912:(2nd ed.).
2900:
2874:
2873:
2851:
2845:
2844:
2813:
2807:
2806:
2796: <
2745:
2735:
2733:hep-ph/0011333v2
2724:World Scientific
2707:
2701:
2700:
2680:
2674:
2673:
2651:
2645:
2644:
2621:
2615:
2614:
2612:
2610:
2591:
2585:
2579:
2573:
2564:
2558:
2557:
2528:
2522:
2521:
2504:"Equation 9.7.1"
2499:
2493:
2492:
2464:
2458:
2457:
2431:
2425:
2424:
2422:
2416:. Archived from
2392:(8): 1313â1355.
2383:
2374:
2368:
2367:
2349:
2343:
2342:
2319:
2313:
2312:
2290:
2284:
2283:
2263:
2257:
2256:
2236:
2230:
2229:
2206:M Golay (1974).
2203:
2197:
2196:
2194:
2162:
2156:
2155:
2135:
2129:
2128:
2105:
2099:
2098:
2070:
2064:
2063:
2050:
2044:
2043:
1999:
1993:
1992:
1982:
1972:
1938:
1929:
1928:
1908:
1902:
1901:
1895:
1886:
1880:
1875:
1869:
1863:
1857:
1856:
1824:
1818:
1813:
1807:
1802:
1796:
1790:
1784:
1778:
1772:
1771:
1749:
1743:
1742:
1720:
1714:
1713:
1691:
1685:
1684:
1644:
1638:
1637:
1604:weak interaction
1596:
1590:
1589:
1566:
1560:
1557:
1551:
1545:
1539:
1533:
1527:
1521:
1515:
1514:
1493:
1487:
1486:
1465:metastable state
1457:
1451:
1450:
1428:
1422:
1421:
1400:
1391:
1390:
1370:
1361:
1354:
1348:
1347:
1322:
1316:
1315:
1313:
1293:
1284:
1283:
1281:
1279:
1259:
1253:
1252:
1232:
1205:
1199:
1198:
1176:
1170:
1164:
1116:and temperature
1099:
1085:
1057:
1054:
1052:
1031:
1029:
1028:
1023:
1016:
1015:
1014:
996:
943:radiant exitance
864:
862:
861:
856:
849:
848:
846:
842:
841:
838:
822:
821:
820:
807:
540:carbon nanotubes
531:carbon nanotubes
384:transparent body
182:Gustav Kirchhoff
152:
108:A black body in
79:is an idealized
21:
18:Cavity radiation
3561:
3560:
3556:
3555:
3554:
3552:
3551:
3550:
3521:
3520:
3504:
3502:
3501:on 14 June 2020
3488:
3485:
3480:
3442:
3426:
3420:
3400:Lightman, A. P.
3397:
3371:
3357:
3351:
3331:
3325:
3315:Springer-Verlag
3301:
3295:
3267:
3225:
3203:
3197:
3177:
3171:
3151:
3145:
3121:
3115:
3087:
3075:
3056:
3017:
3003:
2989:
2983:
2963:
2952:
2930:
2924:
2903:
2887:
2883:
2878:
2877:
2870:
2853:
2852:
2848:
2841:
2815:
2814:
2810:
2801:
2786:
2779:
2762:
2743:10.1.1.344.2269
2709:
2708:
2704:
2697:
2682:
2681:
2677:
2670:
2653:
2652:
2648:
2641:
2624:
2622:
2618:
2608:
2606:
2593:
2592:
2588:
2571:
2566:
2565:
2561:
2551:
2530:
2529:
2525:
2518:
2501:
2500:
2496:
2489:
2466:
2465:
2461:
2454:
2433:
2432:
2428:
2423:on 10 May 2013.
