Cell biology - Knowledge (XXG)

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discovery of cell signaling pathways by mitochondria which are crucial platforms for cell function regulation such as apoptosis. Its physiological adaptability is strongly linked to the cell mitochondrial channel's ongoing reconfiguration through a range of mechanisms known as mitochondrial membrane dynamics, including endomembrane fusion and fragmentation (separation) and ultrastructural membrane remodeling. As a result, mitochondrial dynamics regulate and frequently choreograph not only metabolic but also complicated cell signaling processes such as cell pluripotent stem cells, proliferation, maturation, aging, and mortality. Mutually, post-translational alterations of mitochondrial apparatus and the development of transmembrane contact sites among mitochondria and other structures, which both have the potential to link signals from diverse routes that affect mitochondrial membrane dynamics substantially, Mitochondria are wrapped by two membranes: an inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM) and an outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM), each with a distinctive function and structure, which parallels their dual role as cellular powerhouses and signaling organelles. The inner mitochondrial membrane divides the mitochondrial lumen into two parts: the inner border membrane, which runs parallel to the OMM, and the cristae, which are deeply twisted, multinucleated invaginations that give room for surface area enlargement and house the mitochondrial respiration apparatus. The outer mitochondrial membrane, on the other hand, is soft and permeable. It, therefore, acts as a foundation for cell signaling pathways to congregate, be deciphered, and be transported into mitochondria. Furthermore, the OMM connects to other cellular organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), lysosomes, endosomes, and the plasma membrane. Mitochondria play a wide range of roles in cell biology, which is reflected in their morphological diversity. Ever since the beginning of the mitochondrial study, it has been well documented that mitochondria can have a variety of forms, with both their general and ultra-structural morphology varying greatly among cells, during the cell cycle, and in response to metabolic or cellular cues. Mitochondria can exist as independent organelles or as part of larger systems; they can also be unequally distributed in the cytosol through regulated mitochondrial transport and placement to meet the cell's localized energy requirements. Mitochondrial dynamics refers to the adaptive and variable aspect of mitochondria, including their shape and subcellular distribution.

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of chromosomes. The cell cycle checkpoints are surveillance systems that keep track of the cell cycle's integrity, accuracy, and chronology. Each checkpoint serves as an alternative cell cycle endpoint, wherein the cell's parameters are examined and only when desirable characteristics are fulfilled does the cell cycle advance through the distinct steps. The cell cycle's goal is to precisely copy each organism's DNA and afterwards equally split the cell and its components between the two new cells. Four main stages occur in the eukaryotes. In G1, the cell is usually active and continues to grow rapidly, while in G2, the cell growth continues while protein molecules become ready for separation. These are not dormant times; they are when cells gain mass, integrate growth factor receptors, establish a replicated genome, and prepare for chromosome segregation. DNA replication is restricted to a separate Synthesis in eukaryotes, which is also known as the S-phase. During mitosis, which is also known as the M-phase, the segregation of the chromosomes occur. DNA, like every other molecule, is capable of undergoing a wide range of chemical reactions. Modifications in DNA's sequence, on the other hand, have a considerably bigger impact than modifications in other cellular constituents like RNAs or proteins because DNA acts as a permanent copy of the cell genome. When erroneous nucleotides are incorporated during DNA replication, mutations can occur. The majority of DNA damage is fixed by removing the defective bases and then re-synthesizing the excised area. On the other hand, some DNA lesions can be mended by reversing the damage, which may be a more effective method of coping with common types of DNA damage. Only a few forms of DNA damage are mended in this fashion, including pyrimidine dimers caused by ultraviolet (UV) light changed by the insertion of methyl or ethyl groups at the purine ring's O6 position.

1672:(CMA) protein quality assurance by digesting oxidized and altered proteins under stressful circumstances and supplying amino acids through protein denaturation. Autophagy is the primary intrinsic degradative system for peptides, fats, carbohydrates, and other cellular structures. In both physiologic and stressful situations, this cellular progression is vital for upholding the correct cellular balance. Autophagy instability leads to a variety of illness symptoms, including inflammation, biochemical disturbances, aging, and neurodegenerative, due to its involvement in controlling cell integrity. The modification of the autophagy-lysosomal networks is a typical hallmark of many neurological and muscular illnesses. As a result, autophagy has been identified as a potential strategy for the prevention and treatment of various disorders. Many of these disorders are prevented or improved by consuming polyphenol in the meal. As a result, natural compounds with the ability to modify the autophagy mechanism are seen as a potential therapeutic option. The creation of the double membrane (phagophore), which would be known as nucleation, is the first step in macro-autophagy. The phagophore approach indicates dysregulated polypeptides or defective organelles that come from the cell membrane, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, and mitochondria. With the conclusion of the autophagocyte, the phagophore's enlargement comes to an end. The auto-phagosome combines with the lysosomal vesicles to formulate an auto-lysosome that degrades the encapsulated substances, referred to as phagocytosis. 1668:

infections. Additionally, autophagy has antiviral and antibacterial roles within the cell, and it is involved at the beginning of distinctive and adaptive immune responses to viral and bacterial contamination. Some viruses include virulence proteins that prevent autophagy, while others utilize autophagy elements for intracellular development or cellular splitting. Macro autophagy, micro autophagy, and chaperon-mediated autophagy are the three basic types of autophagy. When macro autophagy is triggered, an exclusion membrane incorporates a section of the cytoplasm, generating the autophagosome, a distinctive double-membraned organelle. The autophagosome then joins the lysosome to create an autolysosome, with lysosomal enzymes degrading the components. In micro autophagy, the lysosome or vacuole engulfs a piece of the cytoplasm by invaginating or protruding the lysosomal membrane to enclose the cytosol or organelles. The

1395:(GPCR): Is widely recognized to contain seven transmembrane domains. The ligand binds on the extracellular domain and once the ligand binds, this signals a guanine exchange factor to convert GDP to GTP and activate the G-α subunit. G-α can target other proteins such as adenyl cyclase or phospholipase C, which ultimately produce secondary messengers such as cAMP, Ip3, DAG, and calcium. These secondary messengers function to amplify signals and can target ion channels or other enzymes. One example for amplification of a signal is cAMP binding to and activating PKA by removing the regulatory subunits and releasing the catalytic subunit. The catalytic subunit has a nuclear localization sequence which prompts it to go into the nucleus and phosphorylate other proteins to either repress or activate gene activity. 1640:

excellent monitoring strategy for accurate cell cycle and divisions. Cdks, associated cyclin counterparts, protein kinases, and phosphatases regulate cell growth and division from one stage to another. The cell cycle is controlled by the temporal activation of Cdks, which is governed by cyclin partner interaction, phosphorylation by particular protein kinases, and de-phosphorylation by Cdc25 family phosphatases. In response to DNA damage, a cell's DNA repair reaction is a cascade of signaling pathways that leads to checkpoint engagement, regulates, the repairing mechanism in DNA, cell cycle alterations, and apoptosis. Numerous biochemical structures, as well as processes that detect damage in DNA, are ATM and ATR, which induce the DNA repair checkpoints

1826: 1464:: G1, S, G2, and M. The G phase – which is the cell growth phase – makes up approximately 95% of the cycle. The proliferation of cells is instigated by progenitors. All cells start out in an identical form and can essentially become any type of cells. Cell signaling such as induction can influence nearby cells to determinate the type of cell it will become. Moreover, this allows cells of the same type to aggregate and form tissues, then organs, and ultimately systems. The G1, G2, and S phase (DNA replication, damage and repair) are considered to be the interphase portion of the cycle, while the M phase ( 1864: 1009:: Utilizes rapidly growing cells on media which allows for a large amount of a specific cell type and an efficient way to study cells. Cell culture is one of the major tools used in cellular and molecular biology, providing excellent model systems for studying the normal physiology and biochemistry of cells (e.g., metabolic studies, aging), the effects of drugs and toxic compounds on the cells, and mutagenesis and carcinogenesis. It is also used in drug screening and development, and large scale manufacturing of biological compounds (e.g., vaccines, therapeutic proteins). 1846: 1270:: Cytoskeleton is a structure that helps to maintain the shape and general organization of the cytoplasm. It anchors organelles within the cells and makes up the structure and stability of the cell. The cytoskeleton is composed of three principal types of protein filaments: actin filaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules, which are held together and linked to subcellular organelles and the plasma membrane by a variety of accessory proteins. 5849: 1382:. Direct cell-cell contact is when a receptor on a cell binds a molecule that is attached to the membrane of another cell. Endocrine signaling occurs through molecules secreted into the bloodstream. Paracrine signaling uses molecules diffusing between two cells to communicate. Autocrine is a cell sending a signal to itself by secreting a molecule that binds to a receptor on its surface. Forms of communication can be through: 1906: 1426: 7471: 6510: 4058: 4046: 769: 7495: 6498: 1892: 1069: 756: 1179: 7507: 6530: 7483: 6520: 3564: 56: 3505: 1224:: This functions to synthesize, store, and secrete proteins to the Golgi apparatus. Structurally, the endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes found throughout the cell and connected to the nucleus. The membranes are slightly different from cell to cell and a cell's function determines the size and structure of the ER. 880:. These have allowed for and are currently being used for discoveries and research pertaining to how cells function, ultimately giving insight into understanding larger organisms. Knowing the components of cells and how cells work is fundamental to all biological sciences while also being essential for research in 1615:, which studies whole tissues. Cytopathology is commonly used to investigate diseases involving a wide range of body sites, often to aid in the diagnosis of cancer but also in the diagnosis of some infectious diseases and other inflammatory conditions. For example, a common application of cytopathology is the 1002:, and to derive medications.The techniques by which cells are studied have evolved. Due to advancements in microscopy, techniques and technology have allowed scientists to hold a better understanding of the structure and function of cells. Many techniques commonly used to study cell biology are listed below: 1276:: The cell membrane can be described as a phospholipid bilayer and is also consisted of lipids and proteins. Because the inside of the bilayer is hydrophobic and in order for molecules to participate in reactions within the cell, they need to be able to cross this membrane layer to get into the cell via 1652:

Mitochondria are commonly referred to as the cell's "powerhouses" because of their capacity to effectively produce ATP which is essential to maintain cellular homeostasis and metabolism. Moreover, researchers have gained a better knowledge of mitochondria's significance in cell biology because of the

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The cell cycle is composed of a number of well-ordered, consecutive stages that result in cellular division. The fact that cells do not begin the next stage until the last one is finished, is a significant element of cell cycle regulation. Cell cycle checkpoints are characteristics that constitute an

1212:, which includes nuclear pores allowing for the transportation of proteins between the inside and outside of the nucleus. This is also the site for replication of DNA as well as transcription of DNA to RNA. Afterwards, the RNA is modified and transported out to the cytosol to be translated to protein. 1643:

The cell cycle is a sequence of activities in which cell organelles are duplicated and subsequently separated into daughter cells with precision. There are major events that happen during a cell cycle. The processes that happen in the cell cycle include cell development, replication and segregation

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The cell cycle is a four-stage process that a cell goes through as it develops and divides. It includes Gap 1 (G1), synthesis (S), Gap 2 (G2), and mitosis (M). The cell either restarts the cycle from G1 or leaves the cycle through G0 after completing the cycle. The cell can progress from G0 through

1100:, and lack an enclosed cell nucleus. Eukaryotic cells are found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists. They range from 10 to 100 μm in diameter, and their DNA is contained within a membrane-bound nucleus. Eukaryotes are organisms containing eukaryotic cells. The four eukaryotic kingdoms are 1667:

Autophagy is a self-degradative mechanism that regulates energy sources during growth and reaction to dietary stress. Autophagy also cleans up after itself, clearing aggregated proteins, cleaning damaged structures including mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum and eradicating intracellular

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is initiated at a promoter sequence on the DNA template comprising two consensus sequences that recruit RNA polymerase. The prokaryotic polymerase consists of a core enzyme of four protein subunits and a σ protein that assists only with initiation. For instance, in a process termed

1401:: Bind growth factors, further promoting the tyrosine on the intracellular portion of the protein to cross phosphorylate. The phosphorylated tyrosine becomes a landing pad for proteins containing an SH2 domain allowing for the activation of Ras and the involvement of the 1440:

Cells are the foundation of all organisms and are the fundamental units of life. The growth and development of cells are essential for the maintenance of the host and survival of the organism. For this process, the cell goes through the steps of the

1043:: The cells are placed in the machine which uses a beam to scatter the cells based on different aspects and can therefore separate them based on size and content. Cells may also be tagged with GFP-fluorescence and can be separated that way as well. 840:. All living organisms are made of cells. A cell is the basic unit of life that is responsible for the living and functioning of organisms. Cell biology is the study of the structural and functional units of cells. Cell biology encompasses both 1240:: This functions to further process, package, and secrete the proteins to their destination. The proteins contain a signal sequence that allows the Golgi apparatus to recognize and direct it to the correct place. Golgi apparatus also produce 1320:

Cell metabolism is necessary for the production of energy for the cell and therefore its survival and includes many pathways and also sustaining the main cell organelles such as the nucleus, the mitochondria, the cell membrane etc. For

1159:, the fertility factor allows the bacteria to possess a pilus which allows it to transmit DNA to another bacteria which lacks the F factor, permitting the transmittance of resistance allowing it to survive in certain environments. 1472:

portion of the cycle. Mitosis is composed of many stages which include, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis, respectively. The ultimate result of mitosis is the formation of two identical daughter cells.