2420:
2381:
2376:
2375:
2371:
2364:
2351:
2350:
2346:
2339:
2322:
2320:
2316:
2309:
2292:
2291:
2287:
2280:
2265:
2264:
2260:
2253:
2238:
2237:
2233:
2226:
2205:
2204:
2200:
2164:
2163:
2159:
2152:
2137:
2136:
2132:
2122:
2107:
2106:
2102:
2072:
2071:
2067:
2053:
2051:
2047:
2001:
2000:
1996:
1940:
1939:
1932:
1925:
1914:Textile Futures
1910:
1909:
1905:
1893:
1888:
1887:
1883:
1876:
1872:
1864:
1860:
1853:
1827:
1825:
1821:
1814:
1810:
1805:Kirchhoff 1860c
1803:
1799:
1791:
1787:
1779:
1775:
1768:
1751:
1750:
1746:
1739:
1722:
1721:
1717:
1710:
1693:
1692:
1688:
1674:
1646:
1645:
1641:
1634:
1616:Allan Griffin;
1615:
1597:
1593:
1583:
1568:
1567:
1563:
1558:
1554:
1546:
1542:
1534:
1530:
1522:
1518:
1511:
1496:
1494:
1490:
1483:
1468:
1461:relaxation time
1458:
1454:
1447:
1430:
1429:
1425:
1418:
1403:
1401:
1394:
1387:
1372:
1371:
1364:
1355:
1351:
1333:
1323:
1319:
1295:
1294:
1287:
1277:
1275:
1274:on 7 March 2016
1262:
1260:
1256:
1249:
1234:
1229:
1212:
1206:
1202:
1195:
1178:
1177:
1173:
1169:, pp. 9â10
1165:
1161:
1156:
1151:
1142:Planckian locus
1127:
1087:
1080:
1055:
1050:
1048:
1006:
984:
983:
965:
931:
919:
909:
886:
833:
823:
812:
808:
795:
794:
762:that marks the
754:is a region of
748:
742:
714:convection zone
581:
574:
511:
490:
478:
464:
335:
295:Planck constant
246:
230:
190:perfectly black
178:
147:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3559:
3557:
3549:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3523:
3522:
3519:
3518:
3484:
3483:External links
3481:
3479:
3478:
3440:
3424:
3418:
3395:
3369:
3355:
3349:
3329:
3323:
3307:Rechenberg, H.
3299:
3293:
3265:
3247:(8): 829â836.
3223:
3201:
3195:
3175:
3169:
3149:
3143:
3119:
3113:
3085:
3073:
3035:(2): 275â301.
3015:
3001:
2987:
2981:
2961:
2950:
2928:
2922:
2904:Goody, R. M.;
2901:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2876:
2875:
2868:
2846:
2839:
2808:
2802: ~ â
2799:
2784:
2777:
2760:
2702:
2695:
2675:
2668:
2646:
2639:
2616:
2586:
2559:
2549:
2543:. p. 28.
2523:
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2362:
2344:
2337:
2314:
2307:
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2278:
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2251:
2231:
2224:
2198:
2192:10.1086/133525
2157:
2150:
2130:
2120:
2100:
2065:
2045:
2010:(2): 446â451.
1994:
1930:
1923:
1903:
1881:
1870:
1858:
1851:
1829:Mehra, Jagdish
1819:
1808:
1797:
1785:
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1766:
1744:
1737:
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1708:
1686:
1672:
1639:
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1552:
1540:
1528:
1516:
1509:
1488:
1482:978-0521821438
1481:
1452:
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1385:
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1317:
1285:
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1171:
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1145:
1139:
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1126:
1123:
1033:
1032:
1021:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1002:
999:
995:
991:
930:
927:
908:
905:
884:
874:speed of light
866:
865:
854:
845:
836:
832:
829:
826:
819:
815:
811:
805:
802:
741:
738:
595:), the Sun (a
593:red supergiant
573:
570:
510:
507:
489:
486:
477:
474:
463:
460:
334:
331:
245:
242:
229:
226:
177:
174:
140:
139:
132:
45:utilized as a
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3558:
3547:
3544:
3542:
3541:Heat transfer
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3528:
3526:
3516:
3515:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3487:
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3094:
3093:Prigogine, I.
3090:
3089:Kondepudi, D.
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3077:Kirchhoff, G.
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3019:Kirchhoff, G.
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2991:Kirchhoff, G.
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2712:Frank Wilczek
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2386:Rep Prog Phys
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2060:New Scientist
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2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
1998:
1995:
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1976:
1971:
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1962:
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1954:
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1920:
1916:
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1868:, p. 159
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1103:
1102:heat capacity
1098:
1097:εσT
1094:
1090:
1083:
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1074:
1072:
1068:
1065:
1061:
1053:10 Wâ
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1046:
1042:
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760:event horizon
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613:Gamma Velorum
610:
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340:
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302:
301:= frequency.
300:
296:
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288:
284:
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259:
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228:Idealizations
227:
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207:
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185:
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136:isotropically
133:
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115:
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106:
104:
100:
99:
94:
90:
87:all incident
86:
82:
81:physical body
78:
74:
66:
62:
57:
53:
48:
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39:
33:
19:
3510:
3503:. Retrieved
3499:the original
3457:
3451:
3431:
3404:
3377:
3362:
3336:
3310:
3278:
3244:
3238:
3231:Kurlbaum, F.
3218:
3212:
3209:Kurlbaum, F.
3182:
3156:
3128:
3098:
3080:
3068:
3067:. Series 4.
3062:
3032:
3026:
3008:
2994:
2968:
2957:
2936:
2909:
2892:
2881:Bibliography
2859:
2849:
2829:
2822:
2811:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2782:
2775:
2773:
2719:
2705:
2685:
2678:
2659:
2649:
2630:
2619:
2607:. Retrieved
2598:
2589:
2575:
2562:
2554:
2536:
2526:
2507:
2497:
2473:
2462:
2439:
2429:
2418:the original
2389:
2385:
2372:
2353:
2347:
2328:
2325:"Figure 4.9"
2317:
2298:
2288:
2268:
2261:
2241:
2234:
2215:
2209:
2201:
2174:
2170:
2160:
2140:
2133:
2125:
2110:
2103:
2078:
2074:
2068:
2059:
2048:
2007:
2004:Nano Letters
2003:
1997:
1952:
1946:
1913:
1906:
1897:
1884:
1873:
1861:
1842:
1837:
1822:
1811:
1800:
1788:
1783:, p. 10
1776:
1757:
1747:
1728:
1718:
1699:
1689:
1679:
1677:
1663:
1659:
1653:
1642:
1622:
1594:
1586:
1571:
1564:
1555:
1550:, Chapter 13
1543:
1531:
1519:
1499:
1491:
1471:
1455:
1436:
1426:
1406:
1375:
1352:
1343:
1339:
1329:
1325:
1320:
1301:
1276:. Retrieved
1272:the original
1267:
1257:
1237:
1218:
1208:
1203:
1184:
1174:
1162:
1117:
1113:
1111:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1081:
1075:
1070:
1066:
1059:
1044:
1036:
1034:
972:
969:Planck's law
966:
920:
900:
892:
881:
869:
867:
787:
784:Planck's law
780:virtual pair
749:
728:
724:
710:chromosphere
697:
693:
689:
684:
680:
676:
672:
665:
661:
657:
650:
628:
618:
597:yellow dwarf
544:
524:
512:
491:
481:
479:
476:Realizations
465:
455:
451:
447:
445:
440:
436:
432:
428:
426:
421:
417:
413:
409:
404:
403:
401:
396:
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388:
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375:
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367:
361:
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346:
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286:
282:
278:
266:
253:
251:
247:
231:
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
203:
199:
194:black bodies
193:
189:
187:
179:
155:
148:
141:
126:
114:Planck's law
107:
102:
96:
76:
72:
70:
52:
43:Planck's law
3444:Stewart, B.
3359:Milne, E.A.
3333:Mihalas, D.
3153:Kuhn, T. S.
2932:Hermann, A.
2906:Yung, Y. L.
2208:"Table IX:
2177:: 120â123.
1866:Kangro 1976
1793:Planck 1914
1781:Planck 1914
1618:D. W. Snoke
1538:, Chapter 1
1536:Loudon 2000
1524:Planck 1914
1358:Planck 1914
1167:Planck 1914
876:, â is the
778:in which a
772:evaporating
740:Black holes
706:photosphere
669:color index
641:photosphere
625:photosphere
547:super black
494:Otto Lummer
482:realization
363:opaque body
311:thermalized
122:temperature
3525:Categories
3505:1 February
3373:Planck, M.
3269:Mandel, L.
3227:Lummer, O.
3221:: 106â111.
3205:Lummer, O.
3179:Loudon, R.
3013:: 783â787.
2999:: 662â665.
2965:Kangro, H.
2605:. May 2024
2582:arXive.org
1898:Mech. Eng.
1610:, and the
1149:References
1136:Vantablack
1078:emissivity
957:See also:
947:black-body
911:See also:
752:black hole
744:See also:
660:(blue) or
566:Vantablack
555:phosphorus
527:lamp-black
515:camouflage
469:scattering
429:white body
289:= energy,
176:Definition
144:emissivity
103:white body
73:black body
3474:122316368
3303:Mehra, J.
3181:(2000) .
3123:Kragh, H.
3021:(1860c).
2942:MIT Press
2738:CiteSeerX
2580:See also
2414:250916407
2095:213017898
1209:gray body
1154:Citations
1004:σ
828:π
810:ℏ
756:spacetime
643:contains
492:In 1898,
454:= 1, and
439:= 0, and
405:grey body
327:H-theorem
275:frequency
210:blackbody
206:blackbody
158:astronomy
77:blackbody
49:standard.
3546:Infrared
3460:: 1â20.
3446:(1858).
3430:(2001).
3402:(1979).
3391:7154661M
3375:(1914).