3509: 1325:, once glucose is available, glycolysis occurs within the cytosol of the cell to produce pyruvate. Pyruvate undergoes decarboxylation using the multi-enzyme complex to form acetyl coA which can readily be used in the 1254:: The lysosome functions to degrade material brought in from the outside of the cell or old organelles. This contains many acid hydrolases, proteases, nucleases, and lipases, which break down the various molecules. 1230:: Commonly known as the powerhouse of the cell is a double membrane bound cell organelle. This functions for the production of energy or ATP within the cell. Specifically, this is the place where the Krebs cycle or 1825: 1258:

is the process of degradation through lysosomes which occurs when a vesicle buds off from the ER and engulfs the material, then, attaches and fuses with the lysosome to allow the material to be degraded.

1037:: Involves metal staining and the passing of electrons through the cells, which will be deflected upon interaction with metal. This ultimately forms an image of the components being studied. 1370:

or cell communication is important for cell regulation and for cells to process information from the environment and respond accordingly. Signaling can occur through direct cell contact or

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terminal differentiation. Finally, the interphase refers to the phases of the cell cycle that occur between one mitosis and the next, and includes G1, S, and G2. Thus, the phases are:

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for the production of NADH and FADH occurs. Afterwards, these products are used within the electron transport chain (ETC) and oxidative phosphorylation for the final production of ATP.

1524:) during development. Maintenance of cell division potential over successive generations depends on the avoidance and the accurate repair of cellular damage, particularly 1863: 962:

which states that all living things are made up of cells and that cells are organisms' functional and structural units. This was ultimately concluded by plant scientist

6566: 1019:, are used to label a specific component of the cell. Afterwards, a certain light wavelength is used to excite the fluorescent marker which can then be visualized. 942:

and observing a cell-like structure; however, the cells were dead. They gave no indication to the actual overall components of a cell. A few years later, in 1674,

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that holds all the genetic material in a circular structure. There are many processes that occur in prokaryotic cells that allow them to survive. In prokaryotes,

4525: 4096: 1218:: This structure is within the nucleus, usually dense and spherical. It is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis, which is needed for ribosomal assembly. 6667: 3606: 6672: 2088: 800: 5065: 4991: 92: 3983: 3295:

Perrone, Lorena; Squillaro, Tiziana; Napolitano, Filomena; Terracciano, Chiara; Sampaolo, Simone; Melone, Mariarosa Anna Beatrice (13 August 2019).

6650: 3675: 3599: 6694: 1845: 5024: 4986: 3473: 3453: 2331: 1919: 6645: 6706: 6273: 4790: 3538: 706: 487: 6559: 5857: 3958: 3297:"The Autophagy Signaling Pathway: A Potential Multifunctional Therapeutic Target of Curcumin in Neurological and Neuromuscular Diseases" 701: 3586: 3436:(2013). "Chapter 2. Technologies for Detecting Metals in Single Cells. Section 4. Intrinsic X-Ray Fluorescence". In Bani, Lucia (ed.). 5445: 2304: 2279: 2167: 2103:

Paez-Espino D, Eloe-Fadrosh EA, Pavlopoulos GA, Thomas AD, Huntemann M, Mikhailova N, Rubin E, Ivanova NN, Kyrpides NC (August 2016).

2042: 1993: 1628: 1389:: Can be of different types such as voltage or ligand gated ion channels. They allow for the outflow and inflow of molecules and ions. 951: 7511: 2879:

Avise JC. Perspective: The evolutionary biology of aging, sexual reproduction, and DNA repair. Evolution. 1993 Oct;47(5):1293-1301.

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to ultimately form a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. This gradient can then drive the production of ATP and

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Bernstein C, Bernstein H, Payne C. Cell immortality: maintenance of cell division potential. Prog Mol Subcell Biol. 2000;24:23-50.

3514: 2470: 1525: 1488:. When the cell has completed its growth process and if it is found to be damaged or altered, it undergoes cell death, either by 1402: 1034: 6533: 4158: 1984:

Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander D.; Morgan, David; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter (2015). "Cells and genomes".

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Cell biology research looks at different ways to culture and manipulate cells outside of a living body to further research in

7390: 6552: 3948: 3748: 1092:. Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells, making them the smallest form of life. Prokaryotic cells include 793: 6833: 6587: 5455: 4260: 3963: 6481: 4511: 4082: 3849: 3824: 3733: 3670: 3642: 1669: 7110: 6597: 6471: 3839: 1504:

The ancestry of each present day cell presumably traces back, in an unbroken lineage for over 3 billion years to the

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are not considered in cell biology – they lack the characteristics of a living cell and instead are studied in the

1031:: Combines fluorescence microscopy with imaging by focusing light and snap shooting instances to form a 3-D image. 6625: 5956: 5916: 5881: 5493: 5072: 5049: 5017: 4021: 3804: 3728: 2385:

Griffiths, Anthony J.F.; Miller, Jeffrey H.; Suzuki, David T.; Lewontin, Richard C.; Gelbart, William M. (2000).

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further contributed to the cell theory, adding that all cells come from the division of pre-existing cells.

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but multi-generational cell lineages. The immortality of a cell lineage depends on the maintenance of

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Pelley, John W. (2007), "Citric Acid Cycle, Electron Transport Chain, and Oxidative Phosphorylation",

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Elosegui-Artola A, Andreu I, Beedle AE, Lezamiz A, Uroz M, Kosmalska AJ, et al. (November 2017).

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which is simply the exact opposite of respiration as it ultimately produces molecules of glucose.

7475: 7441: 7303: 7272: 7153: 7095: 6793: 6776: 6771: 6726: 6689: 6679: 6640: 6418: 6398: 6383: 6208: 6203: 6003: 5951: 5834: 5829: 5744: 5699: 5626: 5548: 5498: 5060: 5055: 4981: 4935: 4915: 4900: 4725: 4720: 4534: 3104: 2987: 2785: 2685: 2367: 2140: 1762: 1702: 1290:: Function to produce spindle fibers which are used to separate chromosomes during cell division. 1046: 925: 893: 877: 686: 632: 612: 597: 422: 417: 88: 76: 3488: 3480: 1049:: This process requires breaking up the cell using high temperature or sonification followed by 7456: 7421: 7404: 7342: 7260: 7255: 7183: 7168: 7138: 7059: 7026: 6997: 6992: 6967: 6957: 6877: 6865: 6744: 6657: 6403: 6283: 6138: 5807: 5533: 5221: 5211: 5170: 4920: 4800: 4655: 4442: 4280: 4163: 3973: 3968: 3935: 3902: 3897: 3844: 3796: 3622: 3494: 3484: 3476: 3469: 3459: 3449: 3433: 3393: 3375: 3336: 3318: 3277: 3259: 3218: 3200: 3161: 3143: 3096: 3088: 3044: 3026: 2979: 2971: 2842: 2824: 2777: 2769: 2722: 2646: 2598: 2555: 2427: 2327: 2300: 2275: 2252: 2234: 2163: 2132: 2038: 2010: 1989: 1792: 1747: 1722: 1707: 1326: 1231: 1156: 897: 853: 734: 617: 497: 352: 187: 125: 2922: 7499: 7416: 7071: 6930: 6907: 6860: 6801: 6513: 6128: 5817: 5704: 5314: 5277: 5162: 5132: 4645: 3991: 3665: 3441: 3383: 3367: 3326: 3308: 3267: 3249: 3208: 3192: 3151: 3135: 3080: 3034: 3018: 2961: 2880: 2863: 2832: 2816: 2759: 2547: 2417: 2359: 2242: 2226: 2124: 1869: 1807: 1692: 1371: 1277: 1209: 1119: 773: 342: 183: 3067:

Giacomello, Marta; Pyakurel, Aswin; Glytsou, Christina; Scorrano, Luca (18 February 2020).

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Nelson, Daniel (22 June 2018). "The Difference Between Eukaryotic And Prokaryotic Cells".

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The scientific branch that studies and diagnoses diseases on the cellular level is called

1446: 1237: 1186: 967: 939: 627: 592: 3582:"Francis Harry Compton Crick (1916–2004)" by A. Andrei at the Embryo Project Encyclopedia 1516:

potential. This potential may be lost in any particular lineage because of cell damage,

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in 1838, who viewed live cells in plant and animal tissue, respectively. 19 years later,

888:, and other diseases. Research in cell biology is interconnected to other fields such as 5848: 2120: 2078: 7241: 7219: 7214: 7209: 7164: 7160: 7143: 7100: 7031: 6892: 6887: 6872: 6684: 6602: 6502: 6268: 6080: 5911: 5906: 5896: 5891: 5792: 5734: 5666: 5661: 5523: 5518: 5412: 5367: 5344: 5226: 5216: 5158: 4785: 4595: 4106: 3887: 3829: 3713: 3524: 3388: 3355: 3331: 3296: 3272: 3237: 3213: 3156: 3039: 3006: 2884: 2837: 2804: 2551: 2247: 2214: 1911: 1897: 1752: 1727: 1612: 1367: 1362: 1350: 1107: 1050: 971: 865: 837: 760: 482: 294: 31: 4074: 2966: 2949: 2764: 2747: 7527: 7446: 7335: 7291: 7016: 6850: 6845: 6838: 6716: 6348: 6243: 6133: 6110: 6105: 5998: 5946: 5941: 5719: 5636: 5538: 5503: 5272: 4865: 4760: 4650: 4625: 4620: 4389: 4349: 4324: 4240: 4153: 4128: 4026: 4016: 4006: 3591: 3108: 2083: 1836: 1777: 1772: 1604: 1598: 1513: 1469: 1450: 1430: 1273: 995: 909: 562: 457: 347: 324: 319: 2991: 2789: 2371: 1425: 7323: 7173: 7088: 7054: 7046: 6947: 6882: 6781: 6630: 6393: 6373: 6338: 6333: 6323: 6318: 6298: 6278: 6188: 6158: 6100: 6090: 6070: 6065: 6060: 6055: 5936: 5926: 5901: 5558: 5392: 5309: 5267: 5196: 5128: 4910: 4890: 4855: 4850: 4840: 4835: 4815: 4795: 4705: 4675: 4615: 4605: 4585: 4580: 4575: 4570: 4369: 4341: 4319: 4312: 4292: 4232: 4148: 4133: 4031: 3854: 3814: 3575: 3552: 2445: 2144: 1905: 1855: 1717: 1267: 1241: 1227: 1193: 1085: 1006: 979: 955: 934: 929: 873: 861: 607: 587: 552: 547: 537: 532: 512: 492: 402: 372: 314: 304: 284: 279: 274: 269: 169: 3124:"DNA damage and decisions: CtIP coordinates DNA repair and cell cycle checkpoints" 2517: 1264:: Functions to translate RNA to protein. it serves as a site of protein synthesis. 2492: 2321: 1544:, provide an opportunity for effective repair of DNA damages in the germ line by 932:

referred to the building blocks of all living organisms as "cells" (published in

6721: 6443: 6438: 6408: 6363: 6308: 6248: 6233: 6228: 6193: 6153: 6045: 6035: 6030: 5714: 5440: 5362: 5241: 5231: 5182: 5124: 4960: 4955: 4925: 4880: 4825: 4765: 4750: 4745: 4710: 4670: 4560: 4550: 4545: 4471: 4437: 4364: 4359: 4250: 3781: 3445: 2867: 1954: 1782: 1737: 1509: 1505: 1386: 1084:. Prokaryotic cells are distinguished from eukaryotic cells by the absence of a 959: 881: 657: 652: 622: 577: 522: 462: 447: 442: 407: 367: 259: 249: 244: 164: 110: 17: 6497: 3371: 3123: 3068: 2714: 2422: 2406:"Force Triggers YAP Nuclear Entry by Regulating Transport across Nuclear Pores" 2405: 2386: 1891: 755: 7347: 6428: 6423: 6368: 6353: 6293: 6258: 6253: 6223: 6183: 6163: 6095: 6075: 5824: 5651: 5543: 5488: 5417: 5397: 5357: 5262: 5178: 5112: 5108: 4945: 4940: 4885: 4870: 4810: 4775: 4770: 4740: 4700: 4680: 4610: 4590: 4466: 4406: 4399: 4384: 4379: 4374: 4329: 4275: 4265: 4215: 4210: 4200: 3139: 3084: 2667: 2616: 2575: 2195: 1887: 1757: 1687: 1541: 1533: 1461: 1454: 1442: 1434: 1420: 1302: 1245: 1205: 1178: 1077: 1068: 1063: 999: 905: 869: 857: 849: 841: 833: 642: 637: 582: 567: 507: 472: 467: 437: 397: 377: 309: 289: 149: 144: 3379: 3322: 3263: 3204: 3147: 3092: 3030: 2975: 2828: 2773: 2602: 2471:"Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough and Smooth) | British Society for Cell Biology" 2363: 2238: 1294:

Eukaryotic cells may also be composed of the following molecular components:

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to separate the parts of the cell allowing for them to be studied separately.

7409: 6711: 6576: 6343: 6328: 6313: 6263: 6238: 5981: 5782: 5694: 5576: 5508: 5480: 5387: 5201: 5190: 5186: 5154: 5120: 4860: 4845: 4830: 4780: 4755: 4487: 4449: 4422: 4394: 4302: 4287: 4270: 4205: 4178: 4110: 2104: 1873: 1662: 1616: 1608: 1537: 1521: 1489: 1298: 1287: 1281: 1255: 1215: 1173: 1139: 1131: 1089: 1081: 1040: 845: 682: 557: 542: 527: 477: 452: 207: 159: 120: 115: 3463: 3397: 3340: 3281: 3222: 3165: 3100: 3048: 2983: 2846: 2781: 2726: 2431: 2256: 2136: 1311:: They help to propel substances and can also be used for sensory purposes. 3563: 7431: 6433: 6358: 6288: 6218: 6213: 6040: 5974: 5571: 5528: 5427: 5299: 5174: 5150: 4950: 4875: 4805: 4735: 4730: 4555: 4432: 4188: 4173: 4168: 3254: 2820: 1959: 1529: 1493: 1261: 1251: 1147: 1143: 1093: 983: 889: 647: 572: 502: 432: 427: 254: 223: 202: 6544: 2128: 7451: 6448: 6178: 6050: 5967: 5812: 5787: 5772: 5754: 5601: 5566: 5407: 5402: 5329: 5324: 5304: 5097: 5082: 5033: 4965: 4695: 4565: 4454: 4354: 4307: 4183: 3440:. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 12. Springer. pp. 15–40. 3313: 3180: 2092:. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 710. 1465: 1097: 975: 829: 825: 662: 392: 264: 211: 197: 55: 47: 30:

This article is about the branch of biology. For cells themselves, see

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depends on the effectiveness of processes for avoiding DNA damage and

6115: 5646: 5631: 5591: 5586: 5460: 5382: 5377: 5287: 4630: 4297: 1576:: in preparation for cell division, new organelles and proteins form. 1308: 1197: 1138:

than gram-negative bacteria. Bacterial structural features include a

921: 885: 329: 219: 3022: 2230: 3179:

Glick, Danielle; Barth, Sandra; Macleod, Kay F. (3 February 2010).

1496:, to eliminate the threat it can cause to the organism's survival. 5777: 5676: 5608: 5596: 5334: 5282: 1480:, by a series of signaling factors and complexes such as cyclins, 1177: 1115: 1067: 947: 215: 2805:"Cell cycle control, checkpoint mechanisms, and genotoxic stress" 1200:

and genetic information storage for the cell, containing all the

7426: 5656: 5641: 5581: 5257: 5146: 5102: 3520: 1582:: cytokinesis occurs, resulting in two identical daughter cells. 135: 6548: 5006: 4507: 4078: 3595: 2077: 7436: 5435: 4427: 2803:

Shackelford, R E; Kaufmann, W K; Paules, R S (February 1999).

1988:(6th ed.). New York, NY: Garland Science. pp. 1–42. 1485: 1201: 2028: 2026: 2024: 5319: 2270:

Doble, Mukesh; Gummadi, Sathyanarayana N. (5 August 2010).

5002: 946:

was the first to analyze live cells in his examination of

2493:"Biology4Kids.com: Cell Structure: Endoplasmic Reticulum" 1564:: the cell grows in size and its contents are replicated. 2518:"Powerhouse of the cell has self-preservation mechanism" 1950:

Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology (disambiguation)

2950:"A Long Twentieth Century of the Cell Cycle and Beyond" 3236:

Yoshii, Saori R.; Mizushima, Noboru (28 August 2017).

2686:"What Are the Main Functions of Cilia & Flagella?" 848:

and has many subtopics which may include the study of

3069:"The cell biology of mitochondrial membrane dynamics" 3062: 3060: 3058: 2320:

Levetin, Estelle; McMahon, Karen (16 October 2014).

1520:

as occurs in nerve cells, or programmed cell death (

1076:

There are two fundamental classifications of cells:

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Cell cycle checkpoints and DNA damage repair system