3309:(1982).
3275:(1995).
3273:Wolf, E.
3233:(1901).
3155:(1978).
3125:(1999).
3095:(1998).
2967:(1976).
2934:(1971).
2908:(1989).
2891:(1950).
2770:13606600
2212:Indices"
2032:18181658
1989:19339498
1900:: 37â41.
1835:(2000).
1650:(2010).
1612:graviton
1125:See also
913:Big Bang
503:Hohlraum
391:= 1 and
370:= 0 and
271:spectrum
118:spectrum
63:and its
3249:Bibcode
3071:: 1â21.
3037:Bibcode
2718:(ed.).
2394:Bibcode
2179:Bibcode
2040:7412160
2012:Bibcode
1980:2669394
1957:Bibcode
1278:10 June
1056:
1039:is the
895:is the
887:is the
872:is the
645:photons
589:Antares
285:, with
212:allows
166:planets
85:absorbs
3472:
3416:
3389:
3347:
3321:
3291:
3193:
3167:
3141:
3111:
2979:
2948:
2920:
2866:
2837:
2785:ν
2768:
2758:
2740:
2693:
2666:
2637:
2609:18 May
2547:
2514:
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2450:
2412:
2360:
2335:
2305:
2276:
2249:
2222:
2148:
2118:
2093:
2038:
2030:
1987:
1977:
1921:
1849:
1764:
1735:
1706:
1670:
1630:
1614:. See
1606:, the
1600:photon
1579:
1507:
1479:
1443:
1414:
1383:
1346:(130).
1245:
1225:
1191:
1082:ε
1045:σ
1037:σ
1035:where
1017:
951:5780 K
868:where
850:
601:Sirius
564:(like
551:nickel
149:ε
3470:S2CID
2766:S2CID
2728:arXiv
2572:(PDF)
2421:(PDF)
2410:S2CID
2382:(PDF)
2091:S2CID
2036:S2CID
1894:(PDF)
1608:gluon
1064:power
609:Spica
558:alloy
450:= 0,
443:= 1.
435:= 0,
399:= 0.
378:= 1.
323:boson
162:stars
83:that
3507:2012
3495:NASA
3414:ISBN
3345:ISBN
3319:ISBN
3289:ISBN
3191:ISBN
3165:ISBN
3139:ISBN
3109:ISBN
2977:ISBN
2946:ISBN
2918:ISBN
2864:ISBN
2835:ISBN
2828:251
2756:ISBN
2691:ISBN
2664:ISBN
2635:ISBN
2611:2024
2603:NIST
2545:ISBN
2512:ISBN
2483:ISBN
2448:ISBN
2358:ISBN
2333:ISBN
2303:ISBN
2274:ISBN
2247:ISBN
2220:ISBN
2146:ISBN
2116:ISBN
2028:PMID
1985:PMID
1919:ISBN
1847:ISBN
1762:ISBN
1733:ISBN
1704:ISBN
1668:ISBN
1628:ISBN
1577:ISBN
1505:ISBN
1477:ISBN
1441:ISBN
1412:ISBN
1381:ISBN
1280:2019
1243:ISBN
1233:and
1223:ISBN
1189:ISBN
1049:5.67
961:and
941:and
915:and
899:and
727:and
517:and
496:and
416:and
208:. A
164:and
3462:doi
3257:doi
3245:310
3045:doi
3033:185
2748:doi
2402:doi
2210:U-B
2187:doi
2175:107
2083:doi
2020:doi
1975:PMC
1965:doi
1953:106
1330:109
1306:doi
1084:†1
945:vs
729:U-B
725:B-V
702:Sun
698:B-V
694:U-B
690:B-V
685:U-B
681:U-B
666:B-V
607:),
603:(a
599:),
591:(a
360:An
218:all
214:all
156:In
151:= 1
75:or
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3458:22
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3450:.
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2018:.
2006:.
1983:.
1973:.
1963:.
1951:.
1945:.
1933:^
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1756:.
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1365:^
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1342:.
1338:.
1328::
1304:.
1300:.
1288:^
1266:.
1217:.
1183:.
1095:=
1073:.
1043:,
979::
891:,
880:,
790::
750:A
560:,
505:.
480:A
427:A
412:,
402:A
395:=
381:A
374:+
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297:,
293:=
283:hf
281:=
71:A
3476:.
3464::
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3173:.
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3117:.
3053:.
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2985:.
2954:.
2926:.
2899:.
2872:.
2843:.
2800:c
2798:T
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2790:T
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2643:.
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2062:.
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2022::
2014::
2008:8
1991:.
1967::
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