1134:composition. Gram-positive bacteria have a thicker 1110:. Bacteria, the most prominent type, have several 3007:"ATR: an essential regulator of genome integrity" 1570:: the cell replicates each of the 46 chromosomes. 1284:, concentration gradients, and membrane channels. 3354:Levine, Beth; Kroemer, Guido (11 January 2008). 2898:"The Cell Cycle - Phases - Mitosis - Regulation" 2858: 2856: 2391:An Introduction to Genetic Analysis. 7th Edition 2297:Cell Physiology Sourcebook: A Molecular Approach 868:. The study of cells is performed using several 3122:You, Zhongsheng; Bailis, Julie M. (July 2010). 3181:"Autophagy: cellular and molecular mechanisms" 1305:and is a mixture of DNA with various proteins. 6560: 5018: 4519: 4090: 3607: 2748:"Cell Signaling by Receptor Tyrosine Kinases" 2274:. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Pvt.Ltd. 1460:The cell cycle is divided into four distinct 1146:for the translation of RNA to protein, and a 794: 8: 3493:Cell and Molecular Biology by Karp 5th Ed., 1445:and development which involves cell growth, 3242:International Journal of Molecular Sciences 2672:The Cell: A Molecular Approach. 2nd Edition 2580:The Cell: A Molecular Approach. 2nd Edition 2213:McKinnon, Katherine M. (21 February 2018). 2200:The Cell: A Molecular Approach. 2nd Edition 1196:: The nucleus of the cell functions as the 6567: 6553: 6545: 5864: 5087: 5025: 5011: 5003: 4526: 4512: 4504: 4097: 4083: 4075: 3614: 3600: 3592: 3356:"Autophagy in the Pathogenesis of Disease" 1528:. In sexual organisms, continuity of the 1189:are composed of the following organelles: 801: 787: 38: 4992:Timeline of biology and organic chemistry 3387: 3330: 3312: 3271: 3253: 3212: 3155: 3038: 2965: 2836: 2763: 2421: 2246: 2715:"Biochemistry, Electron Transport Chain" 2713:Ahmad, Maria; Kahwaji, Chadi I. (2019), 2071: 2069: 1835:is best known for his 1837 discovery of 1500:Cell mortality, cell lineage immortality 1424: 1340: 2595:Lysosomes: some pathologic implications 1976: 1821: 1102:Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, and Protista. 46: 2349: 2347: 2345: 2343: 920:Cells were first seen in 17th-century 4987:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 3073:Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology 3011:Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology 2746:Schlessinger, Joseph (October 2000). 2708: 2706: 2189: 2187: 2185: 2183: 2181: 2179: 1920:The American Society for Cell Biology 1349:. Metabolism in plant cells includes 1333:. These products are involved in the 7: 7482: 6519: 3587:"Biology Resource By Professor Lin." 3238:"Monitoring and Measuring Autophagy" 2162:. Rastogi Publications. p. 11. 2037:. Rastogi Publications. p. 11. 1536:that do occur. Sexual processes in 1508:. It is not actually cells that are 1122:. Bacteria can be classed as either 27:Branch of biology that studies cells 7506: 6529: 5446:Evolutionary developmental biology 2885:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1993.tb02155.x 2552:10.1016/b978-0-323-03410-4.50013-4 2544:Elsevier's Integrated Biochemistry 1631:that may lead to cervical cancer. 25: 5471:Post-transcriptional modification 2809:Environmental Health Perspectives 1872:, Nobel Prize winner for work on 7505: 7493: 7481: 7470: 7469: 6528: 6518: 6509: 6508: 6496: 5847: 4057: 4056: 4045: 4044: 3562: 3508: This article incorporates 3503: 2299:(3rd ed.). Academic Press. 2058:Hooke, Robert (September 1665). 1904: 1890: 1862: 1844: 1824: 1035:Transmission electron microscopy 768: 767: 754: 54: 3984:Biological techniques and tools 2219:Current Protocols in Immunology 2158:Lavanya, P. (1 December 2005). 2076:Chubb, Gilbert Charles (1911). 1648:Mitochondrial membrane dynamics 1476:The cell cycle is regulated in 1072:A drawing of a prokaryotic cell 3676:Genetically modified organisms 2948:Nurse, Paul (7 January 2000). 2668:"Transport of Small Molecules" 2643:The Cell: A Molecular Approach 2295:Kaneshiro, Edna (2 May 2001). 1015:: Fluorescent markers such as 938:) after looking at a piece of 1: 6834:Interface and colloid science 6588:Glossary of chemical formulae 4261:Microtubule organizing center 2967:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81684-0 2765:10.1016/s0092-8674(00)00114-8 2215:"Flow Cytometry: An Overview" 2033:Gupta, P. (1 December 2005). 1986:Molecular Biology of the Cell 1629:precancerous cervical lesions 1168:Structure of eukaryotic cells 1142:that helps the cell to move, 950:. Many years later, in 1831, 3643:History of molecular biology 2666:Cooper, Geoffrey M. (2000). 2574:Cooper, Geoffrey M. (2000). 2546:, Elsevier, pp. 55–63, 2326:. McGraw Hill. p. 135. 2194:Cooper, Geoffrey M. (2000). 1670:chaperone-mediated autophagy 1106:They both reproduce through 7111:Bioorganometallic chemistry 6598:List of inorganic compounds 3446:10.1007/978-94-007-5561-1_2 2868:10.1007/978-3-662-06227-2_2 2641:Cooper, Geoffrey M (2000). 2105:"Uncovering Earth's virome" 1534:repairing those DNA damages 1182:A diagram of an animal cell 958:. All of this preceded the 7555: 7037:Dynamic covalent chemistry 7008:Enantioselective synthesis 6988:Physical organic chemistry 6941:Organolanthanide chemistry 3919:polyclonal B cell response 3372:10.1016/j.cell.2007.12.018 2423:10.1016/j.cell.2017.10.008 2160:Cell and Molecular Biology 2035:Cell and Molecular Biology 1660: 1596: 1418: 1393:G-protein coupled receptor 1360: 1222:Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) 1171: 1061: 924:with the invention of the 29: 7465: 6626:Electroanalytical methods 6583: 6490: 5957:Polymerase chain reaction 5917:Green fluorescent protein 5845: 5494:Earliest known life forms 5040: 4541: 4040: 4022:Polymerase chain reaction 3633: 3553:Resources in your library 3140:10.1016/j.tcb.2010.04.002 3085:10.1038/s41580-020-0210-7 2721:, StatPearls Publishing, 2323:Ebook: Plants and Society 1399:Receptor tyrosine kinases 1347:oxidative phosphorylation 1204:organized in the form of 1023:Phase-contrast microscopy 707:List of unsolved problems 7381:Nobel Prize in Chemistry 7297:Supramolecular chemistry 6936:Organometallic chemistry 4256:Prokaryotic cytoskeleton 3438:Metallomics and the Cell 3185:The Journal of Pathology 2364:10.31988/scitrends.20655 1798:Matthias Jakob Schleiden 1546:homologous recombination 1518:terminal differentiation 1335:electron transport chain 1329:to produce NADH and FADH 1208:. It is surrounded by a 1088:or other membrane-bound 702:List of research methods 7319:Combinatorial chemistry 7230:Food physical chemistry 7193:Environmental chemistry 7077:Bioorthogonal chemistry 7003:Retrosynthetic analysis 6824:Chemical thermodynamics 6807:Spectroelectrochemistry 6750:Computational chemistry 6009:species discovery curve 5137:Response to environment 3638:Outline of cell biology 2621:Encyclopedia Britannica 2491:Studios, Andrew Rader. 2387:"Bacterial conjugation" 2272:Biochemical Engineering 2196:"Tools of Cell Biology" 2089:Encyclopædia Britannica 1965:Outline of cell biology 1833:Jan Evangelista Purkyně 1813:Jan Evangelista Purkyně 1676:Notable cell biologists 1482:cyclin-dependent kinase 1013:Fluorescence microscopy 175:Response to environment 7391:of element discoveries 7237:Agricultural chemistry 7225:Carbohydrate chemistry 7116:Bioinorganic chemistry 6981:Alkane stereochemistry 6926:Coordination chemistry 6755:Mathematical chemistry 6621:Instrumental chemistry 6482:Plant morphology terms 6086:Biological engineering 5768:Biological interaction 4601:Biological engineering 3510:public domain material 3128:Trends in Cell Biology 1478:cell cycle checkpoints 1437: 1410:Growth and development 1183: 1163:Structure and function 1073: 692:List of biology awards 300:Biological engineering 7386:Timeline of chemistry 7283:Post-mortem chemistry 7268:Clandestine chemistry 7198:Atmospheric chemistry 7121:Biophysical chemistry 6953:Solid-state chemistry 6903:Equilibrium chemistry 6812:Photoelectrochemistry 6169:Developmental biology 6144:Computational biology 6124:Cellular microbiology 5466:Mendelian inheritance 5378:Energy transformation 4686:Developmental biology 4661:Computational biology 4641:Cellular microbiology 4246:Intermediate filament 4139:Endoplasmic reticulum 4002:In situ hybridization 3924:somatic hypermutation 3914:monoclonal antibodies 3749:Developmental biology 3434:Penner-Hahn, James E. 2617:"Ribosome | cytology" 2576:"The Golgi Apparatus" 1945:Cellular microbiology 1788:Edmund Beecher Wilson 1733:Anton van Leeuwenhoek 1428: 1415:Eukaryotic cell cycle 1361:Further information: 1181: 1071: 966:and animal scientist 944:Anton Van Leeuwenhoek 383:Developmental biology 358:Computational biology 338:Cellular microbiology 7376:History of chemistry 7331:Chemical engineering 7106:Bioorganic chemistry 6856:Structural chemistry 6593:List of biomolecules 6389:Reproductive biology 6274:Mathematical biology 6199:Evolutionary biology 6149:Conservation biology 5962:Two-hybrid screening 5932:Protein purification 5763:Biogeochemical cycle 5725:Internal environment 5373:Cellular respiration 4906:Reproductive biology 4791:Mathematical biology 4716:Evolutionary biology 4666:Conservation biology 4493:Extracellular matrix 3964:Molecular biologists 3739:Clone (cell biology) 3571:at Wikimedia Commons 3255:10.3390/ijms18091865 2923:"What is Pathology?" 2821:10.1289/ehp.99107s15 2497:www.biology4kids.com 2416:(6): 1397–1410.e14. 1854:, discoverer of the 1683:Jean Baptiste Carnoy 1453:, regeneration, and 1323:cellular respiration 1114:, although most are 902:medical microbiology 725:Agricultural science 603:Reproductive biology 488:Mathematical biology 413:Evolutionary biology 363:Conservation biology 7399:The central science 7353:Ceramic engineering 7278:Forensic toxicology 7251:Chemistry education 7149:Radiation chemistry 7131:Interdisciplinarity 7084:Medicinal chemistry 7022:Fullerene chemistry 6898:Microwave chemistry 6767:Molecular mechanics 6762:Molecular modelling 6174:Ecological genetics 5887:Gel electrophoresis 5877:Genetic engineering 5830:Population dynamics 5740:Reproductive system 4691:Ecological genetics 4535:Branches of biology 4196:Cytoplasmic granule 3949:Biochemistry topics 3850:Population genetics 3825:Genetic engineering 3734:Signal transduction 3671:Genetic engineering 3527:on 8 December 2009. 2225:(1): 5.1.1–5.1.11. 2129:10.1038/nature19094 2121:2016Natur.536..425P 1940:Cellular adaptation 1380:autocrine signaling 1136:peptidoglycan layer 1029:Confocal microscopy 926:compound microscope 730:Biomedical sciences 388:Ecological genetics 42:Part of a series on 7442:Chemical substance 7304:Chemical synthesis 7273:Forensic chemistry 7154:Actinide chemistry 7096:Clinical chemistry 6777:Molecular geometry 6772:Molecular dynamics 6727:Elemental analysis 6680:Separation process 6503:Biology portal 6399:Structural biology 6384:Relational biology 6209:Generative biology 6204:Freshwater biology 6004:mark and recapture 5952:Restriction enzyme 5745:Respiratory system 5700:Circulatory system 5627:Epidermis (botany) 4982:History of biology 4916:Structural biology 4901:Relational biology 4726:Generative biology 4721:Freshwater biology 4221:Weibel–Palade body 4105:Structures of the 3840:Molecular genetics 3412:"Research - IIMCB" 3314:10.3390/nu11081881 1763:George Emil Palade 1703:Geoffrey M. Cooper 1438: 1403:MAP kinase pathway 1184: 1074: 1047:Cell fractionation 964:Matthias Schleiden 894:molecular genetics 878:cell fractionation 854:cell communication 836:, and behavior of 761:Biology portal 613:Structural biology 598:Relational biology 423:Generative biology 418:Freshwater biology 7539:Molecular biology 7521: 7520: 7457:Quantum mechanics 7422:Chemical compound 7405:Chemical reaction 7343:Materials science 7261:General chemistry 7256:Amateur chemistry 7184:Photogeochemistry 7169:Stellar chemistry 7139:Nuclear chemistry 7060:Molecular biology 7027:Polymer chemistry 6998:Organic synthesis 6993:Organic reactions 6958:Ceramic chemistry 6948:Cluster chemistry 6878:Chemical kinetics 6866:Molecular physics 6745:Quantum chemistry 6658:Mass spectrometry 6542: 6541: 6404:Synthetic biology 6284:Molecular biology 6139:Cognitive biology 6017: 6016: 5843: 5842: 5534:Natural selection 5315:Organic compounds 5212:Scientific method 5202:Emergent property 5143:Hierarchy of life 5113:Energy processing 5000: 4999: 4921:Synthetic biology 4801:Molecular biology 4656:Cognitive biology 4501: 4500: 4281:Spindle pole body 4072: 4071: 4051:Molecular biology 3959:Molecular biology 3936:Molecular biology 3820:Genetic disorders 3623:Molecular biology 3567:Media related to 3539:Library resources 3474:978-94-007-5561-1 3455:978-94-007-5560-4 3197:10.1002/path.2697 2902:TeachMePhysiology 2815:(suppl 1): 5–24. 2333:978-0-07-717206-0 2017:. www.nature.com. 2009:Bisceglia, Nick. 1793:Kenneth R. Miller 1748:Peter D. Mitchell 1723:H. Robert Horvitz 1708:Christian de Duve 1552:Cell cycle phases 1130:depending on the 898:molecular biology 828:that studies the 824:) is a branch of 811: 810: 735:Health technology 618:Synthetic biology 498:Molecular biology 353:Cognitive biology 150:Energy processing 16:(Redirected from 7546: 7509: 7508: 7497: 7485: 7484: 7473: 7472: 7417:Chemical element 7072:Chemical biology 6931:Magnetochemistry 6908:Mechanochemistry 6861:Chemical physics 6802:Electrochemistry 6707:Characterization 6569: 6562: 6555: 6546: 6532: 6531: 6522: 6521: 6512: 6511: 6505: 6501: 6500: 6477:Ecological terms 6129:Chemical biology 5992:Field techniques 5865: 5851: 5710:Digestive system 5705:Endocrine system 5278:Chemical element 5237:Biology journals 5133:Self-replication 5088: 5027: 5020: 5013: 5004: 4646:Chemical biology 4528: 4521: 4514: 4505: 4099: 4092: 4085: 4076: 4060: 4059: 4048: 4047: 3805:Applied genetics 3729:Membrane biology 3616: 3609: 3602: 3593: 3566: 3528: 3523:. Archived from 3507: 3506: 3468:electronic-book 3467: 3420: 3419: 3416:www.iimcb.gov.pl 3408: 3402: 3401: 3391: 3351: 3345: 3344: 3334: 3316: 3292: 3286: 3285: 3275: 3257: 3233: 3227: 3226: 3216: 3176: 3170: 3169: 3159: 3119: 3113: 3112: 3064: 3053: 3052: 3042: 3002: 2996: 2995: 2969: 2945: 2939: 2938: 2936: 2934: 2927:News-Medical.net 2919: 2913: 2912: 2910: 2908: 2894: 2888: 2887:. PMID 28564887. 2877: 2871: 2870:. PMID 10547857. 2860: 2851: 2850: 2840: 2800: 2794: 2793: 2767: 2743: 2737: 2736: 2735: 2733: 2710: 2701: 2700: 2698: 2696: 2682: 2676: 2675: 2663: 2657: 2656: 2638: 2632: 2631: 2629: 2627: 2613: 2607: 2606: 2590: 2584: 2583: 2571: 2565: 2564: 2539: 2533: 2532: 2530: 2528: 2514: 2508: 2507: 2505: 2503: 2488: 2482: 2481: 2479: 2477: 2467: 2461: 2460: 2458: 2456: 2442: 2436: 2435: 2425: 2401: 2395: 2394: 2382: 2376: 2375: 2351: 2338: 2337: 2317: 2311: 2310: 2292: 2286: 2285: 2267: 2261: 2260: 2250: 2210: 2204: 2203: 2191: 2174: 2173: 2155: 2149: 2148: 2115:(7617): 425–30. 2100: 2094: 2093: 2081: 2079:"Cytology" 2073: 2064: 2063: 2055: 2049: 2048: 2030: 2019: 2018: 2006: 2000: 1999: 1981: 1914: 1909: 1908: 1900: 1895: 1894: 1870:Yoshinori Ohsumi 1866: 1848: 1831:Czech anatomist 1828: 1808:Yoshinori Ohsumi 1743:Marta Miączyńska 1540:, as well as in 1344: 1301:: This makes up 1278:osmotic pressure 1210:nuclear envelope 1187:Eukaryotic cells 1112:different shapes 866:cell composition 846:eukaryotic cells 818:cellular biology 803: 796: 789: 776: 771: 770: 763: 759: 758: 697:List of journals 343:Chemical biology 58: 39: 21: 18:Cellular Biology 7554: 7553: 7549: 7548: 7547: 7545: 7544: 7543: 7524: 7523: 7522: 7517: 7461: 7364: 7358:Polymer science 7314:Click chemistry 7309:Green chemistry 7203:Ocean chemistry 7179:Biogeochemistry 7125: 7041: 7013:Total synthesis 6976:Stereochemistry 6962: 6912: 6829:Surface science 6819:Thermochemistry 6788: 6731: 6702:Crystallography 6607: 6579: 6573: 6543: 6538: 6495: 6494: 6486: 6472:Botanical terms 6455: 6454: 6453: 6414:Systems biology 6379:Quantum biology 6013: 5987: 5869: 5859: 5852: 5839: 5749: 5730:Muscular system 5687: 5681: 5672:Vascular tissue 5619: 5613: 5553: 5514:History of life 5475: 5456:Gene regulation 5451:Gene expression 5422: 5339: 5246: 5077: 5036: 5031: 5001: 4996: 4970: 4931:Systems biology 4896:Quantum biology 4537: 4532: 4502: 4497: 4476: 4411: 4336: 4227: 4144:Golgi apparatus 4120: 4113: 4103: 4073: 4068: 4036: 3997:Electrophoresis 3978: 3930: 3893:Microbiologists 3859: 3791: 3743: 3690: 3647: 3629: 3620: 3559: 3558: 3557: 3547: 3546: 3542: 3535: 3513: 3504: 3456: 3432: 3429: 3424: 3423: 3410: 3409: 3405: 3353: 3352: 3348: 3294: 3293: 3289: 3235: 3234: 3230: 3178: 3177: 3173: 3121: 3120: 3116: 3066: 3065: 3056: 3023:10.1038/nrm2450 3004: 3003: 2999: 2947: 2946: 2942: 2932: 2930: 2921: 2920: 2916: 2906: 2904: 2896: 2895: 2891: 2878: 2874: 2861: 2854: 2802: 2801: 2797: 2745: 2744: 2740: 2731: 2729: 2712: 2711: 2704: 2694: 2692: 2684: 2683: 2679: 2665: 2664: 2660: 2653: 2640: 2639: 2635: 2625: 2623: 2615: 2614: 2610: 2592: 2591: 2587: 2573: 2572: 2568: 2562: 2541: 2540: 2536: 2526: 2524: 2516: 2515: 2511: 2501: 2499: 2490: 2489: 2485: 2475: 2473: 2469: 2468: 2464: 2454: 2452: 2444: 2443: 2439: 2403: 2402: 2398: 2384: 2383: 2379: 2353: 2352: 2341: 2334: 2319: 2318: 2314: 2307: 2294: 2293: 2289: 2282: 2269: 2268: 2264: 2231:10.1002/cpim.40 2212: 2211: 2207: 2193: 2192: 2177: 2170: 2157: 2156: 2152: 2102: 2101: 2097: 2075: 2074: 2067: 2057: 2056: 2052: 2045: 2032: 2031: 2022: 2008: 2007: 2003: 1996: 1983: 1982: 1978: 1973: 1935:Cell physiology 1930:Cell disruption 1925:Cell biophysics 1910: 1903: 1896: 1889: 1886: 1881: 1880: 1879: 1876: 1867: 1858: 1852:Theodor Schwann 1849: 1840: 1829: 1817: 1803:Theodor Schwann 1768:Keith R. Porter 1713:Henri Dutrochet 1678: 1665: 1659: 1650: 1637: 1625:cervical cancer 1623:used to detect 1601: 1595: 1554: 1502: 1447:DNA replication 1429:The process of 1423: 1417: 1412: 1365: 1359: 1342: 1338: 1332: 1318: 1316:Cell metabolism 1238:Golgi apparatus 1176: 1170: 1165: 1066: 1060: 992: 968:Theodor Schwann 954:discovered the 918: 884:fields such as 850:cell metabolism 807: 766: 753: 752: 745: 744: 720: 712: 711: 678: 670: 669: 668: 667: 628:Systems biology 593:Quantum biology 238: 230: 229: 194: 179: 141: 130: 106: 98: 63: 61:Science of life 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7552: 7550: 7542: 7541: 7536: 7526: 7525: 7519: 7518: 7516: 7515: 7503: 7491: 7479: 7466: 7463: 7462: 7460: 7459: 7454: 7449: 7444: 7439: 7434: 7429: 7424: 7419: 7414: 7413: 7412: 7402: 7395: 7394: 7393: 7383: 7378: 7372: 7370: 7366: 7365: 7363: 7362: 7361: 7360: 7355: 7350: 7340: 7339: 7338: 7328: 7327: 7326: 7321: 7316: 7311: 7301: 7300: 7299: 7288: 7287: 7286: 7285: 7280: 7270: 7265: 7264: 7263: 7258: 7247: 7246: 7245: 7244: 7242:Soil chemistry 7234: 7233: 7232: 7227: 7220:Food chemistry 7217: 7215:Carbochemistry 7212: 7210:Clay chemistry 7207: 7206: 7205: 7200: 7189: 7188: 7187: 7186: 7181: 7171: 7165:Astrochemistry 7161:Cosmochemistry 7158: 7157: 7156: 7151: 7146: 7144:Radiochemistry 7135: 7133: 7127: 7126: 7124: 7123: 7118: 7113: 7108: 7103: 7101:Neurochemistry 7098: 7093: 7092: 7091: 7081: 7080: 7079: 7069: 7068: 7067: 7062: 7051: 7049: 7043: 7042: 7040: 7039: 7034: 7032:Petrochemistry 7029: 7024: 7019: 7010: 7005: 7000: 6995: 6990: 6985: 6984: 6983: 6972: 6970: 6964: 6963: 6961: 6960: 6955: 6950: 6945: 6944: 6943: 6933: 6928: 6922: 6920: 6914: 6913: 6911: 6910: 6905: 6900: 6895: 6893:Spin chemistry 6890: 6888:Photochemistry 6885: 6880: 6875: 6873:Femtochemistry 6870: 6869: 6868: 6858: 6853: 6848: 6843: 6842: 6841: 6831: 6826: 6821: 6816: 6815: 6814: 6809: 6798: 6796: 6790: 6789: 6787: 6786: 6785: 6784: 6774: 6769: 6764: 6759: 6758: 6757: 6747: 6741: 6739: 6733: 6732: 6730: 6729: 6724: 6719: 6714: 6709: 6704: 6699: 6698: 6697: 6692: 6685:Chromatography 6682: 6677: 6676: 6675: 6670: 6665: 6655: 6654: 6653: 6648: 6643: 6638: 6628: 6623: 6617: 6615: 6609: 6608: 6606: 6605: 6603:Periodic table 6600: 6595: 6590: 6584: 6581: 6580: 6574: 6572: 6571: 6564: 6557: 6549: 6540: 6539: 6537: 6536: 6526: 6516: 6506: 6491: 6488: 6487: 6485: 6484: 6479: 6474: 6469: 6463: 6461: 6457: 6456: 6452: 6451: 6446: 6441: 6436: 6431: 6426: 6421: 6416: 6411: 6406: 6401: 6396: 6391: 6386: 6381: 6376: 6371: 6366: 6361: 6356: 6351: 6346: 6341: 6336: 6331: 6326: 6321: 6316: 6311: 6306: 6301: 6296: 6291: 6286: 6281: 6276: 6271: 6269:Marine biology 6266: 6261: 6256: 6251: 6246: 6241: 6236: 6231: 6226: 6221: 6216: 6211: 6206: 6201: 6196: 6191: 6186: 6181: 6176: 6171: 6166: 6161: 6156: 6151: 6146: 6141: 6136: 6131: 6126: 6121: 6118: 6113: 6108: 6103: 6098: 6093: 6088: 6083: 6081:Bioinformatics 6078: 6073: 6068: 6063: 6058: 6053: 6048: 6043: 6038: 6033: 6027: 6026: 6025: 6023: 6019: 6018: 6015: 6014: 6012: 6011: 6006: 6001: 5995: 5993: 5989: 5988: 5986: 5985: 5978: 5971: 5964: 5959: 5954: 5949: 5944: 5939: 5934: 5929: 5924: 5919: 5914: 5912:DNA microarray 5909: 5907:DNA sequencing 5904: 5899: 5897:Centrifugation 5894: 5892:Chromatography 5889: 5884: 5882:Transformation 5879: 5873: 5871: 5862: 5854: 5853: 5846: 5844: 5841: 5840: 5838: 5837: 5832: 5827: 5822: 5821: 5820: 5810: 5805: 5800: 5795: 5793:Climate change 5790: 5785: 5780: 5775: 5770: 5765: 5759: 5757: 5751: 5750: 5748: 5747: 5742: 5737: 5735:Nervous system 5732: 5727: 5722: 5717: 5712: 5707: 5702: 5697: 5691: 5689: 5683: 5682: 5680: 5679: 5674: 5669: 5667:Vascular plant 5664: 5659: 5654: 5649: 5644: 5639: 5634: 5629: 5623: 5621: 5615: 5614: 5612: 5611: 5606: 5605: 5604: 5599: 5594: 5589: 5584: 5574: 5569: 5563: 5561: 5555: 5554: 5552: 5551: 5546: 5541: 5536: 5531: 5526: 5524:Microevolution 5521: 5519:Macroevolution 5516: 5511: 5506: 5501: 5496: 5491: 5485: 5483: 5477: 5476: 5474: 5473: 5468: 5463: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5438: 5432: 5430: 5424: 5423: 5421: 5420: 5415: 5413:Photosynthesis 5410: 5405: 5400: 5395: 5390: 5385: 5380: 5375: 5370: 5368:Cell signaling 5365: 5360: 5355: 5349: 5347: 5341: 5340: 5338: 5337: 5332: 5327: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5297: 5296: 5295: 5285: 5280: 5275: 5270: 5265: 5260: 5254: 5252: 5251:Chemical basis 5248: 5247: 5245: 5244: 5239: 5234: 5229: 5224: 5219: 5217:Taxonomic rank 5214: 5209: 5204: 5199: 5197:Reductionistic 5194: 5140: 5105: 5100: 5094: 5092: 5085: 5079: 5078: 5076: 5075: 5070: 5069: 5068: 5058: 5053: 5044:Introduction ( 5041: 5038: 5037: 5032: 5030: 5029: 5022: 5015: 5007: 4998: 4997: 4995: 4994: 4989: 4984: 4978: 4976: 4972: 4971: 4969: 4968: 4963: 4958: 4953: 4948: 4943: 4938: 4933: 4928: 4923: 4918: 4913: 4908: 4903: 4898: 4893: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4858: 4853: 4848: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4808: 4803: 4798: 4793: 4788: 4786:Marine biology 4783: 4778: 4773: 4768: 4763: 4758: 4753: 4748: 4743: 4738: 4733: 4728: 4723: 4718: 4713: 4708: 4703: 4698: 4693: 4688: 4683: 4678: 4673: 4668: 4663: 4658: 4653: 4648: 4643: 4638: 4633: 4628: 4623: 4618: 4613: 4608: 4603: 4598: 4596:Bioinformatics 4593: 4588: 4583: 4578: 4573: 4568: 4563: 4558: 4553: 4548: 4542: 4539: 4538: 4533: 4531: 4530: 4523: 4516: 4508: 4499: 4498: 4496: 4495: 4490: 4484: 4482: 4478: 4477: 4475: 4474: 4469: 4464: 4463: 4462: 4457: 4447: 4446: 4445: 4440: 4435: 4425: 4419: 4417: 4416:Other internal 4413: 4412: 4410: 4409: 4404: 4403: 4402: 4397: 4392: 4387: 4382: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4362: 4352: 4346: 4344: 4338: 4337: 4335: 4334: 4333: 4332: 4327: 4317: 4316: 4315: 4310: 4305: 4300: 4290: 4285: 4284: 4283: 4278: 4273: 4268: 4258: 4253: 4248: 4243: 4237: 4235: 4229: 4228: 4226: 4225: 4224: 4223: 4218: 4213: 4208: 4203: 4193: 4192: 4191: 4186: 4181: 4176: 4171: 4166: 4156: 4151: 4146: 4141: 4136: 4131: 4125: 4123: 4115: 4114: 4104: 4102: 4101: 4094: 4087: 4079: 4070: 4069: 4067: 4066: 4054: 4041: 4038: 4037: 4035: 4034: 4029: 4024: 4019: 4014: 4009: 4004: 3999: 3994: 3988: 3986: 3980: 3979: 3977: 3976: 3971: 3966: 3961: 3956: 3951: 3946: 3940: 3938: 3932: 3931: 3929: 3928: 3927: 3926: 3921: 3916: 3905: 3900: 3895: 3890: 3885: 3880: 3875: 3869: 3867: 3861: 3860: 3858: 3857: 3852: 3847: 3842: 3837: 3832: 3827: 3822: 3817: 3812: 3807: 3801: 3799: 3793: 3792: 3790: 3789: 3784: 3779: 3777:Growth factors 3774: 3769: 3764: 3759: 3753: 3751: 3745: 3744: 3742: 3741: 3736: 3731: 3726: 3721: 3716: 3711: 3709:Cell signaling 3706: 3700: 3698: 3692: 3691: 3689: 3688: 3683: 3678: 3673: 3668: 3663: 3661:Bioinformatics 3657: 3655: 3649: 3648: 3646: 3645: 3640: 3634: 3631: 3630: 3621: 3619: 3618: 3611: 3604: 3596: 3590: 3589: 3584: 3579: 3572: 3556: 3555: 3549: 3548: 3537: 3536: 3534: 3533:External links 3531: 3530: 3529: 3516:Science Primer 3501: 3491: 3454: 3428: 3425: 3422: 3421: 3403: 3346: 3287: 3228: 3171: 3134:(7): 402–409. 3114: 3079:(4): 204–224. 3054: 3017:(8): 616–627. 2997: 2940: 2914: 2889: 2872: 2852: 2795: 2758:(2): 211–225. 2738: 2702: 2677: 2658: 2651: 2633: 2608: 2585: 2566: 2560: 2534: 2509: 2483: 2462: 2437: 2396: 2377: 2356:Science Trends 2339: 2332: 2312: 2306:978-0123877383 2305: 2287: 2281:978-8120330528 2280: 2262: 2205: 2175: 2169:978-8171338177 2168: 2150: 2095: 2084:Chisholm, Hugh 2065: 2050: 2044:978-8171338177 2043: 2020: 2011:"Cell Biology" 2001: 1995:978-0815344322 1994: 1975: 1974: 1972: 1969: 1968: 1967: 1962: 1957: 1952: 1947: 1942: 1937: 1932: 1927: 1922: 1916: 1915: 1912:Science portal 1901: 1898:Biology portal 1885: 1882: 1878: 1877: 1868: 1861: 1859: 1850: 1843: 1841: 1837:Purkinje cells 1830: 1823: 1820: 1819: 1818: 1816: 1815: 1810: 1805: 1800: 1795: 1790: 1785: 1780: 1775: 1770: 1765: 1760: 1755: 1753:Rudolf Virchow 1750: 1745: 1740: 1735: 1730: 1728:Marc Kirschner 1725: 1720: 1715: 1710: 1705: 1700: 1695: 1690: 1685: 1679: 1677: 1674: 1661:Main article: 1658: 1655: 1649: 1646: 1636: 1633: 1621:screening test 1613:histopathology 1597:Main article: 1594: 1591: 1590: 1589: 1583: 1577: 1571: 1565: 1553: 1550: 1506:origin of life 1501: 1498: 1433:in the animal 1419:Main article: 1416: 1413: 1411: 1408: 1407: 1406: 1396: 1390: 1368:Cell signaling 1363:Cell signaling 1358: 1357:Cell signaling 1355: 1351:photosynthesis 1330: 1317: 1314: 1313: 1312: 1306: 1292: 1291: 1285: 1271: 1265: 1259: 1249: 1235: 1225: 1219: 1213: 1172:Main article: 1169: 1166: 1164: 1161: 1152:mRNA synthesis 1108:binary fission 1062:Main article: 1059: 1056: 1055: 1054: 1051:centrifugation 1044: 1038: 1032: 1026: 1020: 1010: 991: 988: 972:Rudolf Virchow 917: 914: 809: 808: 806: 805: 798: 791: 783: 780: 779: 778: 777: 764: 747: 746: 743: 742: 737: 732: 727: 721: 718: 717: 714: 713: 710: 709: 704: 699: 694: 689: 679: 676: 675: 672: 671: 666: 665: 660: 655: 650: 645: 640: 635: 630: 625: 620: 615: 610: 605: 600: 595: 590: 585: 580: 575: 570: 565: 560: 555: 550: 545: 540: 535: 530: 525: 520: 515: 510: 505: 500: 495: 490: 485: 483:Marine biology 480: 475: 470: 465: 460: 455: 450: 445: 440: 435: 430: 425: 420: 415: 410: 405: 400: 395: 390: 385: 380: 375: 370: 365: 360: 355: 350: 345: 340: 335: 332: 327: 322: 317: 312: 307: 302: 297: 295:Bioinformatics 292: 287: 282: 277: 272: 267: 262: 257: 252: 247: 241: 240: 239: 236: 235: 232: 231: 228: 227: 205: 200: 193: 192: 178: 177: 172: 167: 162: 157: 152: 147: 140: 139: 134:Properties of 129: 128: 123: 118: 113: 107: 105:Key components 104: 103: 100: 99: 97: 96: 85: 84: 79: 74: 68: 65: 64: 59: 51: 50: 44: 43: 32:Cell (biology) 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7551: 7540: 7537: 7535: 7532: 7531: 7529: 7514: 7513: 7504: 7502: 7501: 7496: 7492: 7490: 7489: 7480: 7478: 7477: 7468: 7467: 7464: 7458: 7455: 7453: 7450: 7448: 7447:Chemical bond 7445: 7443: 7440: 7438: 7435: 7433: 7430: 7428: 7425: 7423: 7420: 7418: 7415: 7411: 7408: 7407: 7406: 7403: 7400: 7396: 7392: 7389: 7388: 7387: 7384: 7382: 7379: 7377: 7374: 7373: 7371: 7367: 7359: 7356: 7354: 7351: 7349: 7346: 7345: 7344: 7341: 7337: 7336:Stoichiometry 7334: 7333: 7332: 7329: 7325: 7322: 7320: 7317: 7315: 7312: 7310: 7307: 7306: 7305: 7302: 7298: 7295: 7294: 7293: 7292:Nanochemistry 7290: 7289: 7284: 7281: 7279: 7276: 7275: 7274: 7271: 7269: 7266: 7262: 7259: 7257: 7254: 7253: 7252: 7249: 7248: 7243: 7240: 7239: 7238: 7235: 7231: 7228: 7226: 7223: 7222: 7221: 7218: 7216: 7213: 7211: 7208: 7204: 7201: 7199: 7196: 7195: 7194: 7191: 7190: 7185: 7182: 7180: 7177: 7176: 7175: 7172: 7170: 7166: 7162: 7159: 7155: 7152: 7150: 7147: 7145: 7142: 7141: 7140: 7137: 7136: 7134: 7132: 7128: 7122: 7119: 7117: 7114: 7112: 7109: 7107: 7104: 7102: 7099: 7097: 7094: 7090: 7087: 7086: 7085: 7082: 7078: 7075: 7074: 7073: 7070: 7066: 7063: 7061: 7058: 7057: 7056: 7053: 7052: 7050: 7048: 7044: 7038: 7035: 7033: 7030: 7028: 7025: 7023: 7020: 7018: 7017:Semisynthesis 7014: 7011: 7009: 7006: 7004: 7001: 6999: 6996: 6994: 6991: 6989: 6986: 6982: 6979: 6978: 6977: 6974: 6973: 6971: 6969: 6965: 6959: 6956: 6954: 6951: 6949: 6946: 6942: 6939: 6938: 6937: 6934: 6932: 6929: 6927: 6924: 6923: 6921: 6919: 6915: 6909: 6906: 6904: 6901: 6899: 6896: 6894: 6891: 6889: 6886: 6884: 6881: 6879: 6876: 6874: 6871: 6867: 6864: 6863: 6862: 6859: 6857: 6854: 6852: 6851:Sonochemistry 6849: 6847: 6846:Cryochemistry 6844: 6840: 6839:Micromeritics 6837: 6836: 6835: 6832: 6830: 6827: 6825: 6822: 6820: 6817: 6813: 6810: 6808: 6805: 6804: 6803: 6800: 6799: 6797: 6795: 6791: 6783: 6780: 6779: 6778: 6775: 6773: 6770: 6768: 6765: 6763: 6760: 6756: 6753: 6752: 6751: 6748: 6746: 6743: 6742: 6740: 6738: 6734: 6728: 6725: 6723: 6720: 6718: 6717:Wet chemistry 6715: 6713: 6710: 6708: 6705: 6703: 6700: 6696: 6693: 6691: 6688: 6687: 6686: 6683: 6681: 6678: 6674: 6671: 6669: 6666: 6664: 6661: 6660: 6659: 6656: 6652: 6649: 6647: 6644: 6642: 6639: 6637: 6634: 6633: 6632: 6629: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6618: 6616: 6614: 6610: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6596: 6594: 6591: 6589: 6586: 6585: 6582: 6578: 6570: 6565: 6563: 6558: 6556: 6551: 6550: 6547: 6535: 6527: 6525: 6517: 6515: 6507: 6504: 6499: 6493: 6492: 6489: 6483: 6480: 6478: 6475: 6473: 6470: 6468: 6465: 6464: 6462: 6458: 6450: 6447: 6445: 6442: 6440: 6437: 6435: 6432: 6430: 6427: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6415: 6412: 6410: 6407: 6405: 6402: 6400: 6397: 6395: 6392: 6390: 6387: 6385: 6382: 6380: 6377: 6375: 6372: 6370: 6367: 6365: 6362: 6360: 6357: 6355: 6352: 6350: 6349:Phylogenetics 6347: 6345: 6342: 6340: 6337: 6335: 6332: 6330: 6327: 6325: 6322: 6320: 6317: 6315: 6312: 6310: 6307: 6305: 6302: 6300: 6297: 6295: 6292: 6290: 6287: 6285: 6282: 6280: 6277: 6275: 6272: 6270: 6267: 6265: 6262: 6260: 6257: 6255: 6252: 6250: 6247: 6245: 6244:Human biology 6242: 6240: 6237: 6235: 6232: 6230: 6227: 6225: 6222: 6220: 6217: 6215: 6212: 6210: 6207: 6205: 6202: 6200: 6197: 6195: 6192: 6190: 6187: 6185: 6182: 6180: 6177: 6175: 6172: 6170: 6167: 6165: 6162: 6160: 6157: 6155: 6152: 6150: 6147: 6145: 6142: 6140: 6137: 6135: 6134:Chronobiology 6132: 6130: 6127: 6125: 6122: 6119: 6117: 6114: 6112: 6111:Biotechnology 6109: 6107: 6106:Biostatistics 6104: 6102: 6099: 6097: 6094: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6084: 6082: 6079: 6077: 6074: 6072: 6069: 6067: 6064: 6062: 6059: 6057: 6054: 6052: 6049: 6047: 6044: 6042: 6039: 6037: 6034: 6032: 6029: 6028: 6024: 6020: 6010: 6007: 6005: 6002: 6000: 5999:Belt transect 5997: 5996: 5994: 5990: 5984: 5983: 5979: 5977: 5976: 5972: 5970: 5969: 5965: 5963: 5960: 5958: 5955: 5953: 5950: 5948: 5947:Southern blot 5945: 5943: 5942:Northern blot 5940: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5930: 5928: 5925: 5923: 5920: 5918: 5915: 5913: 5910: 5908: 5905: 5903: 5900: 5898: 5895: 5893: 5890: 5888: 5885: 5883: 5880: 5878: 5875: 5874: 5872: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5855: 5850: 5836: 5833: 5831: 5828: 5826: 5823: 5819: 5816: 5815: 5814: 5811: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5794: 5791: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5760: 5758: 5756: 5752: 5746: 5743: 5741: 5738: 5736: 5733: 5731: 5728: 5726: 5723: 5721: 5720:Immune system 5718: 5716: 5713: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5703: 5701: 5698: 5696: 5693: 5692: 5690: 5684: 5678: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5665: 5663: 5660: 5658: 5655: 5653: 5650: 5648: 5645: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5637:Ground tissue 5635: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5625: 5624: 5622: 5616: 5610: 5607: 5603: 5600: 5598: 5595: 5593: 5590: 5588: 5585: 5583: 5580: 5579: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5564: 5562: 5560: 5556: 5550: 5547: 5545: 5542: 5540: 5539:Phylogenetics 5537: 5535: 5532: 5530: 5527: 5525: 5522: 5520: 5517: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5507: 5505: 5504:Genetic drift 5502: 5500: 5497: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5486: 5484: 5482: 5478: 5472: 5469: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5437: 5434: 5433: 5431: 5429: 5425: 5419: 5416: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5406: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5391: 5389: 5386: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5376: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5364: 5361: 5359: 5356: 5354: 5351: 5350: 5348: 5346: 5342: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5323: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5311: 5310:Nucleic acids 5308: 5306: 5303: 5301: 5298: 5294: 5291: 5290: 5289: 5286: 5284: 5281: 5279: 5276: 5274: 5273:Chemical bond 5271: 5269: 5268:Carbohydrates 5266: 5264: 5261: 5259: 5256: 5255: 5253: 5249: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5235: 5233: 5230: 5228: 5225: 5223: 5220: 5218: 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5198: 5195: 5192: 5188: 5184: 5180: 5176: 5172: 5168: 5164: 5160: 5156: 5152: 5148: 5144: 5141: 5138: 5134: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5104: 5101: 5099: 5096: 5095: 5093: 5089: 5086: 5084: 5080: 5074: 5071: 5067: 5064: 5063: 5062: 5059: 5057: 5054: 5051: 5047: 5043: 5042: 5039: 5035: 5028: 5023: 5021: 5016: 5014: 5009: 5008: 5005: 4993: 4990: 4988: 4985: 4983: 4980: 4979: 4977: 4973: 4967: 4964: 4962: 4959: 4957: 4954: 4952: 4949: 4947: 4944: 4942: 4939: 4937: 4934: 4932: 4929: 4927: 4924: 4922: 4919: 4917: 4914: 4912: 4909: 4907: 4904: 4902: 4899: 4897: 4894: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4874: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4866:Phylogenetics 4864: 4862: 4859: 4857: 4854: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4812: 4809: 4807: 4804: 4802: 4799: 4797: 4794: 4792: 4789: 4787: 4784: 4782: 4779: 4777: 4774: 4772: 4769: 4767: 4764: 4762: 4761:Human biology 4759: 4757: 4754: 4752: 4749: 4747: 4744: 4742: 4739: 4737: 4734: 4732: 4729: 4727: 4724: 4722: 4719: 4717: 4714: 4712: 4709: 4707: 4704: 4702: 4699: 4697: 4694: 4692: 4689: 4687: 4684: 4682: 4679: 4677: 4674: 4672: 4669: 4667: 4664: 4662: 4659: 4657: 4654: 4652: 4651:Chronobiology 4649: 4647: 4644: 4642: 4639: 4637: 4634: 4632: 4629: 4627: 4626:Biotechnology 4624: 4622: 4621:Biostatistics 4619: 4617: 4614: 4612: 4609: 4607: 4604: 4602: 4599: 4597: 4594: 4592: 4589: 4587: 4584: 4582: 4579: 4577: 4574: 4572: 4569: 4567: 4564: 4562: 4559: 4557: 4554: 4552: 4549: 4547: 4544: 4543: 4540: 4536: 4529: 4524: 4522: 4517: 4515: 4510: 4509: 4506: 4494: 4491: 4489: 4486: 4485: 4483: 4479: 4473: 4470: 4468: 4465: 4461: 4458: 4456: 4453: 4452: 4451: 4448: 4444: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4434: 4431: 4430: 4429: 4426: 4424: 4421: 4420: 4418: 4414: 4408: 4405: 4401: 4398: 4396: 4393: 4391: 4390:Proteinoplast 4388: 4386: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4366: 4363: 4361: 4358: 4357: 4356: 4353: 4351: 4350:Mitochondrion 4348: 4347: 4345: 4343: 4342:Endosymbionts 4339: 4331: 4328: 4326: 4325:Lamellipodium 4323: 4322: 4321: 4318: 4314: 4311: 4309: 4306: 4304: 4301: 4299: 4296: 4295: 4294: 4291: 4289: 4286: 4282: 4279: 4277: 4274: 4272: 4269: 4267: 4264: 4263: 4262: 4259: 4257: 4254: 4252: 4249: 4247: 4244: 4242: 4241:Microfilament 4239: 4238: 4236: 4234: 4230: 4222: 4219: 4217: 4214: 4212: 4209: 4207: 4204: 4202: 4199: 4198: 4197: 4194: 4190: 4187: 4185: 4182: 4180: 4177: 4175: 4172: 4170: 4167: 4165: 4162: 4161: 4160: 4157: 4155: 4154:Autophagosome 4152: 4150: 4147: 4145: 4142: 4140: 4137: 4135: 4132: 4130: 4129:Cell membrane 4127: 4126: 4124: 4122: 4119:Endomembrane 4116: 4112: 4108: 4100: 4095: 4093: 4088: 4086: 4081: 4080: 4077: 4065: 4064: 4055: 4053: 4052: 4043: 4042: 4039: 4033: 4030: 4028: 4027:Southern blot 4025: 4023: 4020: 4018: 4017:Northern blot 4015: 4013: 4010: 4008: 4007:Gene knockout 4005: 4003: 4000: 3998: 3995: 3993: 3990: 3989: 3987: 3985: 3981: 3975: 3972: 3970: 3967: 3965: 3962: 3960: 3957: 3955: 3952: 3950: 3947: 3945: 3942: 3941: 3939: 3937: 3933: 3925: 3922: 3920: 3917: 3915: 3912: 3911: 3909: 3906: 3904: 3901: 3899: 3896: 3894: 3891: 3889: 3886: 3884: 3883:Extremophiles 3881: 3879: 3876: 3874: 3871: 3870: 3868: 3866: 3862: 3856: 3853: 3851: 3848: 3846: 3843: 3841: 3838: 3836: 3833: 3831: 3828: 3826: 3823: 3821: 3818: 3816: 3813: 3811: 3808: 3806: 3803: 3802: 3800: 3798: 3794: 3788: 3785: 3783: 3780: 3778: 3775: 3773: 3770: 3768: 3765: 3763: 3760: 3758: 3755: 3754: 3752: 3750: 3746: 3740: 3737: 3735: 3732: 3730: 3727: 3725: 3722: 3720: 3717: 3715: 3712: 3710: 3707: 3705: 3702: 3701: 3699: 3697: 3693: 3687: 3684: 3682: 3679: 3677: 3674: 3672: 3669: 3667: 3664: 3662: 3659: 3658: 3656: 3654: 3653:Biotechnology 3650: 3644: 3641: 3639: 3636: 3635: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3617: 3612: 3610: 3605: 3603: 3598: 3597: 3594: 3588: 3585: 3583: 3580: 3578: 3577: 3573: 3570: 3565: 3561: 3560: 3554: 3551: 3550: 3545: 3540: 3532: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3517: 3511: 3502: 3500: 3499:0-471-46580-1 3496: 3492: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3475: 3471: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3430: 3426: 3417: 3413: 3407: 3404: 3399: 3395: 3390: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3350: 3347: 3342: 3338: 3333: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3315: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3291: 3288: 3283: 3279: 3274: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3256: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3232: 3229: 3224: 3220: 3215: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3175: 3172: 3167: 3163: 3158: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3118: 3115: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3063: 3061: 3059: 3055: 3050: 3046: 3041: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3001: 2998: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2968: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2944: 2941: 2929:. 13 May 2010 2928: 2924: 2918: 2915: 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ASM Press. 2644: 2637: 2634: 2622: 2618: 2612: 2609: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2593:Verity, M A. 2589: 2586: 2581: 2577: 2570: 2567: 2563: 2561:9780323034104 2557: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2538: 2535: 2523: 2519: 2513: 2510: 2498: 2494: 2487: 2484: 2472: 2466: 2463: 2451: 2447: 2441: 2438: 2433: 2429: 2424: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2400: 2397: 2392: 2388: 2381: 2378: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2357: 2350: 2348: 2346: 2344: 2340: 2335: 2329: 2325: 2324: 2316: 2313: 2308: 2302: 2298: 2291: 2288: 2283: 2277: 2273: 2266: 2263: 2258: 2254: 2249: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2209: 2206: 2201: 2197: 2190: 2188: 2186: 2184: 2182: 2180: 2176: 2171: 2165: 2161: 2154: 2151: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2099: 2096: 2091: 2090: 2085: 2080: 2072: 2070: 2066: 2061: 2054: 2051: 2046: 2040: 2036: 2029: 2027: 2025: 2021: 2016: 2012: 2005: 2002: 1997: 1991: 1987: 1980: 1977: 1970: 1966: 1963: 1961: 1958: 1956: 1953: 1951: 1948: 1946: 1943: 1941: 1938: 1936: 1933: 1931: 1928: 1926: 1923: 1921: 1918: 1917: 1913: 1907: 1902: 1899: 1893: 1888: 1883: 1875: 1871: 1865: 1860: 1857: 1853: 1847: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1827: 1822: 1814: 1811: 1809: 1806: 1804: 1801: 1799: 1796: 1794: 1791: 1789: 1786: 1784: 1781: 1779: 1778:Michael Swann 1776: 1774: 1773:Ray Rappaport 1771: 1769: 1766: 1764: 1761: 1759: 1756: 1754: 1751: 1749: 1746: 1744: 1741: 1739: 1736: 1734: 1731: 1729: 1726: 1724: 1721: 1719: 1716: 1714: 1711: 1709: 1706: 1704: 1701: 1699: 1696: 1694: 1693:Günter Blobel 1691: 1689: 1686: 1684: 1681: 1680: 1675: 1673: 1671: 1664: 1656: 1654: 1647: 1645: 1641: 1634: 1632: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1606: 1605:cytopathology 1600: 1599:Cytopathology 1592: 1587: 1584: 1581: 1578: 1575: 1572: 1569: 1566: 1563: 1560: 1559: 1558: 1551: 1549: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1514:cell division 1511: 1507: 1499: 1497: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1474: 1471: 1470:cell division 1467: 1463: 1458: 1456: 1452: 1451:cell division 1448: 1444: 1436: 1432: 1431:cell division 1427: 1422: 1414: 1409: 1404: 1400: 1397: 1394: 1391: 1388: 1385: 1384: 1383: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1364: 1356: 1354: 1352: 1348: 1336: 1328: 1324: 1315: 1310: 1307: 1304: 1300: 1297: 1296: 1295: 1289: 1286: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1274:Cell membrane 1272: 1269: 1266: 1263: 1260: 1257: 1253: 1250: 1247: 1243: 1242:glycoproteins 1239: 1236: 1233: 1229: 1226: 1223: 1220: 1217: 1214: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1192: 1191: 1190: 1188: 1180: 1175: 1167: 1162: 1160: 1158: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1128:gram-negative 1125: 1124:gram-positive 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1104: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1070: 1065: 1057: 1052: 1048: 1045: 1042: 1039: 1036: 1033: 1030: 1027: 1024: 1021: 1018: 1014: 1011: 1008: 1005: 1004: 1003: 1001: 997: 996:human anatomy 989: 987: 985: 981: 977: 973: 969: 965: 961: 957: 953: 949: 945: 941: 937: 936: 931: 927: 923: 915: 913: 911: 910:cytochemistry 907: 903: 899: 895: 891: 887: 883: 879: 875: 871: 867: 863: 859: 855: 851: 847: 843: 839: 835: 831: 827: 823: 819: 815: 804: 799: 797: 792: 790: 785: 784: 782: 781: 775: 765: 762: 757: 751: 750: 749: 748: 741: 738: 736: 733: 731: 728: 726: 723: 722: 716: 715: 708: 705: 703: 700: 698: 695: 693: 690: 688: 684: 681: 680: 674: 673: 664: 661: 659: 656: 654: 651: 649: 646: 644: 641: 639: 636: 634: 631: 629: 626: 624: 621: 619: 616: 614: 611: 609: 606: 604: 601: 599: 596: 594: 591: 589: 586: 584: 581: 579: 576: 574: 571: 569: 566: 564: 563:Phylogenetics 561: 559: 556: 554: 551: 549: 546: 544: 541: 539: 536: 534: 531: 529: 526: 524: 521: 519: 516: 514: 511: 509: 506: 504: 501: 499: 496: 494: 491: 489: 486: 484: 481: 479: 476: 474: 471: 469: 466: 464: 461: 459: 458:Human biology 456: 454: 451: 449: 446: 444: 441: 439: 436: 434: 431: 429: 426: 424: 421: 419: 416: 414: 411: 409: 406: 404: 401: 399: 396: 394: 391: 389: 386: 384: 381: 379: 376: 374: 371: 369: 366: 364: 361: 359: 356: 354: 351: 349: 348:Chronobiology 346: 344: 341: 339: 336: 333: 331: 328: 326: 325:Biotechnology 323: 321: 320:Biostatistics 318: 316: 313: 311: 308: 306: 303: 301: 298: 296: 293: 291: 288: 286: 283: 281: 278: 276: 273: 271: 268: 266: 263: 261: 258: 256: 253: 251: 248: 246: 243: 242: 234: 233: 225: 221: 217: 213: 209: 206: 204: 201: 199: 196: 195: 191: 189: 185: 181: 180: 176: 173: 171: 168: 166: 163: 161: 158: 156: 153: 151: 148: 146: 143: 142: 138: 137: 132: 131: 127: 124: 122: 119: 117: 114: 112: 109: 108: 102: 101: 94: 90: 87: 86: 83: 80: 78: 75: 73: 70: 69: 67: 66: 62: 57: 53: 52: 49: 45: 41: 40: 37: 33: 19: 7534:Cell biology 7510: 7498: 7486: 7474: 7324:Biosynthesis 7174:Geochemistry 7089:Pharmacology 7065:Cell biology 7064: 7055:Biochemistry 6883:Spectroscopy 6782:VSEPR theory 6631:Spectroscopy 6575:Branches of 6394:Sociobiology 6374:Protistology 6339:Photobiology 6334:Pharmacology 6324:Parasitology 6319:Paleontology 6299:Neuroscience 6279:Microbiology 6189:Epidemiology 6159:Cytogenetics 6120:Cell biology 6101:Biosemiotics 6091:Biomechanics 6071:Biogeography 6066:Biochemistry 6061:Bacteriology 6056:Astrobiology 5980: 5973: 5966: 5937:Western blot 5927:Enzyme assay 5902:Cell culture 5803:Conservation 5688:and function 5686:Animal form 5620:and function 5393:Fermentation 5171:Organ system 5129:Reproduction 5107:Properties ( 4911:Sociobiology 4891:Protistology 4856:Photobiology 4851:Pharmacology 4841:Parasitology 4836:Paleontology 4816:Neuroscience 4796:Microbiology 4706:Epidemiology 4676:Cytogenetics 4636:Cell biology 4635: 4616:Biosemiotics 4606:Biomechanics 4586:Biogeography 4581:Biochemistry 4576:Bacteriology 4571:Astrobiology 4370:Gerontoplast 4320:Pseudopodium 4313:Radial spoke 4293:Undulipodium 4233:Cytoskeleton 4149:Parenthesome 4063:Cell biology 4061: 4049: 4032:Western blot 3954:Biomolecules 3878:Bacteriology 3865:Microbiology 3772:Gastrulation 3719:Cytoskeleton 3696:Cell biology 3695: 3627:cell biology 3626: 3574: 3569:Cell biology 3544:Cell biology 3543: 3525:the original 3515: 3437: 3415: 3406: 3366:(1): 27–42. 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In 1665, 842:prokaryotic 658:Xenobiology 653:Virophysics 623:Systematics 578:Primatology 523:Ornithology 463:Ichthyology 448:Herpetology 443:Gerontology 408:Epigenetics 368:Cryobiology 260:Agrostology 250:Aerobiology 245:Abiogenesis 111:Cell theory 7528:Categories 7348:Metallurgy 7047:Biological 6613:Analytical 6460:Glossaries 6429:Toxicology 6424:Teratology 6369:Proteomics 6354:Physiology 6294:Neontology 6259:Lipidology 6254:Immunology 6224:Geobiology 6184:Embryology 6164:Dendrology 6096:Biophysics 6076:Biogeology 5870:techniques 5825:Microbiome 5652:Plant stem 5544:Speciation 5489:Adaptation 5418:Prokaryote 5398:Metabolism 5358:Cell cycle 5189:> 5185:> 5181:> 5179:Population 5177:> 5173:> 5169:> 5165:> 5161:> 5157:> 5153:> 5149:> 5125:Regulation 5109:Adaptation 4946:Toxicology 4941:Teratology 4886:Proteomics 4871:Physiology 4811:Neontology 4776:Lipidology 4771:Immunology 4741:Geobiology 4701:Embryology 4681:Dendrology 4611:Biophysics 4591:Biogeology 4467:Proteasome 4460:Inclusions 4407:Nitroplast 4400:Apicoplast 4385:Elaioplast 4380:Amyloplast 4375:Leucoplast 4330:Filopodium 4276:Basal body 4266:Centrosome 4216:Peroxisome 4211:Glyoxysome 4201:Melanosome 4111:organelles 3908:Immunology 3787:Teratogens 3767:Morphogens 3762:Embryology 3724:Organelles 3704:Cell cycle 3681:Stem cells 3576:Aging Cell 3427:References 2732:20 October 2719:StatPearls 2450:Genome.gov 1758:Paul Nurse 1688:Peter Agre 1611:branch of 1538:eukaryotes 1526:DNA damage 1455:cell death 1443:cell cycle 1435:cell cycle 1421:Cell cycle 1288:Centrioles 1120:rod-shaped 1082:eukaryotic 1064:Cell types 1058:Cell types 1000:physiology 990:Techniques 906:immunology 882:biomedical 870:microscopy 858:cell cycle 643:Toxicology 638:Teratology 583:Proteomics 568:Physiology 508:Neontology 473:Lipidology 468:Immunology 438:Geobiology 398:Embryology 378:Dendrology 310:Biophysics 290:Biogeology 165:Regulation 145:Adaptation 7410:Catalysis 6918:Inorganic 6712:Titration 6577:chemistry 6344:Phycology 6329:Pathology 6314:Osteology 6304:Nutrition 6264:Mammalogy 6239:Histology 5982:in silico 5858:Research 5835:Resources 5808:Ecosystem 5798:Community 5783:Biosphere 5695:Breathing 5577:Eukaryote 5559:Diversity 5509:Gene flow 5481:Evolution 5388:Eukaryote 5300:Molecules 5191:Biosphere 5187:Ecosystem 5183:Community 5155:Organelle 5050:Evolution 4861:Phycology 4846:Pathology 4831:Osteology 4821:Nutrition 4781:Mammalogy 4756:Histology 4488:Cell wall 4450:Cytoplasm 4423:Nucleolus 4395:Tannosome 4303:Flagellum 4288:Myofibril 4271:Centriole 4206:Microbody 4179:Phagosome 3489:1868-0402 3481:1559-0836 3380:0092-8674 3323:2072-6643 3301:Nutrients 3264:1422-0067 3205:0022-3417 3148:0962-8924 3109:211170966 3093:1471-0072 3031:1471-0080 2976:0092-8674 2907:7 October 2829:0091-6765 2774:0092-8674 2690:Sciencing 2603:679070471 2476:6 October 2446:"Nucleus" 2239:1934-3671 1874:autophagy 1663:Autophagy 1657:Autophagy 1617:Pap smear 1609:pathology 1593:Pathology 1522:apoptosis 1490:apoptosis 1468:) is the 1376:paracrine 1372:endocrine 1327:TCA cycle 1299:Chromatin 1282:diffusion 1262:Ribosomes 1256:Autophagy 1232:TCA cycle 1216:Nucleolus 1174:Eukaryote 1144:ribosomes 1140:flagellum 1132:cell wall 1116:spherical 1090:organelle 1041:Cytometry 830:structure 683:Biologist 558:Phycology 543:Pathology 528:Osteology 518:Nutrition 478:Mammalogy 453:Histology 126:Phylogeny 121:Evolution 116:Ecosystem 7476:Category 7432:Molecule 7369:See also 6794:Physical 6514:Category 6434:Virology 6419:Taxonomy 6359:Pomology 6289:Mycology 6219:Genomics 6214:Genetics 6041:Agronomy 6022:Branches 5975:in vitro 5572:Bacteria 5549:Taxonomy 5529:Mutation 5499:Function 5428:Genetics 5330:Proteins 5175:Organism 5151:Molecule 5135:), 5091:Overview 5066:Timeline 5046:Genetics 4975:See also 4951:Virology 4936:Taxonomy 4876:Pomology 4806:Mycology 4736:Genomics 4731:Genetics 4556:Agronomy 4481:External 4433:Ribosome 4189:Acrosome 4174:Endosome 4169:Lysosome 3974:Proteins 3969:Peptides 3903:Virology 3898:Mycology 3845:Mutation 3797:Genetics 3464:23595669 3398:18191218 3341:31412596 3282:28846632 3223:20225336 3166:20444606 3101:32071438 3049:18594563 2992:16366539 2984:10647932 2847:10229703 2790:11465988 2782:11057895 2727:30252361 2432:29107331 2372:91382191 2257:29512141 2137:27533034 2015:Scitable 1960:Organoid 1884:See also 1586:G0 phase 1574:G2 phase 1562:G1 phase 1530:germline 1510:immortal 1494:necrosis 1252:Lysosome 1148:nucleoid 1094:Bacteria 984:virology 890:genetics 834:function 822:cytology 774:Category 740:Pharming 677:Research 648:Virology 633:Taxonomy 573:Pomology 503:Mycology 433:Genomics 428:Genetics 255:Agronomy 237:Branches 224:Protists 203:Bacteria 188:Kingdoms 93:timeline 82:Glossary 7488:Commons 7452:Alchemy 6968:Organic 6524:Commons 6467:Biology 6449:Zoology 6179:Ecology 6051:Anatomy 5968:in vivo 5860:methods 5813:Habitat 5788:Climate 5773:Biomass 5755:Ecology 5602:Protist 5567:Archaea 5461:Genomes 5408:Mitosis 5403:Meiosis 5325:Polymer 5305:Monomer 5293:Quantum 5127:, 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